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COMPLEX NUMBERS
Definition 1: Complex Number
A complex number is any number of the form z = a + ib where a and b are real numbers and i is the
imaginary unit.
Terminology
The notations a + ib and a + bi are used interchangeably. The real number a in z = a+ ib is called the real
part of z; the real number b is called the imaginary part of z. The real and imaginary parts of a complex
number z are abbreviated Re(z) and Im(z), respectively.
For example, if z = 4 − 9i, then Re(z) = 4 and Im(z) = −9. A real constant multiple of the imaginary unit is
called a pure imaginary number. For example, z = 6i is a pure imaginary number.
Complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 are equal, z1 = z2, if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2. Equivalently, we
can say that z1 = z2 if Re(z1) = Re(z2) and Im(z1) = Im(z2).
Remark: The set of complex numbers is usually denoted by the symbol C. Because any real number a can
be written as z = a + 0i, we see that the set R of real numbers is a subset of C.
If z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2, then addition and multiplication of two complex numbers is defined as:
The zero in the complex number system is the number 0 + 0i and the unity is 1 + 0i.The zero and unity are
denoted by 0 and 1, respectively. The zero is the additive identity in the complex number system since, for
any complex number z = a + ib, we have z + 0 = z. To see this, we use the definition of addition:
Similarly, the unity is the multiplicative identity of the system since, for any complex number z, we have
z・1 = z・ (1 + 0i) = z.
Definition 4: Conjugate of a Complex Number
If z is a complex number, the number obtained by changing the sign of its imaginary part is called the
complex conjugate, or simply conjugate, of z and is denoted by the symbol z .In other words, if z = a+ib,
then its conjugate is z = a − bi .
Q.1. If the complex number lies in the third quadrant then its conjugate lies in the quadrant: (PPSC 2017)
(A) First (B) Second (C) Third (D) None of these
Solution: A complex number in third quadrant is like z = − x − iy then z = − x + iy which will lie second
quadrant. Therefore, the option (B) is the right choice.
Let z and w be the complex numbers, then following properties are true for conjugate:
1. (z) = z 5. ( zw ) = ( z )( w )
2. z + w = z + w z z
6. =
z−z w w
3. Im ( z ) =
2i z+z
7. Re ( z ) =
4. z − w = z − w 2
The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy, is the real number z = x 2 + y 2 . Equivalently, we can write
( Re ( z ) ) + ( Im ( z ) )
2 2
z = . The modulus z of a complex number z is also called the absolute value of z.
Let z and w be the complex numbers, then following properties are true for modulus:
1. zw = z w
z z
2. =
w w
3. z = −z = z = −z
z = zz
2
4.
z n = z where n = 1, 2,3,
n
5.
6. Re ( z ) Re ( z ) z
7. Im ( z ) Im ( z ) z
8. z+w z + w
y
where r = z is a unique positive number and = tan −1 is measured in radian called the argument of and
x
denoted by arg ( z ) .
1 − i 3 = 2 cos − + i sin − .
3 3
Observe that any one of the infinite values = − + 2n , n Z can be used to denote 1 − i 3 . For example
3
5 5
1 − i 3 = 2 cos + i sin , ( n = 1) .
3 3
Principal Argument
The symbol arg(z) represents a set of values and all its values differ by an integral multiple of 2 , but the
argument θ of a complex number that lies in the interval −π < θ ≤ π is called the principal value of arg(z) or
the principal argument of z. The principal argument of z is unique and is represented by the symbol Arg(z),
that is,
−π < Arg(z) ≤ π.
3
For example, the complex number −1 − i, which lies in the third quadrant, has principal argument − .
4
3
That is, Arg ( −1 − i ) = − .
4
It must be highlighted that because of the restriction −π < ≤ π of the principal argument , it is not true
5
that Arg ( −1 − i ) = .
