CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 4 /Prof. E.O.

Longe/2018-
2019/Academic Year

ROCKS

What is a rock?
A rock is an aggregate of minerals but can also be monomineralic as, for example, gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O) and halite (NaCl). There are three major rock types, namely:
i. igneous-rocks that originate through the consolidation of magma, or through the process of
granitisation (chemical reorganization of pre-existing mineralogy into granitic material,
usually via deep burial);
ii. sedimentary – rocks that form at, or near, the surface of the earth, via processes that operate
at, or near, surface and conditions of temperature and pressure; and
iii. metamorphic rocks that form via re-crystallization of any other rock type through influence
of temperature, pressure, and / or the action of chemically active fluids.

Nature and Importance of Rocks

1. Rocks are made up of minerals
2. More than 1500 minerals are known, but only few of them are important as rock forming
minerals present in more than 99% of rocks on earth.
3. Rocks are composed of two or more minerals bound together. Some rocks are made up of
only one mineral such as quartz of whose mineral constituent is silica.

Nature of Rocks
Rocks differ very much from one another with such characteristics as color, hardness, texture and
composition. Rocks have different origins. The science of petrology is the study of rocks i.e. their
origin, occurrence, composition, characteristics and classification.

Identification of Rocks
Identification of rocks is based on certain pertinent properties such as size, shapes and arrangement of
the different minerals which make up the rocks. It is important to note that rocks may have same
mineral composition, but with different origins. Hence rock identification could be by:-
Origin
1. Mineralogical composition
2. Habits of rocks such as, massive in character and origin within the crust, stratified or layered
i.e. sedimentary rocks.
3. Primary characters such as those characteristics that indicate the mode of formation
4. Secondary characters which include those characteristics or effects imposed upon them by
after their original formation. Example, a bed of peat, laid down horizontally but later turned
into a coal with beds partially folded.

Fate of Magma
“Magmatic differentiation” by partial melting and crystallization leads to the formation of igneous
rocks of variable composition. This is explained by what is called the “BOWEN’S REACTION
SERIES” comprising of a CONTINUOUS and DISCONTINUOUS REACTION.

Discontinuous Reaction Series

When silicate magma is generated and cools the earliest minerals to crystallize out of a basaltic
magma are olivine and calcium-rich plagioclase. As crystallization continues, olivine reacts with the

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CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 4 /Prof. E.O. Longe/2018-
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remaining liquid to form pyroxene, a new mineral, which also reacts to form amphibole that reacts
with the rest liquid to form biotite.

Continuous Reaction Series

The continuous reaction series is similar but minerals are formed. It produces a series of plagioclase
feldspars, changing from anorthite-rich to albite-rich plagioclase feldspar. The earliest mineral to
crystallize out of the cooling magma in the continuous reaction series is calcium plagioclase.

EARLY HIGH TEMPERATURE CONTINUOUS SERIES

DISCONTINUOUS SERIES Anorthite – rich (calcium Plagioclase)

Olivine
Intermediate (Ca-Na-Plagioclase)

Pyroxene
Albite-rich (Sodium-Plagioclase)

Amphibole

Biotite

K-Feldspar, Muscovite, Quartz

Fig 4.1: Bowen’s Reaction Series

Late Low Temperature

The composition is changed to form new members of the plagioclase series, but the crystal structure is
retained. The final rest solution forms an aggregate of orthoclase, potassium feldspar, quartz and
muscovite, and does not react any further. This final aggregate has the composition of granite.
Important metals such as gold, silver and platinum may also be concentrated in this final phase of the
fractional crystallization.

ROCK TYPES

IGNEOUS ROCKS [Ignis, Latin word for fire]

Igneous rocks are from molten magma, and are referred to as magmatic rocks. As earlier on
mentioned, magma, originates within the earth at high temperature through lines of weakness (a
fracture or fault) to the surface as lava. With reduction of pressure, melting point is lowered and –
“instant magma” which can conveniently rise along the fault to form extrusive igneous rocks, while
solidified rocks in cavities and fissures within the crust form the intrusive or plutonic rocks.

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CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 4 /Prof. E.O. Longe/2018-
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CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. Classification Is Based On Mode Of Occurrence

i. Plutonic Rocks
Rocks are formed deep seated and are of coarsely crystalline character
Rocks that form when magma cools and solidifies below the earth’s surface are termed plutonic.
These rocks are also called intrusive because they intrude into existing and older rocks.

