Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Electrical Power and Energy Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijepes

Advances and trends of energy storage technology in Microgrid

Xingguo Tan a, Qingmin Li b,⇑, Hui Wang a
a
School of Electrical Engineering, Shandong University, 73 Jing Shi Road, Jinan, 250061 Shandong Province, China
b
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, North China Electric Power University, 2 Bei Nong Road, Chang Ping District, Beijing 102206, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Microgrid (MG) is the indispensable infrastructure of nowadays smart grid, however, fluctuation and
Received 13 September 2011 intermittence resulted from unstable micro-sources and nonlinear loads will execute considerable
Received in revised form 14 June 2012 impacts on normal operation of the MG. Energy storage technology presents a preferable solution to
Accepted 5 July 2012
the above issue. The paper gives a full scope review of the principal energy storage technologies being
Available online 14 August 2012
developed so far, and the features and benefits of energy storage systems (ESSs) within the MG are ana-
lyzed in details including ESS configuration and topologies, power electronics interfaces, ESS control
Keywords:
schemes for charging/discharging, control strategy of hybrid ESS as well as optimization of the renewable
Energy storage
Microgrid
sources and ESS. The future trends and challenges of ESS are also fully accounted, with a view to propos-
Power electronics interface ing smart ESS as the promising technology in the future for MG and smart grid.
Control strategy Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Trends and challenges

1. Introduction
The concept of Microgrid (MG) is proposed by the Consortium
for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTSs) so as to en-
hance the local reliability and flexibility of electric power systems,
which may consist of multiple distributed energy resources (DERs),
customers, energy storage units, and can be further defined as a
small electric power system being able to operate physically
islanded or interconnected with the utility girds [1,2]. Due to
increasing shortage of the fossil fuel and the impelling pressures
from environmental protection, new generation sources of high
efficiency such as fuel cell and microgas turbine, as well as renew-
able energy sources (RESs) such as wind and solar power, are
becoming the most important DERs nowadays. The distributed
and renewable energy sources will see a remarkably increasing
portion in the whole electric power generation. For example, RES
generation is compulsorily required to occupy 20% by 2017 in Cal-
ifornia, USA, while a 15% proportion of the RES generation will be
achieved by 2020 in China according to the government report, and
in Germany the wind power generation will amount to 60% by
2020 [3].
A MG combined with RES and distributed generation sources
(DGs) can be a preferable solution to the raised energy crises as
well as a complement to nowadays centralized modern power
grids [4]. However, due to relatively small capacity, the normal
operation of MGs may be vulnerable to random power exchange
between the supplier and the loads, and hence the operational
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lqmeee@ncepu.edu.cn (Q. Li).
capability and power quality are difficult to be guaranteed [5]. Just
for an example, when a MG works at the islanded mode, possible
malfunction of some micro-source or DG will cause immediate ac-
tive and reactive power shortage, though it might eventually be
remedied by load shedding, the interim power shortfall must be in-
stantly compensated from somewhere else, for which case energy
storage (ES) technology is critical and indispensible. More impor-
tant, the intermittent behavior of many RES and DGs due to their
strong dependency on climatic and meteorological conditions,
the RES energy output will fluctuate especially for a localized small
capacity MG with more than 10% of the RES occupation. ES is pres-
ently the indispensable equipment in a MG as the smart way to
suppress probable power fluctuation and deal with arduous imbal-
ance challenges between the demand side and the supply side.
This paper gives a thorough review of the advancement of MG-
oriented energy storage technologies. Key technologies and princi-
ples associated with energy storage, benefits of MG-based applica-
tions, power electronic interfaces, and control strategies including
charging and discharging control as well as power flow control, are
fully elucidated with a view to proposing future trends and re-
search challenges of ES technologies in MG fields.
2. Advances of energy storage technology
Energy storage unit functions as energy buffer or backup to
counteract power imbalance between the supply and the demand
sides. This scheme was initialized in the early stage of power sys-
tems, e.g. as the DC power transmission system was applied in the
late 19th century in New York City, lead-acid batteries were then
adopted to provide power for lighting lamps so as to deenergize

0142-0615/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.07.015
180 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
the generators at night. Some key energy storage technologies
available so far for MG applications are summarized as follows.
2.1. Batteries
Batteries store energy in the electrochemical form, being avail-
able in different size and capacity ranging from less than 100 W to
several megawatts. The estimated overall efficiency of battery stor-
age is in the range from 60% to 80%, depending on the operational
cycle and the electrochemistry type within the batteries. Lead-acid,
Nickel–iron, Nickel–Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel–Metal Hydride
(NiMh) and Lithium Ion batteries are the four principal types of
battery storage suitable for MG implementations. Fig. 1 schemati-
cally shows a steady increase of the energy density of batteries
since the first lead-acid battery was introduced in the mid-19th
century [6].
Lead-acid battery is the most mature and the cheapest energy
storage device of all the battery technologies available. However,
the limited cycling capability of lead acid normally results in unac-
ceptable scenario in economy of the overall system. With a higher
energy density, longer cycle life and lower maintenance require-
ments, NiCd batteries render potential advantages over the Lead-
acid batteries. NiMH batteries are environmentally friendly and
can provide equivalent cycle life as that of the lead-acid batteries,
additionally with capacity increase by 25–40%. Lithium Ion battery
has the highest energy density among the four, but the cost is also
the highest.
Based on models developed in Simulink and HOMER, analysis
was done in Ref. [7] with regard to different battery storage tech-
nologies from a techno-economic point of view, which indicates
NiMH battery is potentially the most competent ES technology in
terms of power output, voltage profile as well as the charge–dis-
charge characteristics, while Lead-acid battery is the most afford-
able one for renewable energy applications compared to NiCd,
NiMH and Li-ion batteries. Generally speaking, due to long life
and relatively low costs but slow response, these kinds of batteries
are ideal for applications with low duty cycles.
2.2. Sodium-sulfur (NaS) batteries
In order to achieve much higher power and energy density,
some novel energy storage technologies are under research. NaS
battery is one of these types and it has already been employed in
power systems for more than 20 projects in Japan and many other
worldwide constructions since 1980s. Compared with the other
Fig. 1. Energy density increase of batteries [6] (source: EPRI 2008).
leading battery technologies, NaS battery shows much more attrac-
tive energy density (four times that of lead-acid battery) and much
lower cost. NaS battery also has a long cycle capability (2500 plus
cycles upon 90% depth of discharge, or several hundred thousand
cycles at 10% depth of discharge) and a millisecond response for
full charging and discharging operation, which presents good
potentials to be applied in MG for power regulations.