4
3
Accordingly, arg ( −1 − i ) = − + 2n , n = 0, 1, 2,
4
Prof. Sardar Aqib Mahmood (WhatsApp +923222694000) sardaraqibsam@gmail.com
Page |4
Note that the term Arg (z) on the right-hand side of above equation can be replaced by any particular value
of arg (z) and that one can write, for instance,
5
arg ( −1 − i ) = + 2n , n = 0, 1, 2,
4
−1 y
tan , x 0,
x
tan −1 y
+, x 0, y 0
x
y
Arg ( z ) = tan −1 −, x 0, y 0
x
2 , x = 0, y 0
− , x = 0, y 0
2
Example 3: Find the Arg (z) for each of the following complex numbers:
Solution: We will use the above table in determining the Arg (z) in each case:
1
(a) Since z = 1 + i lies in Quad-I with x = 1, y = 1 , so Arg ( z ) = tan −1 = tan −1 (1) = .
1 4
−1
(b) Since z = 1 − i lies in Quad-IV with x = 1, y = −1 , so Arg ( z ) = tan −1 = − tan −1 (1) = − .
1 4
1 3
Arg ( z ) = tan −1 + = − tan −1 (1) + = − + = .
−1 4 4
−1 3
Arg ( z ) = tan −1 − = tan −1 (1) − = − = −
−1 4 4
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
Definition 1: Limits of a Complex Function
Suppose that a complex function f is defined in a deleted neighborhood of z 0 and suppose that L is a
complex number. The limit of f as z tends to z0 exists and is equal to L, written as lim f ( z ) = L , if for
z → z0
If f approaches two complex numbers L1 L2 for two different curves or paths through z0, then lim f ( z )
z → z0
z
Example 1: Show that lim does not exist.
z →0 z
Solution: We show that this limit does not exist by finding two different ways of letting z approach 0 that
z x + iy
yield different values for lim = lim . First, we let z approach 0 along the real axis, then
z →0 z ( x , y ) → ( 0,0 ) x − iy
x + 0i 0 + iy
lim = 1 . On the other hand, if we let z approach 0 along the imaginary axis, then lim = −1 .Since
x → 0 x − 0i y → 0 0 − iy
z
the values are not the same for two different paths, we conclude that lim does not exist.
z →0 z
z
Q.2. lim = : (PPSC 2015)
z →0 z
1+ i
(A) (B) 1 (C) Does not exist (D) −1
1− i
Solution: We show that this limit does not exist by finding two different ways of letting z approach 0 that
z x − iy
yield different values for lim = lim . First, we let z approach 0 along the real axis, then
z →0 z ( x , y ) → ( 0,0 ) x + iy
x − 0i 0 − iy
lim = 1 , On the other hand, if we let z approach 0 along the imaginary axis, then lim = −1 .Since
x →0 x + 0i y → 0 0 + iy
z
the values are not the same for two different paths, we conclude that lim does not exist. The option (C) is
z →0 z
correct.
Suppose that f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), z0 = x0 + iy0, and L = u0 + iv0. Then lim f ( z ) = L if and only if
z → z0
1
1. lim f ( z ) = if lim = 0,
z → z0 z → z0 f ( z)
1
2. lim f ( z ) = w0 if lim f = w0 ,
z → z →0
z
1
3. lim f ( z ) = if lim = 0.
z → z → 0 f (1 z )
iz + 3 z +1
1. lim = since lim = 0,
z →−1 z + 1 z →−1 iz + 3
2. lim
2z + i
= 2 since lim
( 2 z ) + i = lim 2 + iz = 2 ,
z → z + 1 z → 0 (1 z ) + 1 z →0 1 + z
2z3 −1
3. lim 2 = since lim
1 z +1
=
( )
lim
2
z + z3
= 0.
z → z + 1
( ) z →0 2 − z3
z →0 2 z3 −1
A complex function f is continuous at a point z0 if for every 0 there exists a 0 such that
f ( z ) − f ( z0 ) whenever z − z0 .
A complex function f is continuous at a point z 0 if each of the following three conditions hold:
If a complex function f is not continuous at a point z0 then we say that f is discontinuous at z0.
A function f(z) is said to be continuous in a region if it is continuous at all points of the region.
Suppose that f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) and z0 = x0 + iy0. Then the complex function f is continuous at the point
z0 if and only if both real functions u and v are continuous at the point (x0, y0).
If a complex function f is continuous on a closed and bounded region R, then f is bounded on R. That is,
there is a real constant M > 0 such that |f(z)| ≤ M for all z in R.