Forms of Plutonic Rocks or Plutons

A pluton is any intrusive igneous rock irrespective of its shape, size or composition. Plutons occur in
different shapes below the earth’s surface and may become exposed by agents of erosion. The most
common plutonic forms are as shown in Fig. 4:2

Figure 4.1: Different types of intrusions

1. Dike: occurs as a sheet that cuts across the layering of pro-existing or older rocks.
2. Sill: occurs as a sheet that runs parallel to the layering of pre-existing or older rocks.
3. Laccolith: this occurs as a dome-shaped lenticular body lying below layers of the invaded older
rocks that area bent upward due to the intrusion.
4. Batholiths: is a very large intrusive body of irregular shape that cuts across the layering of the
older rocks.
5. Stock: is similar to a batholiths in form but is much smaller than a batholiths. An example is the
Zuma Rock in Suleja, Nigeria.

ii. Hypabyssal Rocks: Intruded rocks occurring at shallow depths

iii. Volcanic or Extrusive Rocks: These are rocks formed when magma cools and solidifies as
lava on the earth’s surface. They are termed as extrusive because they force their way through
the older rocks to cool on the earth’s surface. They are of very finely crystalline or glassy
rocks. Rapidly cooled lava forms Obsidian, a black glassy rock.

iv. Pyroclastic Rocks: These are accumulated material of explosive volcanic activity such as
lava clots, ash and dust. Tuff is formed by the agglomeration of volcanic ash particles.
Volcanic products are lavas, pyroclastic materials (i.e. volcanic bombs) and gases.

2. Classification Based on Texture

This is classification of igneous rocks into plutonic and volcanic associations such as the rock texture
and the chemical and mineralogical composition. Texture is determined by the rate of cooling. Slow
cooling gives rise to coarsely crystalline texture.ie. Phaneritic texture. This type of texture is found in

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deep seated bodies i.e. batholiths. When very rapid cooling is achieved, very fine-grained or glassy
rock is produced. This referred to as cryptocrystalline texture an example of rock is lava flows.

Table 1: Classification of Igneous Rocks

GEOLOGICAL COMMON
VOLCANIC HYPABYSSAL PLUTONIC
OCCURRENCE MINERALS
Cryptocrystalline Medium grained Phaneritic
Grain Size Glassy
Silica % COMMON ROCKS TYPES

 66% Micro- Granite Quartz, Orthoclase

ACID Rhyolite Granite feldspar,
Dacite Micro- Grano- Plagioclase
feldspars, Micas
Granodiorite diorite
Hornblende
52-66% Trachyte Micro- Orthoclase and
INTERMEDATE Syenite Syenite Plagioclase
micro- feldspars
Hornblende micas
Andesite Diorite Diorite
some augite

44-52% BASALT DOIRITE Gabbro Augite, calcic

BASIC OR plagioclase
MAFIC feldspars, Olivine

< 44% Rare Rare Peridotite Olivine Augite

ULTRABAIC OR Hornblende.
ULTRAMAFIC

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Environmental Impact of Volcanic Activity

Potential Hazards could be of great magnitude:

i. Lava flows: slow with somewhat predictable hazard, velocity few km/hr, may cause fire
outbreaks.
Control method: hydraulic chilling and use of explosives.

ii. Pyroclastic and Ash flows: explosive hot rock and lava and volcanic ash may pose a
health threat.
iii. Debris flows: mudflow of glacial melt water and volcanic ash. A good example was Mt.
St. Helens. May pose serious danger to settlements and infrastructure.
iv. Nuees Ardentes: a mixture of hot gases and ash, so-called “glowing cloud”, reaching
temperatures over 1000o C and traveling at about 60miles/hour are a serious threat.
v. Toxic Gases: carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid as given out by the
Lake Nyos event of 1986 in Cameroon poses serious danger to public health.
vi. Tsunamis: a catastrophic ocean wave, also caused by either a submarine earthquake
occurring less than 50 km beneath the seafloor or by coastal landslides, which has very
devastating effects on coastal cities and man.
vii. Climate Effects: One of the most significant negative climate effects resulting from
volcanic activities is decreased solar radiation and lowering of ambient temperatures,
which may affect rainfall and, consequently, agricultural output.