This technology is widely recognized for high cell efficiency up
to 89% without self-discharge, minimal maintenance and long cell
life up to 15 years. NaS batteries are made of abundant low cost
materials that are suitable for high volume mass production. Mod-
ular fabrication potentially yields high power and energy capabil-
ity, which also reduces the construction intervals [8]. However,
large capacity in a single cell and reliable operation at high temper-
ature of 300 centigrade are still the main obstacles in manufactur-
ing process.
NaS battery can be widely used in aggregated energy storage.
China has recently declared an installation of the first industrial
NaS battery station (100 kW/800 kW h) in the world Expo 2010
Shanghai, as shown in Fig. 2, and hence becomes the second coun-
try who has mastered the large scale manufacturing technology for
industrial applications.
2.3. Flywheel energy storage (FES)
A FES unit stores electrical energy in the form of rotational ki-
netic energy. It makes use of electrical energy to rotate a rotor at
a very high speed preferably for providing short term energy boost
(10–30 s), as shown in Fig. 3.
In addition to a much higher power density than the other tech-
nologies, a flywheel energy storage system (FESS) is also attractive
in other aspects: FES is environmentally friendly and can be used
with almost unlimited number of charging cycles. A high-speed
FESS rated 1000 kW (15 min) or even larger is being deployed in
the USA power grid for frequency regulation, and research on some
micro-scale FESS (MFESS) is also underway so as to be used as aux-
iliary power sources [9].
The disadvantages of a FESS lie in difficulty in storage expan-
sion, large dimension size, low energy density and high standby
loss.
2.4. Supercapacitor
Supercapacitor is also named ultracapacitor or electric double
layer capacitor (EDLC). It stores energy in the two series capacitors
of the electric double layer (EDL), which is formed between each of
Fig. 2. The first NaS battery station in China.
 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
the electrodes and the electrolyte ions. Without chemical process,
electrical energy can be stored directly and thus the response time
is very small. The capacitance and energy density of these devices
are thousands of times larger than that of the electrolytic capaci-
tors. Compared with Lead-acid battery, a supercapacitor has lower
energy density but longer cycles for tens of thousands of times, and
is much more powerful than batteries for fast charge and discharge
capability. Now many companies can offer supercapacitors ranging
from 5 F to 2700 F, rated at 2.5 VDC per cell. A single cell storage
amounts to 3 or 4 W h/kg [11].
With a low cell voltage, multiple cells must be connected in ser-
ies for a typical 48 V DC application, which may give rise to a prob-
lem of imbalanced cell current and voltage during charging. Also,
the cost is about five times bigger than that of Lead-acid battery.
Supercapacitors of high voltage (100–400 VDC) and energy density
over 20 kW h/m3 are still under development.
The power quality events and issues caused by nonlinear loads
and random behavior of the micro-sources within a MG, such as
instantaneous element failure, voltage swells and voltage sags,
may render unique features of short transients and high frequency,
which creates application potentials for the short-term ESS like
supercapacitors to quickly absorb or release large volume energy
in a very short time.
2.5. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)
In a SMES unit, energy is stored in a magnetic field created by
the DC flow in a superconducting coil. The system has very high
efficiency, up to approximately 95%. The most important advan-
tage of the SMES is very short time delay during either charge or
discharge process. The power output is available almost instanta-
neously and large capacity can be achieved. Due to self-require-
ment of power for refrigeration and high cost of superconducting
wires, SMES systems are currently used just for short duration en-
ergy storage [12].
Small-scale or micro-SMES becomes an important ESS in nowa-
days distributed power grid or MG. With flexible ability to ex-
change active and reactive power, SMES can be specifically used
to ameliorate local power quality, such as power factor improve-
ment, frequency stabilization and UPS implementation.
Based on the above description, the key features of several typ-
ical ESSs are listed in Table 1 for reference and a concise
comparison.
There are still some other competent energy storage technolo-
gies presently drawing many researchers’ attention, such as com-
pressed air energy storage (CAES), redox flow battery, fuel cell
and thermal energy storage, which can be ESS alternatives to be
utilized in a MG.
Fig. 3. Typical structure of a FESS unit [10].
181
3. Benefits of ESS in mg-based applications
Despite much similarity in functions, there are still apparent
differences between the MG-scale energy storage and the grid-
scale energy storage applications.
In the utility grid, there are five storage applications that have
good potentials to benefit power system planning and operations:
area and frequency regulation, renewables grid integration, trans-
mission and distribution upgrade deferral and substitution, load
following and electric energy time shift [18]. Area and frequency
regulation and certain aspects of renewables grid integration be-
long to short-duration power management applications, while
transmission and distribution upgrade deferral and substitution,
load following and electric energy time shift belong to long-dura-
tion energy management applications. For grid applications, large
energy capacity and power density energy storage technology is
indispensable. However, due to economic reasons and technology
limitation, only pumped hydro storage accounts for the majority
proportion of the storage in grid applications, approximately 3%
of the global generation capacity. According to the U.S. DOE Energy
Storage Database [19], Advanced Lead Acid Battery, Lithium Ion
Battery, Ice Thermal Storage, Zinc Bromine Redox Flow Battery
and Vanadium Redox Flow Battery are gradually used in energy
storage projects either recently operational or under construction.
The high cost of many nowadays storage technologies, such as
supercapacitors, high-speed flywheels and SMES, is the major
obstacle to production scale-up and integration of the storage de-
vices at grid scale. Additionally, the limited storage duration and
energy capacity, such as high-speed flywheels, electrochemical
capacitors and lithium–ion batteries, are too short to meet the cur-
rent requirements from the electric power industry. Device effi-
ciency and lifetime are also significant issues-technologies with
CAES and traditional lead-acid batteries, which are not efficient en-
ough to convince the electric power industry and the regulators of
the potential value of energy storage technologies.
To some extent, energy storage has been added to the utility
grid, however, it is the fundamental component of a MG. The main
role of energy storage in MG is to maintain stability, facilitate inte-
gration of the renewable energy, improve power quality and so on.
Due to relatively small capacity and investment, various energy
storage technologies can be utilized in MG. Besides providing sup-
port for MG, energy storage application in MG sets up a test envi-
ronment for ES topology, model and device study, which may be
further extended to the utility grids. Typical benefits of ESS in
MG-based applications can be concluded as follows.