A complex function f is uniformly continuous in a region if for every 0 there exists a 0 such that
f ( z1 ) − f ( z2 ) whenever z1 − z2 . where z1 and z2 are any two points of the region.
Let f(z) be continuous in a closed and bounded region. Then f(z) is uniformly continuous there.
Solution: The best possible correct option is (C). (If you can add some information, please feel free to
contact me at 0334-4458227).
Remarks: Analyticity at a point is not the same as differentiability at a point. Analyticity at a point is a
neighborhood property; in other words, analyticity is a property that is defined over an open set.
A function that is analytic at every point z in the complex plane is said to be an entire function.
A point z at which a complex function w = f(z) fails to be analytic is called a singular point of f.
Since the rational function f ( z ) = 4 z ( z 2 − 2 z + 2 ) is discontinuous at 1+i and 1−i, f fails to be analytic at
these points. Thus by (ii) of Theorem 7, f is not analytic in any domain containing one or both of these
points.
In the following theorem we see that if a function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at a point z, then
the functions u and v must satisfy a pair of equations that relate their first-order partial derivatives.
Prof. Sardar Aqib Mahmood (WhatsApp +923222694000) sardaraqibsam@gmail.com
Page |9
Theorem 8: Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Suppose f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is differentiable at a point z = x + iy. Then at z the first-order partial
derivatives of u and v exist and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u v u v
= and =− .
x y y x
Remarks: Theorem 8 states that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are necessary conditions for the existence
of the derivative of a function f at a point z , they can often be used to locate points at which f does not
have a derivative. If the Cauchy Riemann equations are not satisfied at a point z, then f cannot be
differentiable at z .
u v u v
= 1, = 4, = 0, and =0.
x y y x
u v
Since =1 = 4 cannot be simultaneously satisfied at any point z. In other words, f is nowhere
x y
differentiable.
If the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied at every point z in a domain D, then the function f(z) =
u(x, y)+iv(x, y) cannot be analytic in D.
u v u v
we see that = − but that the equality = is satisfied only on the line y = 2x. However, for any
y x x y
point z on the line, there is no neighborhood or open disk about z in which f is differentiable at every point.
We conclude that f is nowhere analytic.
The Cauchy-Riemann equations do not ensure differentiability of a function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) at a point
z = x + iy . It is possible for the Cauchy- Riemann equations to be satisfied at z and yet f(z) may not be
differentiable at z. However, when we add the condition of continuity to u and v and to the four partial
derivatives u x , u y , v x and v y , it can be shown that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not
only necessary but also sufficient to guarantee analyticity of f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) at z.
Prof. Sardar Aqib Mahmood (WhatsApp +923222694000) sardaraqibsam@gmail.com
P a g e | 10
Theorem 9: Criterion for Analyticity
Suppose the real functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) are continuous and have continuous first-order partial
derivatives in a domain D. If u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u v u v
= and =−
x y y x
at all points of D, then the complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in D.
x y x y
For the function f ( z ) = −i 2 , the real functions u ( x, y ) = 2 and v ( x, y ) = − 2
x +y
2 2
x +y 2
x +y 2
x + y2
are continuous except at the point where x 2 + y 2 = 0 , that is, at z = 0. Moreover, the first four first-order
partial derivatives
u y2 − x2 u 2 xy
= , =−
x ( x 2 + y 2 )2 y ( x2 + y 2 )
2
u 2 xy u y2 − x2
= , and =
x ( x 2 + y 2 )2 y ( x 2 + y 2 )2
u y2 − x2 v u 2 xy v
= = and =− =−
x ( x + y )
2 2 2
y y ( x2 + y 2 ) x
2
that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied except at z = 0. Thus we conclude from Theorem 3 that f
is analytic in any domain D that does not contain the point z = 0.
z +3
Q.4. The function f ( z ) = ceases to be analytic at:
z ( z 2 + 1)
2
Solution: Since f ( z ) = 5 z 2 is a polynomial and hence it is an entire function. Therefore, the option (D) is
the right choice.
( z − 2i )
4
4 16 − 20
Solution: The rational function is not analytic when z 2 − 4 z + 5 = 0 which implies z = = 2i.
2
Therefore, the option (C) is the right choice.
