Rocks & Minerals

(Adapted from: Geology and Geological Features: A Photographic Slide Collection compiled by B.F. Kean,
1993)

Minerals are naturally formed crystals that are com posed of one or m ore chem ical elem ents. They are
disting uished from other natural solid m ate rials by their crysta lline structure. S om e natu ral solid m ate rials
form ed in ro ck s are not m inerals bec aus e they lack a crystalline stru cture , i.e., they are am orph ous , eg.,
obsidian or volcanic glass. Most minerals are formed by inorganic processes; however, a few are formed
by organic proc ess es (living orga nism s), eg ., calcite in cora l.

Single-element m inerals include diamond (from carbon) and the native (i.e., elemental) metals gold,
copper and silver. Other minerals, such as chalcopyrite, sphalerite and mica, are chemical compounds
con sisting of se vera l elem ents .

Rock s are m ade up of m inerals, the exce ption being glassy rocks (eg., som e rhyolites). Most rock s are
polymineralic (i.e., contain more than one mineral); however, a few are monom ineralic, eg., limestone and
m arble.

Rock-forming processes, some rapid and others requiring millions of years, are as active today as in the
geo logica l past. Rocks are divided into three main classes:

IGNEOUS ROCKS are formed as m agma (m olten rock) cools and solidifies. Magma is produced far
below the Earth's surface by heat generated mainly from radioactive disintegration of uranium, thorium
and potassium. The two main types of igneous rock are extrusive and intrusive. Extrusive rocks, or lava,
form when m agm as rea ch the surface of the Earth through volcanic fiss ures or vents. They cool ra pidly
and are fine-grained or glassy, eg., basalt and obsidian. Explosive eruptions produce rocks composed of
rock dust or fragments (pyroclasts). Intrusive rocks form when m agma cools slowly at depth, eg., granite,
allowing the constituent minerals to grow much larger. These m agmas intrude fissures and other zones of
weakness in the Earth's crust, crystallize, and are eventually uplifted and exposed by erosion. Some
magm as carry fragments of rocks and minerals from deep within the Earth, and this allows us to study
samples from regions too deep to be reached by drilling. The table below shows the relationship between
different igneous rocks and how they form.

Extrusive Igneous Basalt Andesite Rhyolite

Rocks (volcanic)

Gabbro stock; Diorite stock; Granite batholith

Intrusive Igneous diabase dyke or dyke or stock;
Rocks pegmatite dyke

Feldspar Feldspar Quartz

Main
pyroxene pyroxene feldspar
Minerals
olivine olivine mica
olivine

MAGMA
SiO2 (light coloured)
(dark coloured) MgO
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are fo rm ed b y the ac cum ulation and cem enting of loose s edim ent (e g.,
sandstone), the deposition of chemical compounds held in solution in water (eg., limestone), or by the
acc um ulation of an imal or plant debris (e g., coal).

W ind, rive r an d ocean currents are the m ain m eth ods of tra nsport. T his transported m ate rial settles to
form distinct layers, which are compressed by overlying layers and cemented to form solid rock. Rock
layers c an b e distinguished from eac h other by difference s in grain size, colou r and com pos ition.

Sedimentary rocks may have a coarse-grained, gravel-like appearance or be extremely fine grained, and
may be hard or soft. The principal varieties are sandstone, limestone and shale. Many sedimentary rocks
conta in fo ssils and som e, such as coral re efs, a re com posed entirely of such organic re m ains. T he table
below illustrates how s edim entary rocks form .

1. Surface rock Conglomerate

erosion
Sandstone
Shale

precipitation
2. Chemicals dissolved in sea water

Limestone, Dolostone
accumulation

3. Animal (shell, coral) or plant remains

Coal seams

evaporation
4. Salts dissolved in sea water

Salt, Potash, Gypsum

METAMORPHIC ROCKS are formed when rocks of any class are subjected to heat and pressure at
depth. This causes new minerals to form and other minerals to recrystallize. During the process, material
from the rock may be added or lost. Marked changes in temperature (T) and pressure (P) occur, which
may produce completely new types of rocks. In addition to the formation of new minerals, existing
minerals may be realigned into parallel bands and new textures may be formed. At sufficiently high
temperatures, the rock may undergo partial melting to form m agma, which may then become the source
of an igneous roc k. Meta m orphic ro ck s include, gneiss, s chist, s late , quartzite and m arble, and the table
below show s how they form .

Sandstone Shale Limestone Igneous, sedimentary or

other metamorphic rocks

T,P T,P T,P high T, P high T, P high T, P

flaky cleavage partial melting, extensive melting
mineral bands

Quartzite Slate Marble Schist Gneiss Migmatite

 The Geological Cycle

Soone r or later m ost ro ck s are exp ose d to the proc ess es o f erosion. The res ulting produ cts a ccu m ulate to
form sed imenta ry rock s. Thes e m ay be b uried to great depths and con verted by he at and pre ssu re into
m etam orphic rocks . At still greater depths, they m ay be m elted to form m agm a, which if crystallized form s
igneous rocks; if uplifted and exposed, these renew the cycle. The cycle may, however, be interrupted and
follow any of the paths shown in the diagram below.

MA
MAG MEL
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Click here for a “Schematic cross-section depicting geological concepts and processes”.
 TILL
UNCONSOLIDATED
DUST CLOUD SURFACE MATERIAL
PYROCLASTICS UNSORTED
LAVA
VOLCANIC EJECTA COOLS RAPIDLY
VARIABLE CLAST FINE GRAINED
(erosion)
SIZE (erosio
VOLCANIC n)
ROCKS
VOLCANIC DYKE
CUTS ACROSS LAYERS SEDIMENTS
VENT COOLS QUICKLY
SILL SMALL CRYSTALS
STOCK PARALLELS LAYERS
COOLS QUICKLY
SMALL CRYSTALS
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
UNC
O N FO
GRANITE RM

T
ITY OLDER

UL
BATHOLITH
METAMORPHIC

FA
COOLS SLOWLY
LARGE CRYSTALS ROCKS
METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
UN CONFO
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