3.1. Short term power supply
Power unreliability may result in considerable impact on econ-
omy. A study has estimated the outage cost in the United States
amounts to some US$79 billions per year, among which the
momentary outages (<5 min) account for US$52 billions, while
the other outages account for only one third of the cost. Momen-
tary outages are precisely where energy storage is most cost effec-
tive and other solutions are least applicable [20]. A MG may work
at either grid-connected mode or islanded mode. When a failure in
the utility grid is detected or the requirements for power quality
are not satisfied, the MG will be disconnected from the utility grid
and start to operate at islanded mode. Then, the instant power
shortfall as the MG transferring from the grid-connected mode to
the islanded mode can be compensated by the ESS boost. ESS can
implement a seamless transfer of the MG between different modes.
In addition, ESS may acts as emergency power buffer for critical
customers during fault situation, and also facilitates black start of
the entire power systems.
182 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
Table 1
Comparison of several typical ESSs [13–17].
Type Efficiency (%) Energy density (W h/kg)
Battery 60–80 20–200
SMES 95–98 30–100
Flywheel 95 5–50
SuperCap 95 <50
NaS 70 120
3.2. Facilitating integration of RES
Renewable generation will play more and more important role
in the future energy structure. In the Unite States, according to a
DOE report in 2008, wind energy penetration is expected to reach
20% by 2030 [21]. While based on the Renewable portfolio stan-
dards, the amount of renewable generation is required to be 15–
30% in most states by 2020.
As major renewable sources, wind and solar power are normally
intermittent and unstable, resulting in a varying power supply to
the MG. Combination of the energy storages can buffer the renew-
able power output by storing surplus energy during high availabil-
ity and re-dispatching it while there is a power shortage, which
helps to get high penetration of RES in MG [22]. Fig. 4 shows the
performance of a PV plant combined with the NaS battery storage
[23]. As can be seen from Fig. 4, without ESS, the PV power output
cannot be directly dispatched due to its intermittent manner. How-
ever, with energy storage compensation to the fluctuation, any ex-
pected power will be provided upon requirement in a specified
time without considering how much power the DG units may gen-
erate. So the MG can work as a patchable load to exchange power
with the utility gird, while the ESS facilitates optimized operation
of the micro-sources within the MG.
To integrate increased penetration levels of variable RES, MG
will require more fast-start and fast-ramping ESSs to bridge the
generation shortfalls when the intermittent micro-sources are
not operating at their expected output levels. Further studies are
compulsory to determine the appropriate capacity of ESS for an
optimized operation.
3.3. Arbitrage
As time-of-use tariff is widely accepted in many nations, Fig. 5
shows the difference between the average peak and off-peak prices
in the day-ahead energy market in New York City in 2008 [3].
The spread between the peak and off-peak prices represents an
opportunity for resources that can economically store energy for
hours or days, by purchasing power from the grid over night and
then sell that power back into the grid during the peak demand
Fig. 4. Performance of a PV plant with ESS [23] (SOC: State Of Charge).
Power density (W/kg) Response time (ms) Cycle life (time) Cost ($/kW h)
25–1000 30 200–2000 150–1300
1e4–1e5 5 1e6 High
1e3–5e3 5 >20,000 380–2500
4000 5 >50,000 250–350
120 <100 2000 450
hours of the day. So with ES asset in MG, arbitrage can be easily
achieved.
Given the price level of ESS technologies and the overall system
cost, it is presently very challenging to establish an economic jus-
tification for the utilities to store energy with ESS during off-peak
times and re-dispatch this energy later at peak times. ESSs used for
this market normally operate in a diurnal cycle of charge and dis-
charge, for which NaS batteries or CAES can be good options.
3.4. Optimization of microsource in MG
Energy storage with appropriate capacity can play a significant
role for smooth power transition when some DG units are operat-
ing abnormally within a MG. For example, if some DGs are lost,
then a stand-by microsource, such as a microgas-turbine, may
function to boost the loss. As most microsources experience rela-
tively long response time, then ESS is an ideal substitute to provide
a smooth transition.
Even though the energy generated in the MG is stable, some ES
devices are still indispensible because the demand from customers
is constantly changing. Some DERs such as fuel cells must be large
enough to meet the peak demand but which causes high cost. By
storing the surplus energy in the ESS at off-peak times, the re-
quired peak energy can be fulfilled in a short period, which also
helps most DERS to operate at the best efficiency.
3.5. Power quality improvement
MG is expected to dispatch power supply of sound reliability
and high quality. Power quality is critical especially for the sensi-
tive customers. According to a recently published smart gird report
by US DOE, sensitive equipments for industrial processing such as
chips manufacturing have increased sharply. Today, sensitive loads
from chip technologies and automated manufacturing have risen
to 40%, and the loads are expected to increase to more than 60%
by 2015 [24]. In the meantime, a MG must confirm to strict power
quality requirements when being integrated into the utility grid, so
Fig. 5. Peak price vs. off-peak in New York in 2008 [3].
 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
as to maintain a high power factor and suppress the harmonics dis-
tortion, etc.
ESS plays more important role than even before in improving
power quality of the MG. Controlled by power electronics-based
interfaces, ESS works like a power quality regulator to output spec-
ified active or reactive power for customers. Some ESS of instanta-
neous response, such as supercapacitor or FESS, can quickly absorb
or release energy of high density, suitable to tackle transient issues
like instantaneous outage caused probably by system failures, sud-
den voltage swells or sags. Some large capacity ESS like Lead-acid
battery can be used to compensate instant power shortage to
soothe voltage fluctuations [25].
3.6. Ancillary services
Ancillary services normally cover load following, operational re-
serve, frequency regulation and 15 min fast response. Most ancil-
lary services are provided by power plants or large pumped-
hydro energy storage. With rapid development of renewable gen-
eration, a MG composed of large DERs such as wind turbine and/
or PV, may implement ancillary services with the integration of
large ESS.
As is well known, the key contribution to grid stability is from
control power (CP) [26], which is mainly supplied from conven-
tional power plants. With high penetration of renewable energy,
some large conventional power plants will be shut down, so there
needs something to take over this responsibility. To deliver posi-
tive CP, the ESS in a MG can discharge and supply energy to the
grid. If the ESS absorbs energy from the grid and charges itself, then
the MG is delivering negative CP. From market point of view, a
storage management system (SMS) is needed in the MG to monitor
the stream of energy storage.