If the real functions u(x,y) and v(x, y) are continuous and have continuous first-order partial derivatives in
some neighborhood of a point z, and if u and v satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations
u v u v
= and =−
x y y x
u v v u
f ( z) = +i = −i .
x x y y
u v
f ( z) = + i = 2 x + 2iy = 2 ( x + iy ) = 2 z .
x x
Solution The real functions u(x, y) = 2x2 + y and v(x, y) = y2 – x, the partial derivatives
u v u v
= 4 x, = 2 y, = 1, and = −1
x y y x
u v u v
are continuous at every point. We see that = − but that the equality = is satisfied only on the
y x x y
line y = 2x, it follows that f is differentiable on the line y = 2x.
1. If f ( z ) is constant in D, then f(z) is constant in D. (That is, an analytic function with constant modulus
is constant.)
2. If f ( z ) = 0 in D, then f(z) = c in D, where c is a constant.
3. If conjugate f ( z ) = u(x, y) − iv(x, y) is also analytic in a domain D, then f ( z ) is constant in D.
A real-valued function of two real variables x and y is said to be harmonic if it has continuous first and
second-order partial derivatives in a domain D and satisfies the partial differential equation
2 2
+ =0
x 2 y 2
known as Laplace’s equation.
2u
Result: If u ( x, y ) be a harmonic function, then = 0 . This is called the complex form of Laplace
z z
Equation.
Suppose the complex function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D. Then the functions u(x, y)
and v(x, y) are harmonic in D.
x y
Since the function f ( z ) = −i 2 is analytic at every nonzero point z, therefore
x +y
2 2
x + y2
x y
u ( x, y ) = and v ( x, y ) = − 2
x +y
2 2
x + y2
are harmonic throughout any domain in the xy plane that does not contain the origin.
U 2U U 2U
= e x cos y, = e x
cos y and = − e x
sin y , = −e x cos y
x x 2
y y 2
2U 2U
And hence + = e x cos y − e x cos y = 0 satisfies the Laplace’s Equation.
x 2
y 2
If a function f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) is analytic in a domain D, then its real and imaginary parts u and v are
necessarily harmonic in D. Now suppose u(x, y) is a given real function that is known to be harmonic in D.
If it is possible to find another real harmonic function v(x, y) so that u and v satisfy the Cauchy-
Riemann equations throughout the domain D, then the function v(x, y) is called a harmonic conjugate of
u(x, y). By combining the functions as u(x, y) + iv(x, y) we obtain a function that is analytic in D.
The function u(x, y) = x3−3xy2−5y is harmonic in the entire complex plane. Find the analytic function and the
corresponding harmonic conjugate function of u.
u u
Step I: = 3x 2 − 3 y 2 and = −6 xy − 5
x y
u u
Step II: f ( z ) = −i = 3x 2 − 3 y 2 − i ( −6 xy − 5 )
x y
f ( z ) = 3z 2 − 0 − i ( 0 − 5 ) = 3 z 2 + 5i
f ( z ) = x3 − 3xy − 5 y + ( 3x 2 y 2 − y 3 + 5 x + c ) i
Which is the required analytic function and the corresponding harmonic conjugate of u is given by
v ( x, y ) = 3 x 2 y 2 − y 3 + 5 x + c
ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
Definition 1: Complex Exponential Function
e z = e x ( cos y + i sin y )
Remark: Note that in defining the complex exponential function we have used where Euler’s formula
eiy = cos y + i sin y .
1. e 0 = 1 ( e z is never zero)
2. e z1 e z2 = e z1 + z2
e z1
3. z2
= e z1 − z2
e
4. (e )
z1 n
= enz1 , where n is an integer
5. ez = ex
6. eiz = 1
7. e z is periodic with a pure imaginary period 2πi.
8. e z = 1 if and only if z is an integral multiple of 2πi.
9. e z1 = e z2 if and only if z1 − z2 = 2k i , where k is an integer.
log z = ln z + i arg ( z )
Log z = ln z + iArg ( z )
Find the principal value of each complex logarithm: ( (a) Log ( −i ) (b) Log ( −2 )
−1
Solution: (a) Since z = −i so z = 1 and Arg ( z ) = tan −1 = − . Therefore, we have
0 2
Log ( −i ) = ln1 + i − = − i .