Potential Benefits from Volcanic Eruption

These may include but not limited to the following:-

i. Geothermal energy may be harnessed.

ii. Volcanic dust and ash may contain essential nutrients that improve soil fertility. Carbon cycle
is also enhanced
iii. Many economic hydrothermal mineral deposits like F, S, Zn, Cu, Pb As, Sb, Mb, U, Ta, Ag,
Hg, Au, deposited from hot waters percolating along underground fractures are associated
with volcanoes.

Importance of Igneous Rocks

Scientifically, igneous rocks are the “parents” of all other rock types. Igneous rocks are also associated
with major sources of building and ornamental material.

B. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
What is metamorphism?
The word metamorphism is taken from the Greek for “change of form”. Thus metamorphism refers to the
changes in mineral assemblage and /or texture of an existing rock in the solid state, without going through
a liquid magmatic state. The new rocks, called Metamorphic Rocks, are formed as a result if alteration
of the preexisting rocks (metamorphic, sedimentary or igneous) due to change in environmental
conditions, such as variations in temperature, pressure, and mechanical stress, and the addition or

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subtraction of chemical components. Intrusion of hot magma into cooler surrounding rocks and large-
scale tectonic movements are some of the causes of these alterations.

Types of Metamorphism
1. Contact Metamorphism: predominates around intrusive due to temperature rise. Deformation is
unimportant here. Categories of contact metamorphism include (Table 2):

a. Hornfels is hard contact-metamorphic product of shale and other fine-grained rocks.

b. Spotted slate is a fine-grained rock with distinct cleavage that separates into thin, flat
plates
c. Marble is developed from the metamorphism of limestone.
d. Quartzite results from the metamorphism if sandstone through the introduction of
silica into the void spaces between the original quartz grains.

2. Dislocation Metamorphism: is developed in narrow zones of intense deformation, such as along

a fault. Shearing effect is dominant here.

3. Burial Metamorphism: is a type of low grade metamorphism developed over large areas where
geosynclinal rocks have been deeply buried, with a moderate rise in temperature, but without
appreciable deformation.

4. Regional Metamorphism: is developed over areas of several hundreds or thousands of kilometers,

especially in the root region of fold mountain ranges. It is perhaps the most important type of
metamorphism. It differs from burial metamorphism by the presence of deformation under shearing
stress. It is also called Dynamo-Thermal Metamorphism because it signifies both temperature and
deformation effects.

Kinds if Metamorphic Rocks

The four most common foliated types of metamorphic rocks are slates, phyllites, schists and gneisses, in
the order of increasing metamorphic grade.

i. Slate is a fine-grained rock with distinct cleavage that separates into thin, flat plates.

ii. Phyllite is a very lustrous (shiny) rock of higher metamorphic grade than slate.

iii. Schist is well-foliated rock that contains clearly visible platy minerals.

iv. Gneiss is a coarse-grained, clearly layered, foliated rock with an imperfect cleavage.

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Table 2: Metamorphic Rocks

TYPE OF GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES TEXTURE ROCK
METAMORPHISM OCCURRENCE CHARACTERISTIC
CONTACT/ Adjacent to igneous Recrystallisation Predominantly Spotted slate
THERMAL rocks, and particularly and metasomatism granular texture. Hornfels
near large granite as a temperature Marble
intrusions. and reaction with Quartzite
invading fluids and
gases.
DYNAMIC In intensely crushed Brecciation, Cataclastic texture Cataclastic breccia
zones, particularly crushing and Mylonite.
around large thrust and shearing
wrench faults.
REGIONAL Associated with Recrystallisation Mainly strongly Slate, Phyllite Schist,
orogenic belts under a variety of foliated or banded Gneiss.
pressure- textures
temperature
conditions

Common Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rock Types

 Marble is developed from the metamorphism of limestone or dolostone.

 Quartzite results from the metamorphism if sandstone through the introduction of silica into the
void spaces between the original quartz grains.

 Hornfels is hard contact-metamorphic product of shale and other fine-grained rocks.

 How are metamorphic rocks classified?

Metamorphic rocks are also classified by their fabrics, that is foliated or non-foliated.

FABRIC:

FOLIATED: The rock breaks easily along parallel surfaces that resulted from the growth and orientation
of platy or elongate minerals or from separation of minerals into bands, due to compressional and /or
shear stress.