4. ESS access technology to mg
4.1. Energy storage system configuration
There are two typical configurations of ESS in a MG, the aggre-
gated and the distributed, as shown in Fig. 6. For the first type, all
ESSs are aggregated as one ESS and connected to the MG terminal,
while the power flow from DERs to the PCC (point of common con-
nection) bus can be kept at a specified value.
All the capacity of an aggregated ESS can be used to soothe
power flow fluctuations [27,28]. The aggregated ESS is partly ap-
proved to have a superior performance to the distributed ESS at
the same capacity.
The aggregated ESS configuration is usually connected to the AC
bus of a MG, where a DC/AC converter becomes necessary to inter-
face with the AC system. For a FES unit charging and discharging
power by an induction machine at a variable speed, an AC/DC/AC
converter interface is thereby compulsory, while for a SMES unit
Fig. 6. Typical ESS configuration.
183
or capacitor storage, a DC/DC chopper is required before the volt-
age source converter (VSC).
If the energy storage capacity increases, both manufacture and
control of the ESS become difficult and cost ineffective. It is then
possible to use small-scale and distributed energy storage to
achieve flexible and efficient power regulation.
For the distributed ESS configuration, ESS units are directly cou-
pled to individual DERs with various interfaces. For wind turbine
generators (WTGs) at variable speed, a full rated AC/DC/AC inter-
face is necessary with regard to the permanent magnet synchro-
nous machine (PMSM), while a DC/DC interface will work for the
variable speed doubly fed induction machine (DFIG). Generally, a
DC/DC chopper is simpler and cheaper than a DC/AC converter.
An advantage of separately connecting each pair of DER and ESS
to the grid lies in that, power electronics interface in each pair can
be optimized to reduce the cost and maximize the efficiency. These
systems tend to be simple since they only have to deal with a sin-
gle type of source. One disadvantage of the distributed configura-
tion is that, the power produced by the DERs has to be carried by
the transmission lines before being stored by the ESS, which ne-
gates the reduced power flows on the line as well as the new line
construction deferral advantages. However, though the power
electronics interfaces for both DER and ESS can be individually
optimized, the storage process still suffers losses for both inter-
faces as well as for the line impedances between the two facilities.
In future MG, a mixture of the aggregated and distributed ESS
might be a preferable solution.
4.2. Power electronics interface for ESS
Unlike other converters that operate only when the primary
source is available, the interface for ESS will operate continuously
to support the MG for a long period. Therefore, reliability and effi-
ciency are the key issues to be considered in choosing topologies of
the converters.
There are usually three types of MG, namely line frequency MG,
high frequency MG and DC MG, which correspondingly needs dif-
ferent ways to ESS access. As most ESSs have a DC link or can be
transformed to DC, all ESSs below are assumed to be DC sources
for convenience.
4.2.1. Interface for line frequency MG
With regard to different transformer, two typical ESS interfaces
may be adopted [29]. The first case is shown in Fig. 7, where a bidi-
rectional DC/DC converter accomplishes the power flow between
the ESS and the DC bus with a high frequency transformer. Due
to complexity of the topology that incorporates both a DC/DC con-
verter and an inverter, the cost of the whole system will increase
considerably. In addition to small size, low weight and high effi-
ciency of the topology, the prominent advantage is that, the instan-
taneous power that flows in the AC side as well as in the battery
side can be controlled separately and therefore a decoupled control
can be realized.
The direct connection of the inverter to the MG implies an inev-
itable DC current flow, which will increase the thermal stress of
some MG components and loads. Therefore, the inverter control
must include a current loop to reduce the DC component below a
certain level. Also, the inverter’s DC bus has a bulky capacitor (tens
of thousands of lF) to ensure a very low DC voltage ripple.
The second configuration is shown in Fig. 8, where the ESS is di-
rectly connected to the inverters’ DC bus while a low frequency
(50 Hz) transformer is used to boost up the required voltage level.
The main advantage lies in simplicity of the configuration, how-
ever, high cost and low efficiency exist because of the transformer
though it is preferred to provide isolation and leakage inductance
for the output filter.
184 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
DC<->AC
ESS
HF TRANSFORMER
Fig. 7. ESS interface type 1.
ESS
INVERTER 50Hz TRANSFORMER
Fig. 8. ESS interface type 2.
4.2.2. Interface for DC MG
The DERs and the ESS can simply be connected to the common
DC bus through separate DC/DC converters. The usage of combined
multiport converter presents advantages of low cost, high effi-
ciency and reliability over the original separate converter system.
One of the possible topologies of multiport converter is shown in
Fig. 9, where a buck-boost converter is used for high voltage ESS,
while for DER and low voltage ESS, a boost converter will be uti-
lized. However, the system in Fig. 9 is difficult to expand [30],
which relies on combination of original common parts and leaves
no place to include additional sources without redesign.
4.3. Composite energy storage system (CESS)
In MG stability control, to buffer low frequency oscillations and
compensate the intermittency of the RES, ES with high energy den-
sity is required. To provide high frequency component and to sup-
ply or absorb high power transients, ES with high power density is
required. However, both high energy density and high power den-
sity are seldom available in a single storage unit. Hence, a CESS
may be used. Several methods for CESS are summarized as follows.
4.3.1. Multi-module technique
Many DERs and ESSs must be connected in series and in parallel
in order to achieve high power and voltage requirements, where
modular design is the best approach. Bidirectional DC/DC convert-
ers, such as phase shift controlled dual active bridge (DAB) con-
verter and dual half bridge (DHB) converter, are promising in
modular power converter synthesis. The isolation between the
ESS and the loads is realized by a high frequency transformer. With
a high switching frequency, the size of filter capacitors and the iso-
lation transformer can be drastically reduced. Therefore, DAB
(DHB) can be chosen as basic module in the proposed scheme [31].
Several typical combination forms are shown in Fig. 10, in
which (a), (b), (c) and (f) are suitable for single input, while (d)
Fig. 9. Multi-port interface for DC MG.
AC<->DC MG
INVERTER FILTER
MG
Fig. 10. Typical modular design.
and (e) are used for multiple input. These topologies are targeted
at applications with different demands in inputs and outputs. In
actual applications, more modules and flexible combinations may
be adopted for special conditions.