2 2
Solution: Since e 2 z is analytic everywhere and hence it is an entire function. Therefore, the option (C) is the
right choice.
z = e log z .
z = e Log z
Find the principal value of each complex power: (a) i i (b) ( −i ) (c) ( −1)
−i i
1
Solution: (a) Since z = i so z = 1 and Arg ( z ) = tan −1 = . Therefore, we have
0 2
=e(
iLog ( i ) i ln1+ i ( /2 ) )
ii = e = e − /2 .
−1
(b) Since z = −i so z = 1 and Arg ( z ) = tan −1 = − . Therefore, we have
0 2
=e (
− i ln1+ i ( − /2 ) )
( −i ) − iLog ( − i )
−i
=e = e− /2 .
( −1) =e
iLog ( −1)
=e(
i ln1+ i )
= e − .
i
=e(
i ln1+ i ( − /2 ) )
( −i ) =e
iLog ( − i )
= e /2 .
i
=e(
iLog ( i ) i ln1+ i ( /2 ) )
ii = e = e − /2 .
Suppose the continuous real-valued functions x = x(t), y = y(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, are parametric equations of a curve
C in the complex plane. We describe the points z on C by means of a complex-valued function of a real
variable t called a parametrization of C:
z ( t ) = x ( t ) + iy ( t ) , a t b
The point z(a) = x(a) + iy(a) or A = (x(a), y(a)) is called the initial point of C. The point z(b) = x(b)+iy(b) or
B = (x(b), y(b)) is called the terminal point of C.
The parametric equations x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, describe a unit circle centered at the origin. A
parametrization of this circle is z(t) = cos t + i sin t, or z(t) = eit, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
A curve C in the complex plane is said to be a simple if z ( t1 ) z ( t2 ) for t1 t2 , except possibly for t = a and
t = b.
On a simple closed curve C, the positive direction corresponds to the counterclockwise direction and the
negative direction corresponds to the clockwise direction.
A curve C in the complex plane is smooth if z ( t ) = x ( t ) + iy ( t ) is continuous and never zero in the
interval a ≤ t ≤ b.
Remarks:
If f is continuous on a smooth curve C given by the parametrization z(t) = x(t) + iy(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, then
f ( z ) dz = f ( z ( t ) ) z (t ) dt .
b
C a
1
Evaluate dz , where C is given by x ( t ) = cos t , y ( t ) = sin t , 0 t 2 .
C z
( )
1 2 2
C z 0 0 dt = 2 i .
− it
dz = e ie it
dt = i
Suppose that a function f is analytic in a simply connected domain D. Then for every simple closed contour
C in D, f ( z ) dz = 0 .
C
Since the interior of a simple closed contour is a simply connected domain, the Cauchy-Goursat
theorem can be stated in the slightly more practical manner:
Since the entire functions are analytic at all points within and on any simple closed contour C, it follows
from Cauchy-Goursat theorem
C
e z dz = 0, C
sin z dz = 0, C
cos z dz = 0, p ( z ) dz = 0
C
where p ( z ) = an z n + an −1 z n −1 + + a1 z + a0 , n = 0,1, 2, .
dz
, where the contour C is the ellipse ( x − 2 ) + 14 ( y − 5 ) = 1.
2 2
Evaluate 2
C z
Solution The rational function f ( z ) = 1 z 2 is analytic everywhere except at z = 0. But z = 0 is not a point
interior to or on the simple closed elliptical contour C. Thus, it follows from Cauchy-Goursat theorem that
dz
C z2
= 0.
z2 − z +1 1
Q.14. Evaluate C z − 1 dz , where C is the circle z = 2 : (PPSC 2015)
1
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) (D) 0
2
z2 − z +1
C z − 1 dz = 0 .
If f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and z 0 is any point in D, the quotient f ( z ) ( z − z0 ) is not
defined at z 0 and hence is not analytic in D. Therefore, we cannot conclude that the integral of
f ( z ) ( z − z0 ) around a simple closed contour C that contains z 0 is zero by the Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
Indeed, as we shall now see, the integral of f ( z ) ( z − z0 ) around C has the value 2 if ( z0 ) . The first of two
remarkable formulas is known simply as the Cauchy integral formula.
Suppose that f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is any simple closed contour lying
entirely within D. Then for any point z 0 within C,
f ( z)
dz = 2 if ( z0 ) .