NON-FOLIATED: The rock is usually fine to very fine-grained, having resulted either from contact
metamorphism (hornfels) or from burial metamorphism or metamorphism of rocks from which tabular or
prismatic crystals cannot form.

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SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
What Are Sedimentary Rocks?
Sedimentary rocks are derived from laying down of sediments either under water or on land surface, in
most cases horizontally. They are rocks formed at or near the earth’s surface by the accumulation and
lithification of sediments (detrital sedimentary rock) or by the precipitation from solution at normal
surface temperatures (chemical sedimentary rock). They cover more than 75% of the earth’s land surface,
but constitute only a minor portion of the crust that is dominated by igneous and metamorphic rocks,
which are usually found below the sedimentary rocks.

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Pre-existing rocks are weathered and subsequently eroded transported and deposited by water, ice or wind
to form sedimentary rocks. These materials are either carried as solid (in suspension or in traction as bed
load) or as dissolved constituents and are then deposited as sediments (unconsolidated deposit of solid
weathered material).

These sediments are later lithified (compacted and cemented) at ordinary temperatures at or near the
earth’s surface to form sedimentary rocks. A common feature of the rocks is the layering, which may be
observed in rock exposures along road cuts, deep gorges, etc. some varieties of sedimentary rock, (e.g.
organic reefs and bedded evaporates) however, do not go through the sediment stage, being precipitated
directly as rocks.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Weathering comprises of two processes (mechanical and chemical) that differ clearly and produce
significantly different sediment types and sedimentary rock types.

(1) Terrigenous Clastic Sedimentary Rocks (e.g. conglomerate, sandstone and shale)
They consist of rock and mineral grains, or clasts, varying in size from clay-, silt-, and sand- up to pebble-
, cobble-, and boulder.

Nomenclature of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Name of Size in millimeter Name of loose Name of Consolidated Rock
Particle (mm) sediment
Boulder >256 Gravel Conglomerate & Breccia
Cobble 64.00 256.00 Gravel Conglomerate & Breccia
Pebble 2.00 64.00 Gravel Conglomerate & Breccia
Sand 0..6525 2.00 Sand Sandstone
Silt 0.004 0..625 Silt Siltstone
Clay < 0.004 Clay Clay stone, Mudstone, Shale

They are transported by gravity, mudflows, running water, glaciers and wind, before being deposited in
different environments (e.g., deserts, alluvial channels, continental shelves, deltas). The transporting
agents sort out the particles by size. Coarse pebbles, cobbles, and boulder-size gravels lithify to form
conglomerate and breccia; sand becomes sandstone; and silt and clay form siltstone, claystone, mudrock,
and shale. The above could be further described:

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Clastic Detrital Sediments

Clastic detrital sediments are made up of fragments of minerals or rock matter that have been
transported before being laid down.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Weathering & Erosion

Mechanical Transportation Development in

Transport solution sites.

CLASTIC (DETRITAL) CHEMICAL & ROCK

FORMED
ROCKS BIOCHEMICAL ROCKS FROM
ORGANIC MATTERS
GRAIN SIZE ROCK ROCK OF MIXED Composition Rock
CHARACTERISTIC
Composition Rock
PARENTAGE, e.g. Characteristic Characteristic
SANDY,
>2mm CONGLOMERATE LIMESTONE, Calcareous LIMESTONE Carbonaceous LIGNITE
Rudaceous BRECCIA CAL-CAREOUS (Carbonates) CHALK BITUMINOUS
RRR
SILSTONE etc. DOLOMITE COAL
2-0.06mm QUARTZOSE ANTHRACITE
Siliceous CHERT
Arenaceous SANDSTONE (Silica) FLINT
ARKOSE Phosphatic GUANO
GREY-WACKE Evaporites GYPSUM
(i.e. Sulphates & ANHYDRITE
<0.06mm SILTSTONE Halides) HALITE
Argillaceous MUDSTONE
SHALE Ferruginous Various
CLAY (Iron Rich) IRONSTONES
(a) Rudaceous Sediments (>2mm)
Particle size ranges from 2mm and above, examples are conglomerate and breccia

(b) Arenaceous Sediments (2mm-0.06mm)

Particle size range between 2 and 0.06mm and include three principal families

i. Arkoses: They are highly feldspathic sandstones derived from the disintegration of
granitic rocks associated with rapid fluvial erosion of granitic massif.

ii. Greywackés (grey sandstones): Sandstones made up of high proportion of argillaceous

matrix, often dark coloured.

iii. Quartzose Sandstones: Well sorted sandstones, composed of very large quartz grains.