4.3.2. Expansion of multi-port technology
As mentioned above, the multi-port converter in Fig. 9 is diffi-
cult to expand, so some new topologies are proposed. The system
incorporates unidirectional boost converters for PV arrays and
bidirectional buck-boost converters for ESS, and connects them in
parallel at their outputs. DC–DC converters can simply be con-
nected at the terminals of the common DC bus, and the system will
thereby operate normally since all the DC–DC converters can work
independently and do not interfere with the other converters in
the system [32]. As the configuration showed in Fig. 11, only boost
and buck-boost converter are incorporated. In fact, based on a gen-
erally combined topology of a DC-link and the magnetic coupling,
many other converters can also be combined to form new style of
multiport converters.
Fig. 12 shows another multi-port converter topology. Several
similar parts are coupled together by a multi-winding high fre-
quency transformer, with one winding of the high frequency trans-
former connects the HF link in the MG. V1 may be a DER or a
voltage source energy storage, and V1.x (x = 1, 2. . .k) is an ESS,
while C1A and C1B are the capacitors needed in both the DC bus
and the converter. The structure combines four basic converters,
namely buck-boost, boost-half-bridge, half bridge and full bridge
converters [33]. The system is open to expand and many common
components can be incorporated, with reduced weight and low
cost.
5. Control methodology
5.1. Charge/discharge control
ESS needs specific charge/discharge control strategies. Some
ESSs with unlimited energy capacities, such as batteries or sup-
ercapacitors, may cause overcharge and over discharge problems
 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
Fig. 11. Multi-port converter for DC bus.
Fig. 12. A multi-port converter coupled by a high frequency transformer.
or even failure in power compensation. Hence, control of ESSs’
state of charge (SoC) is necessary in a MG.
5.1.1. Batteries/supercapacitors
In order to achieve long lifetime, maximum output and optimal
efficiency, batteries/supercapacitors must be charged or dis-
charged according to the manufacturers’ recommendations. For
example, traditional lead-acid batteries require a long (several
hours), low-current finish charge to remove sulfation from the lead
plates. When compensating power fluctuations of the MG, the bat-
tery ESS may often work at partial state of charge (PSOC). PSOC
operation of low efficiency occurs when a battery is less than fully
discharged and then less than fully recharged before being dis-
charged again. Depth of discharge (DoD) has much to do with bat-
tery life-cycle. So advanced battery/supercapacitor management
system should be developed to address the charge and discharge
issues.
Constant current charging and constant voltage charging are
two classic charge modes being widely utilized in batteries and
supercapacitors. Hysteresis current feedback control strategy be-
gins to be used in constant current charging, while voltage and cur-
rent double-loop control is used in constant voltage charging [34].
For discharge control of ESS, voltage and current double-loop
scheme is also needed.
Due to nonlinear behavior of the charging/discharging process,
many intelligent control methods such as fuzzy control, neural
network and self-adaptive control, will present good performance
for charging and discharging. Some problems should also be care-
fully considered, including cell parameter variation, imbalanced
charging, interaction between charging and discharging process,
ESS aging problem, etc.
185
5.1.2. FESS
The charging/discharging process of a FESS unit is quite differ-
ent from that of batteries or supercapacitors. A FESS unit is com-
posed of a flywheel, a motor/generator and a power electronics
system. The control of the FESS is just as that of the motors in fly-
wheel, for which many advanced control technology such as vector
control and DTC can be used.
Some hybrid control methods have been studied for charging
control of the FESS. At early stage, maximum torque control is used
to start the motor quickly and the current is also constrained. At
the speed tuning stage, fuzzy and PID control give a good solution.
At the setting stage, minimum power is provided to compensate
the energy loss (such as those from air friction). As regards the dis-
charging process, both voltage and current is regulated in the PI
loop. As power flows out of the flywheel, the voltage will be de-
creased to stabilize the DC bus voltage, and the converter will be
operated as a boost rectifier.
5.1.3. Hybrid ESS
The control strategy for a hybrid ESS is much complicated. In
addition to individual charge/discharge, power flow distribution
and characteristics of the ESS should be considered. For example,
when batteries and supercapacitors are combined together to sup-
ply load demand, supercapacitors can provide peak power with a
faster response than the battery, but it lasts shorter than the bat-
tery. Hence, the batteries discharge or charge slowly, but meet
the steady demand, while the supercapacitors can supply excess
transient and peak power to limit the current of the batteries
[35]. In that case, two individual loops are needed for control of
both the batteries and the supercapacitors.
5.1.4. ESS with DG
ESS and DG are the key components to achieve high efficiency
operation in the MG. Some advanced control strategies are brought
forward, one of which is called hybrid control system, including
cascaded SoC control and local control [36].
As mentioned above, SoC is fed back to the ESS unit via a con-
troller such as PI controller, which is the conventional method
named autonomous SoC control. However, this method adds a bias
on the ESS’s output and may result in deterioration of the tie line’s
power quality.
In the cascaded control method [37], shown in Fig. 13, the ESS’s
SoC info is given to the upper DG in the cascaded control system.
Since the ESS’s output reference is dependent on the upper DG’s
output, the ESS itself can compensate the bias. In other words,
the ESS’s SoC control is achieved by compensation of the artificial
biases made by the upper DG. Thus, the tie line power flow will
not be affected by SoC control.
To solve the delay problem in the cascaded control, the ESS that
has the fastest response (EDLC) will be controlled locally, only with
the data of the tie line power flow and its reference value.
When the load demand increases, the ESS will compensate the
demand immediately with a rapid response time, but the energy
capacity is limited in the ESS, then a DG with enough energy capac-
ity but lower reaction speed will gradually take over the duty of
compensation. As shown in Fig. 14, the ESS and the DG can coop-
erate very well.
Some other advanced control technologies have also been pro-
posed. In Ref. [38], fuzzy logic is used in deciding how to modify
the storage output power. The decisions are made based upon a list
of rules which take into account the response times and the energy
states of the storage levels. In the rules-based method [39], a short-
term storage device is used to compensate fast power fluctuations
while a long-term storage device assists in the following long-term
operation. A knowledge-based control algorithm is used [40] for
the operation of a two-level (short-term ESS and medium-term
186 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191

ESS) energy storage system intended for wind energy applications.

Also, Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is also introduced in [41] to
decompose the imbalanced power into multiple time-varying
components. Therefore, the imbalanced power to be compensated
by energy storage can be quantified. Low pass filters as well as the
moving average filtering method are also effective ways to sepa-
rate the imbalanced power.