C z − z0
Since we often work problems without a simply connected domain explicitly defined, a more practical
restatement of Theorem is:
If f is analytic at all points within and on a simple closed contour C, and z 0 is any point interior to C, then
f ( z)
dz = 2 if ( z0 ) .
C z − z0
z2 − 4z + 4
Evaluate C z + i dz , where C is the circle z = 2 .
Solution: We see that z0 = −i is the only point within the closed contour C at which the integrand fails to
be analytic. So we identify z0 = −i and f ( z ) = z 2 − 4 z + 4 . The function f is analytic at all points within
and on the contour C. Hence, from Cauchy integral formula, we obtain
z
Evaluate C z +9
2
dz , where C is the circle z − 2i = 4 .
we can identify z0 = 3i and f ( z ) = z ( z + 3i ) . The function f is analytic at all points within and on the
contour C. Hence, from Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
z z ( z + 3i ) 3i
dz = ( z − 3i ) dz = 2 if ( 3i ) = 2 i = i .
C z +9
2 C 6i
cos z
Evaluate z(z
C 2
+ 9)
dz , where C be the positively oriented circle z = 1 about the origin.
cos z cos z
Solution By factoring the denominator, we can write z(z
C 2
+ 9)
dz = z ( z − 3i )( z + 3i ) dz . We see that
C
z0 = 0 is the only point within the closed contour C at which the integrand fails to be analytic. Then by
rewriting the integrand as
cos z cos z ( z 2 + 9 )
C
z ( z 2 + 9)
dz = C z −0
dz
we can identify z0 = 0 and f ( z ) = cos z ( z 2 + 9 ) . The function f is analytic at all points within and on the
contour C. Hence, from Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
cos z cos z ( z 2 + 9 ) 1 2 i
dz = dz = 2 if ( 0 ) = 2 i = .
C
z ( z 2 + 9) C z−0 9 9
dz
Q.15. If C is the circle z = 3 , then 1+ z 2
is equal to: (PPSC 2011)
we can identify f ( z ) = 1 for both integral. Hence, from Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
dz 1 dz 1 dz 1 1
1+ z 2
=−
2i z + i + 2i z − i = − 2i 2 if ( −i ) + 2i 2 if ( i ) = − (1) + (1) = 0 .
Thus the option (C) is correct.
Suppose that f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is any simple closed contour lying
entirely within D. Then for any point z 0 within C,
f ( z) 2 i ( n )
(z − z ) n +1
dz = f ( z0 ) .
C
0
n!
z +1
Evaluate C z + 2iz 3
4
dz , where C is the circle z = 1 .
z +1 z +1
Solution By factoring the denominator, we can write C z + 2iz 3
4
dz = C z3
( z + 2i )
dz . We see that z0 = 0 is
the only point within the closed contour C at which the integrand fails to be analytic. Then by rewriting the
integrand as
z +1 ( z + 1) ( z + 2i ) dz
C z 4 + 2iz3 dz = C ( z − 0)2+1
we can identify z0 = 0, n = 2 and f ( z ) = ( z + 1) ( z + 2i ) . The function f is analytic at all points within and
on the contour C. Now f ( z ) = ( 2 − 4i ) ( z + 2i ) and f ( 0 ) = ( 2i − 1) 4i . Hence, from Cauchy’s integral
3
z +1 ( z + 1) ( z + 2i ) dz = 2 i 2i − 1
f ( 0 ) = i
C z + 2iz 3
4
dz = C ( z − 0)2+1 2! 4i
=− + i.
4 2
exp ( 2 z )
Evaluate C z4
dz , where C is the circle z = 1 .
we can identify z0 = 0, n = 3 and f ( z ) = exp ( 2 z ) . The function f is analytic at all points within and on the
contour C. Now f ( z ) = 8exp ( 2 z ) and f ( 0 ) = 8 . Hence, from Cauchy’s integral formula for
Derivatives, we have
exp ( 2 z ) exp ( 2 z ) 2 i i 8 i
4
dz = ( z − 0) 3+1
dz = f ( 0 ) = ( 8) = .
C z C 3! 3 3
If p(z) is a nonconstant polynomial, then the equation p(z) = 0 has at least one root.