(c) Argillaceous Sediments (< 0.06mm)

Grains are less than 0.06mm in diameter. They are composed of very fine silica particles and clay
minerals. Examples are siltstones and mudstones.

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 Shales:-argillaceous strata that exhibits bedding fissility

 Mud: - are found in lakes and lagoons, deltas and in shallow or deep seas.

(2) Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

This type of sedimentary rocks results from chemical or organic precipitation, often in evaporating seas
and by biotic activity, of dissolved products of chemical weathering and they are classified as:
Allochemical and Orthochemical.
(a) Carbonate Deposits (Limestone/Dolostone)
(b) Siliceous Deposits (Diatomite)
(c) Ferruginous Deposits (Laterites, Chamosites)
(d) Aluminum Deposits (Bauxites)
(e) Phosphatic Deposits (Phosphates, Guanos)
(f) Saline Deposits (Rock Salt, Gypsum)

Allochemical sedimentary rocks consist of solid precipitated non-detrital fragments (allochems) that
undergo a brief history of transport and abrasion prior to deposition as non-terrigenous clasts. Examples
are calcareous or siliceous shell fragments and oöids, which are concentrically, layered spherical grains of
calcium carbonate.

Orthochemical sedimentary rocks consist of dissolved constituents, directly precipitated as solid

sedimentary rock, without transportation. They include some limestones, bedded evaporate deposits of
halite, gypsum, anhydrite, and banded iron formations.

(3) Organic sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks of organic origin include:
Carbonaceous Deposits (Peat, Lignite, Coal)

i. Limestones: – Rocks are composed mainly of calcium and magnesium carbonates formed from
chemical precipitation.

Examples:

Organic limestone: contain diagnostic structures such as algal banding

Oolitic limestone-composed of numerous small spheroidal ooliths that form gentle current activity
and chemical precipitation in warm shallow seas (e.g. the Bahamas Banks)

Chalk is a pure and very fine grained porous rock composed wholly of shell
debris.

ii. Evaporite deposits: These are salts formed from the dehydration of sea or lake waters i.e. chlorides
and sulphates.

iii. Ferruginous deposits: characterized with high iron content. There are four forms, Sulphides,
Carbonates, Oxides and Silicates.

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iv. Siliceous deposits i.e. Charts and flint

They formed of cryptocrystalline silica chart found in carboniferous limestone flint in the chalk. Other
examples: diatomaceous, radiolarian earths.

v. Carbonaceous Deposits.

Form from incomplete oxidation of dead vegetation in wet acidic conditions. Examples are coals
Types of coals are:-Lignite, Brown coal, Bituminous coal and anthracite. Lignite and brown coal are of
lower rank type of coal while bituminous and anthracite are of higher rank coal.

Texture and Structures

Texture

Size and shape of grains, their sorting and management, typical proportions such as porosity and
permeability, resulting from its textural character are necessary features.

Grain shape
Angular, sub-angular rounded provide clue as to the origin and grains are bound together either
by cement from chemical action or by a matrix of Clastic origin.

Structures
Sedimentary structures related to the depositional environment. They are usually produced at the
time of formation or shortly after the formation of sediment.

Example: (a) Stratification:-bedding and bedding-planes are the most important structural features of
sedimentary rocks, (b) Graded Bedding – display of vertical gradation in grain size large grains at the
base of a bed to smaller ones at the top with example found in greywacke, sandstone and (c ) Cross
stratification- common in sandstone.

Some Important Facts about Sedimentary Rocks:

1. Sediments and sedimentary rocks are confined to the Earth’s crust.
2. Their total volume can be measured using exposed rock sequences, drill-hole data, and seismic
profiles.
3. They are used to date and document many major events in Earth’s history.
4. They provide information useful for the understanding of paleo environments.
5. They allow correct conclusions to be drawn about the evolution of mountain systems, continental
blocks, and ocean basins, and about the origin and evolution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
6. They contain fossil records of ancient life forms necessary for the documentation of the evolutionary
advancement in the plant and animal kingdoms.
7. The study of deformation in sedimentary rocks is an essential aid in structural geology.
8. They contain most of the world’s reserve of oil and gas, coal, phosphates, Salt deposits, groundwater,
and other natural resources.

LECTURE 5

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