5.2. Power flow control in composite energy storage

Multi-port and modular topology is widely used in the compos-

ite energy storage. For examples, DAB or DHB converter may be se-
lected as the basic cells, and the power transfer between different
ports is achieved by phase shifting the voltage across the primary
and secondary sides of the high-frequency transformer. As shown
in Fig. 15. In phase shift control strategy, different ports generate
symmetric square wave of the same frequency, but with different
phase positions. With this phase difference, inductor current will
be different so as to control the power and direction, which mod-
ulation also helps soft switching and further lowers the switching
loss [42]. In phase shift control, the voltages on different parts
should be compatible. Once the voltages are not equal, then the
current stress and loss will be increased, then in the phase shift
control system, PWM control scheme is brought in as to keep the
voltage amplitude on either port to be equal, just like an electronic
transformer [43].
The control scheme of one port is shown in Fig. 16. We assume
the DC bus voltage in the port linked to MG as the voltage reference
to be controlled. The DC voltage Vg (reference from the Microgrid
port) is regulated to adjust the duty cycle and keep the voltage
compatible. The power flow of the energy storage in one port is cal-
culated by upper energy management and compared as to regulate
the phase angle. Also, SOC (state of charge) is necessary to keep en-
ergy storage working under a limited zone.
5.3. Power management
The control of active and reactive power is an important task in
ESS control scheme. According to grid stability theory, when the
grid is inductive, the frequency vs. active power and voltage vs.
Fig. 14. The principle of hybrid control [37].
reactive power relationships are independent droop curves, so
the V/Q droop curve is utilized to control the reactive power. How-
ever the droop characteristics will bring a small voltage deviation
in the steady state. Also, the X/R in a MG is much smaller than that
in the utility grid, so this method is not widely accepted so far.
According to the PQ theory, a balanced three-phase power grid
can be transformed into a rotating d–q coordinate system, hence,
usq = 0 and usd = Us are met, then id ¼ ð1=usd ÞP and iq ¼ ð1=usd ÞQ
are tenable, where id denotes the active current while iq denotes
the reactive current. So id and iq are decoupled to respectively con-
trol the active and reactive power, the principle for which is pre-
sented in Fig. 17.
6. Trends and challenges of energy storage technology
6.1. Optimal configuration of ESS
The benefits of ESS have been verified by both theory and prac-
tice, however, there still lacks effective way to optimize ESS config-
uration especially for MG-based applications. The key issues may
include: how to arrange ESS location and capacity, what kind of

Fig. 13. A hybrid control system [37].

 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
Fig. 15. The principle of phase shift PWM control.
ESS is optimal, how to assess the impacts of ESS on the MG, etc.
Generally, to effectively configure an ESS, proper models, tools
and software should be developed.
6.1.1. Model
A report called ‘‘electrical energy storage systems –a mission to
the USA’’, published in December 2006 by the British Department
of Trade and Industry (DTI), declared many related facts [20].
One of the surprising results of this mission was that, the visited
utilities stated that very little were undertaken on detailed model-
ing of the integration and impact of energy storage devices on the
network, although several utility-scale demonstration systems are
currently being appraised. Instead, the utilities relied on the ven-
dor (i.e. the ESS manufacturer or a third-party system integrator)
to undertake such studies and provide assurances that the ESS
would meet a performance specification produced by the utility.
It is critical to develop models that can be used to conduct a
strategic, wide-area analysis of storage systems to investigate the
effects and value of energy storage for use in grid applications.
These models should assess the impact of energy storage on gener-
ation, transmission, distribution, and end-use applications and
compare the cost (e.g. installation and maintenance), emissions,
materials availability, efficiency, system lifetime, and cycle life of
energy storage to other conventional and advanced solutions. More
importantly, the models need to demonstrate the value of energy
storage under varying load conditions in comparison to other types
of transmission.
Until now, there are both non-commercial and commercial
model available, some typical non-commercial models include:
HOMER; ReEDS; NEMS; RETScreen, and EnergyPlus. Commercial
models include: GE MAPS; the Ventyx-ProMod and System Opti-
mizer; Power World; Energy2020; IPM, and Dynastore [44]. By
comparison, none of models has all of the important characteristics
all in one software package that would allow assessment of energy
storage in the smart grid frame of reference. Additionally, none of
ies
Fig. 16. Control scheme of phase shift PWM in one port of the multi-port composite
ESS.
187
these models is specifically focused on optimizing storage. Instead,
they are used for calculating system capacity, transmission model-
ing and/or generation source placement.
There are many available algorithms and models that attempt
to predict ESS performance and lifetime, but these models still
need to be further verified [45]. For example, to evaluate the reli-
ability of ESS, a system risk model must be established before
the system can be quantitatively assessed with appropriate risk
indices. The risk indices, such as loss of load expectation (LOLE)
and loss of energy expectation (LOEE), must be carefully chosen
and quantized. So the modeling task is not just confined to ESS it-
self but a systematic methodology, involving accurate modeling
and software analysis.
6.1.2. Software and tools
A key challenge in understanding and selecting feasible energy
storage for MG applications lies in the uncertainty of the benefits of
energy storage applications and the total cost/performance of the
available and emerging technologies. Software-based modeling
and simulation tools contribute much to a successful system anal-
ysis. Various ESS models are put forward by different companies or
organizations [46], for example, Maxwell Technologies and Ansoft
have jointly developed a model of the super-capacitor for the An-
soft product Simplorer, EPRI has funded Power Technologies Inter-
national (PTI) to develop SMES and battery models for PSS/E, and
EPRI has also produced a bespoke model for evaluating the benefit
of employing energy storage called DYNATRAN (Dynamic Analysis
of Interconnected Systems with Energy Storage), which employs
Monte Carlo simulation to study unit commitment/dispatch.
The state-of-the-art simulation tools being applied in feasibility
studies worldwide include ES-Select, PLATOS Hybrid2, Homer,
IPSYS and MATLAB/Simulink, etc. For example, ES-Select is a
sophisticated, highly interactive, decision-support model that han-
dles uncertainties in cost, benefits, cycle life, efficiency, discharge
duration and other parameters [47], while PLATOS has been devel-
oped to optimize the application of storage systems in electrical
distribution networks with distributed energy resources [48].
However, many existing models and tools are quite limited in
functions, and consider energy storage in more limited environ-
ments. Yet some specific ESS model is still unavailable. Despite
the range and quality of these resources, no models or tools were
found that specifically deal with sizing and locating energy storage
under any optimality criterion that would be useful for infrastruc-
ture development.