Remarks: The next theorem which gives a sufficient condition for analyticity is often taken to be the
converse of the Cauchy-Goursat theorem.
then f is analytic in D.
SERIES RESIDUES
Definition 1: Series
z
k =1
k = z1 + z2 + z3 + + zn +
Sn = z1 + z2 + z3 + + zn
converges. If Sn → L as n → , we say that the series converges to L or that the sum of the series is L.
az
k =1
k −1
= a + az + az 2 + + az n −1 +
a
S= , for z 1 .
1− z
n →
A Test for Divergence The contrapositive of the proposition in Theorem 1 is the nth term test for
divergence of an infinite series.
If lim zn 0 , then z diverges.
k =1 k
n →
ik + 5
Discuss the convergence or divergence of k =1
.
k
p-Series Test
1
In elementary calculus a real series of the form k =1
is called a p-series and converges for p > 1 and
kp
diverges for p ≤ 1.
An infinite series z is said to be absolutely convergent if
k =1 k k =1
zk converges. An infinite series
ik
k =1 k 2 converges absolutely or conditionally.
Discuss whether the series
ik 1
= k =1 2 converges by p-series test with p = 2 > 1, we conclude that
Solution: Since the series k =1 2
k k
ik
k =1 k 2 converges absolutely.
the series
Suppose z is a series of nonzero complex terms such that
k =1 k
zn +1
lim =L
n → zn
Suppose z is a series of nonzero complex terms such that
k =1 k
nn
Q.16. The series is (PPSC 2011)
( 2i )
n
n=0
(A) Convergent (B) Absolutely convergent (C) Divergent (D) None of these
nn nn n nn
Solution: Since lim n
( 2i )
= lim n = lim = , therefore we conclude that the series diverges
( 2i )
n → n n → n n → 2 n
2 n=0
a (z − z ) = a0 + a1 ( z − z0 ) + a2 ( z − z0 ) +
k 2
k 0
k =0
where the coefficients ak are complex constants, is called a power series in z − z0 . The power series is said
to be centered at z0; the complex point z0 is referred to as the center of the series.
Circle of Convergence
1. R = 0 (in which case the power series converges only at its center z = z0),
2. R a finite positive number (in which case the power series converges at all interior points of the circle
z − z0 = R ), or
3. R = ∞ (in which case the power series converges for all z).
4. No general statement concerning convergence at points on the circle z − z0 = R can be made
a (z − z )
k
Suppose k 0 is a power series then if
k =0
an +1 1
1. lim = L 0 , the radius of convergence is R = .
n → an L
an +1
2. lim = 0 , the radius of convergence is R = .
n → an
an +1
3. lim = , the radius of convergence is R = 0 .
n → an
( −1)
k +1
Find the radius of convergence for ( z −1 − i )
k
.
k =0 k!
( −1)
n+2
n!
with centre z0 = 1 + i converges absolutely for all z , that is, for z − 1 − i .
a (z − z )
k
Suppose k 0 is a power series then if
k =0
1
1. lim n an = L 0 , the radius of convergence is R = .
n → L
2. lim n an = 0 , the radius of convergence is R = .
n →
6k + 1 k
6n + 1 6n + 1
n
1
Solution: Since lim n
= nlim = 3 , therefore the radius of convergence R = . The circle of
n →
2n + 5 → 2n + 5 3
1 1
convergence of the series is z − 2i = ; the power series converges absolutely for all z − 2i .
3 3
( 3 + 4i ) z
n n
Q.17. The radius of convergence of is ____________. (PPSC 2015)
1
(A) (B) 5 (C) 7 (D)
5
1
Solution: Since lim n ( 3 + 4i ) = lim 3 + 4i = 9 + 16 = 5 , there the radius of convergence is
n
. Thus the
n → n → 5
option (A) is correct.
Theorem: Continuity
A power series ak ( z − z0 ) represents a continuous function f within its circle of convergence z − z0 = R .
k
k =0
A power series ak ( z − z0 ) can be differentiated term by term within its circle of convergence z − z0 = R .
k
k =0
Corollary: A power series defines an infinitely differentiable function within its circle of convergence and
each differentiated series has the same radius of convergence R as the original power series.