6.2. Novel energy storage technologies
Presently only 2.5% of the total electric power delivered in the
United States passes through energy storage, almost all of which
188 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
udcref udc
i dref +
PI
Power - dq0
&voltag iqref
e loop
PI
+ abc
+
- +
P ref Q ref
- +
ωL ωL
id
iq
Fig. 17. The principle for decoupled power control.
is pumped hydro storage [49]. Energy storage is poised to grow
from $1.5 billion in 2010 to a $35 billion industry by 2020 [50].
The biggest challenge of large scale application just lies in ESS it-
self. Most of ESSs are far too expensive, and the ESS performance
is not ideal enough to realize good economy, long-life and clean
storage.
Research and development in advanced materials and devices
has the potential to overcome many of the economic, technical
performance, and design barriers that are currently preventing en-
ergy storage devices from meeting the needs of the electric power
industry. Strategic materials selection and innovative system de-
signs will strongly prompt the development of energy storage.
6.2.1. Advanced lead-acid
Lead-acid batteries offer a tremendous opportunity for exten-
sive use if their life could be significantly extended in cycling appli-
cations. Advanced lead-acid batteries seem to be the potential
answer. By adding as much as 40% of activated carbon to the neg-
ative electrode composition will greatly increase the batteries’ life-
time [51]. Estimates of a cycling life improvement up to 2000
cycles represent a three to four times improvement over the cur-
rent lead-acid designs. The extended life combined with lower cost
will lead storage developers to revisit lead-acid technology for MG
applications.
6.2.2. CNT supercapacitors
Researchers at MIT are using carbon nanotubes to increase the
surface area of the supercapacitor’s energy storage material by
‘‘more than an order of magnitude’’ [52]. Nanotechnology is being
applied at laboratory level to implement, in the near future, a new
family of more powerful supercapacitors. A one square centimeter
conductive plate covered in the carbon used in conventional sup-
ercapacitors has a surface area of about 2000 square centimeters,
while the carbon nanotubes coating boasts about 50,000 square
centimeters. The extremely high surface area of the nanotubes,
the researchers discovered, greatly enhances the supercapacitor’s
life span and ability to store energy. The expected specific energy
should be as high as a Ni–Cd or Ni–MH batteries (60 W h/kg), with
a specific power of more than 10 kW/kg. This value represents
more than twofold the typical value of a battery (100 W/kg). The
ESS
+ ucd
+ PWM
ucq inverter
+ usd dq0
+ usq
uabc
abc
dq0
iabc
abc
A
B
C
expected cycle-life of this supercapacitor could be more than
300,000 [11].
6.2.3. Cutting-edge technologies
In addition to the technologies discussed above, several novel
technologies are also being developed [51], such as Metal–air bat-
teries, Na–ion batteries, new types of Na/S cells, new Li–ion chem-
istries with improved performance and safety characteristics,
advanced lead–carbon batteries, ultra-batteries that combines a
VRLA battery with an electrochemical capacitor, new flow battery
couples, new type CAES including Above-ground CAES and Mini-
CAES, etc.
Apart from new materials research, advanced electrochemical
combinations, innovative membranes and seals, advanced control
systems and power electronics are also essential to provide effi-
cient ES for MG.
The new generation ESS will pursue even higher energy density
and power density, extended lifetime and cycle-life, much smaller
charge–discharge cycle-time, more reliable operation and less cost,
which will be a great help in future MG.
6.3. Hybrid ESS and management
ESSs are different in power density, energy density, response
time and cost, however, a hybrid ESS will integrate most advanta-
ges. There are many hybrid structures, such as battery with EDLC,
FC with battery or EDLC, CAES with battery or EDLC, battery with
FESS and battery with SMES. A hybrid ESS coordinated together
with DGs in the MG will give even higher efficiency than separate
operation.
The principal problem lies in how to configure and control these
ESSs, including charge/discharge control, power flow optimization,
etc. Now if-then-else strategy is widely used in engineering design,
while cascaded control, fuzzy control and knowledge-based ad-
vanced control are still under research.
6.4. Smart ESS
As an infrastructure of smart grid, ESS should be even ‘‘smarter’’
in the future. So far very few people have given a definite meaning
 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191
Fig. 18. The configuration of smart ESS.
of smart storage, though some researchers think a smart storage
system is composed of Stochastic Source Module, Short Term Stor-
age Module and Medium/Long Term Storage Module [53]. In fact,
this system is just a hybrid energy storage system, maybe one fea-
ture of a smart storage. Then, what a real smart ESS could be?
A smart ESS will be a unified platform, besides ESS, power elec-
tronics interfaces, high efficient energy management systems, con-
trol systems, HMIs (human machine interface) and communication
interfaces for interconnection with upper controllers, should all be
incorporated [54]. With well-established software and tools, the
smart ESS can be used flexibly in future smart grid just like a plug
& play equipment linked to a computer. The configuration of a
smart ESS is drawn in Fig. 18.
The integrated power conditioning systems for PV generation,
proposed by the U.S. DOE Solar Energy Program [55], which include
inverters, energy management systems, control systems and provi-
sions for energy storage, can be a rudiment of smart ESS in the
future.
A smart ESS may also lie in properly integrating ESSs with other
smart grid devices, such as FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Sys-
tems) and DERs. The integration of an ESS into FACTS devices can
provide independent active and reactive power absorption/injec-
tion into/from the grid, leading to a more economical and/or flex-
ible transmission controller [56]. The independent control of active
and reactive power with an ESS/FACTS system makes it an ideal
candidate for many types of power system applications, including
voltage control and oscillation damping. FACTS being integrated
Fig. 19. Typical topology of ESS/FACTS integration.
189
with ESS actually becomes an enhanced ESS equipment to provide
advanced power regulation. There are many application areas, such
as DVR [57], DSTATCOM and Active Power Filter, as shown in
Fig. 19.
When an ESS is incorporated with DERs, such as wind turbines
or PV modules, it helps to compensate the power fluctuation and
intermittence, and also helps prompt the ability of LVRT (Low Volt-
age Ride Through) and Storm ride through, as well as improve the
efficiency of the PV modules. Smart ESS technology will play a very
significant role in future’s smart grid.