A power series ak ( z − z0 ) can be integrated term-by-term within its circle of convergence z − z0 = R ,
k
k =0
Corollary: A power series and its term by term integration form both have same circle of convergence
z − z0 = R .
Let f be analytic within a domain D and let z0 be a point in D. Then f has the series representation
f (z) =
f(
k)
( z0 )
( z − z0 )
k
k =0 k!
valid for the largest circle C with center at z0 and radius R that lies entirely within D. This series is called the
Taylor series for f centered at z0.
1. The radius of convergence R of a Taylor series is the distance from the center z0 of the series to the
nearest isolated singularity of f .
2. If the function f is entire, then the radius of convergence of a Taylor series centered at any point z0 is
necessarily R = ∞.
3−i
Suppose the function f ( z ) = is expanded in a Taylor series with center z0 = 4 − 2i . What is its
1− i + z
radius of convergence R?
Solution: Observe that the function is analytic at every point except at z = −1 + i , which is an isolated
singularity of f. The distance from z = −1 + i to z0 = 4 − 2i is
z − z0 = −1 + i − ( 4 − 2i ) = −5 + 3i = 25 + 9 = 34 .
This last number is the radius of convergence R for the Taylor series centered at z0 = 4 − 2i .
1.
1
= zk = 1+ z + z2 +
1 − z k =0
( z 1)
zk z z2
2. e z = = 1+ + + ( z )
k =0 k ! 1! 2!
z 2 k +1 z3 z5
3. sin z = ( −1)
k
= z− + + ( z )
k =0 ( 2k + 1)! 3! 5!
z 2k z2 z4
4. cos z = ( −1)
k
= 1− + + ( z )
k =0 ( 2k ) ! 2! 4!
z 2 k +1 z3 z5
5. sinh z = = z+ + + ( z )
k = 0 ( 2k + 1) ! 3! 5!
z 2k z2 z4
6. cosh z = = 1+ + + ( z )
k = 0 ( 2k ) ! 2! 4!
z 2 z3 z3
Q.19. 1 + z + + + + converges to: (PPSC 2017)
2! 3! 4!
(B) e− z (C) − z e
2
(A) e z (D) None of these
zk z z2
Solution: It is a well-known Maclaurin Series e z = = 1+ + + . Thus, the option (A) is correct.
k =0 k ! 1! 2!
Result: The power series expansion of a function, with center z0, is unique. On a practical level this means
that a power series expansion of an analytic function f centered at z0, irrespective of the method used to
obtain it, is the Taylor series expansion of the function.
1 z3
Find the Maclaurin expansion of (a) f ( z ) = (b) f ( z ) = .
(1 − z ) (1 − z )
2 2
1
= zk = 1+ z + z2 +
1 − z k =0
( z 1)
1
= 0 + 1 + 2 z + 3z 2 + = kz k −1 ( z 1)
(1 − z )
2
k =1
The radius of convergence of the last power series is the same as the original series, R = 1.
(b) Using the result from (a) we get the desired result as
z3
= z 3 + 2 z 4 + 3z 5 + = kz k + 2 ( z 1)
(1 − z )
2
k =1
1
Expand f ( z ) = in a Taylor series with centre z0 = 2i .
1− z
Solution: Consider
1 1 1 1 1
= = =
1 − z 1 − z + 2i − 2i 1 − 2i − ( z − 2i ) 1 − 2i 1 − z − 2i
1 − 2i
Prof. Sardar Aqib Mahmood (WhatsApp +923222694000) sardaraqibsam@gmail.com
P a g e | 32
1 1
We write as a power series = zk = 1+ z + z2 + with symbol z replaced by the
z − 2i 1 − z k =0
1−
1 − 2i
z − 2i
expression :
1 − 2i
1 z − 2i z − 2i z − 2i
2 3
1
= 1 + + + +
1 − z 1 − 2i 1 − 2i 1 − 2i 1 − 2i
1 1 1 1 1
2 (
= + z − 2i ) + 3 (
z − 2i ) + 4 (
z − 2i ) +
2 3
1 − z 1 − 2i (1 − 2i ) (1 − 2i ) (1 − 2i )
Because the distance from the center z0 = 2i to the nearest singularity z = 1 is
z − z0 = 1 − 2i = 1 + 4 = 5 .