6.5. Further applications
Compared with AC distribution system, DC supply shows many
advantages, such as lower insulation demand, less line cost, no
flicker with lighting and simpler to use. DC bus in a MG with inte-
gration of the ESS can supply a steady and high quality DC supply.
According to United States Environmental Protection Agency
(US EPA), US buildings cost 39% of the total energy while consume
68% of the total electricity [58]. Buildings now cost too much en-
ergy; however, renewable sources are still hard to be integrated
into buildings. Also, a lot of modern electrical apparatus are prone
to use DC sources or inverters. So DC building may be an effective
way for energy saving and emission reduction in the future. ESS
can easily access to DC buildings by DC/DC converters.
Electric vehicles (EVs) is another important area of ESS applica-
tions in the future. A MG will be impacted by a growing penetra-
tion of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and EVs, which
represents a new dimension for MG management and vast
amounts of energy storage will be presented in the grid in the form
of millions of electric cars. Some scientists even propose V2G
Fig. 20. MG and its future applications [59].
190 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191

(Vehicle to Grid) technology, the main purpose of which is to use [25] Wei Huang, Xin Wang, Jiahuan Guo et al. Discussion on application of super
capacitor energy storage system in microgrid. In: International conference on
massive ESS in EVs to provide buffering between the RES and the
sustainable power generation and supply; 2009. p. 1–4.
grid. A schematic show of a future MG is given in Fig. 20. The inter- [26] Voller S, Al-Awaad A-R, Verstege JF. Wind farms with energy storages
actions between ESS, DC buildings, EVs, MG and the utility grid, do integrated at the control power market. In: CIGRE/IEEE.PES joint sympo;
need further research. 2009. p. 1–13.
[27] Li Wei, Joós Géza. Comparison of energy storage system technologies and
configurations in a wind farm. In: IEEE power electronics specialists
conference; 2007. p. 1280–85.
7. Conclusion [28] Kook Kyung Soo, McKenzie Keith J, Liu Yilu et al. A study on applications of
energy storage for the wind power operation in power systems. In: IEEE Power
Energy storage systems (ESSs) play an important role as power engineering society general meeting; 2006. p. 1–5.
[29] Serban I, Marinescu C. A look at the role and main topologies of battery energy
buffers in MG. A thorough review is done in this paper to fully ac-
storage systems for integration in autonomous microgrids. 12th International
count for the state-of-the-art advancements of ESS and MG-based conference on optimization of electrical and electronic equipment; 2010. p.
applications, covering principles and topologies, power electronics 1186–91.
interfaces, control strategies and new emerging issues. Future [30] Carr JA, Balda JC, Mantooth HA. A survey of system to integrate distributed
energy resources and energy storage on the utility grid. In: IEEE energy 2030;
trends and challenges of ESS are also proposed, especially for hy- 2008. p. 1–7.
brid ESS technologies and the promising smart ESS, which forms [31] Zhou Haihua, Bhattacharya Tanmoy, Khambadkone Ashwin M. Composite
the research emphasis in the near future. energy storage system using dynamic energy management in microgrid
applications. In: International power electronics conference; 2010. p.
1163–68.
References [32] Kwasinski Alexis, Krein Philip T. A microgrid based telecom power system
using modular multiple system using modular multiple-input dc input DC–DC
converters. In: 27th International telecommunications conference; 2005. p.
[1] Lee Kyebyung, Son KM, Gilsoo Jang. Smart storage system for seamless
515–20.
transition of customers with intermittent renewable energy sources into
[33] Tao H, Kotsopoulos A, Duarte JL, Hendrix MAM. Family of multiport
microgrid. In: 31st International telecommunications energy conference;
bidirectional DC–DC converters. IEE Proc – Electric Power Appl
2009. p. 1–5.
2006;153(3):451–8.
[2] Asmus Peter. Microgrids distributed energy systems for campus, military,
[34] Xue Jinhui, Yin Zhongdong, Wu Bingbing et al. Technology research of novel
remote, community, and commercial & industrial power applications: market
energy storage control for the PV generation system. In: Power and energy,
analysis and forecasts. Pike Report; 2012.
engineering conference; 2009. p. 1–4.
[3] Allen Avid, Brown Chris, Hickey John, Le Vinh, Safuto Robert. Energy storage in
[35] Zhang Yu, Jiang Zhenhua, Yu Xunwei. Control strategies for battery/
the New York electricity markets. A New York ISO white paper; 2010.
supercapacitor hybrid energy storage systems. In: IEEE Energy 2030
[4] Sofla Mohammadhassan Abdollahi, Gharehpetian Gevorg B. Dynamic
conference; 2008. p. 1–6.
performance enhancement of microgrids by advanced sliding mode
[36] Kawachi S, Baba J, Kikuchi T et al. State of charge control for energy storage by
controller. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2011;33(4):1–7.
use of cascade control system for microgrid. In: International conference on
[5] Al-Saedi Waleed, Lachowicz Stefan W, Habibi Daryoush, Bass Octavian. Power
clean electrical power; 2009. p. 370–75.
quality enhancement in autonomous microgrid operation using particle
[37] Kawachi S, Baba J, Hagiwara H et al. Energy capacity reduction of energy storage
swarm optimization. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst 2012;42(1):139–49.
system in microgrid stabilized by cascade control system. In: 13th European
[6] Roberts Bradford. Capturing grid power. IEEE Trans Power Energy
conference on power electronics and applications; 2009. p. T11-52–58.
2009;7(4):32–41.
[38] Leclercq Ludovic, Robyns Benoit, Grave Jean-Michel. Control based on fuzzy
[7] Garimella N, Nair N-KC. Assessment of battery energy storage systems for
logic of flywheel energy storage system associated with wind and diesel
small-scale renewable energy integration. In: IEEE TENCON; 2009. p. 1–6.
generators. Mathematics Comput Simul 2003;63:271–80.
[8] Yang Bo, Makarov Y, Desteese J et al. On the use of energy storage technologies
[39] Strunz K, Brock EK. Stochastic energy source access management:
for regulation services in electric power systems with significant penetration
infrastructure integrative modular plant for sustainable hydrogen-electric-
of wind energy. In: 5th International conference on European electricity
generation. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2006;31:1129–41.
market; 2008. p. 1–6.
[40] Abbey C, Strunz K, Joos G. A knowledge-based approach for control of two-
[9] Available from: http://www.electricitystorage.org/ESA/applications/.
level energy storage for wind energy systems. IEEE Trans Energy Conversion
[10] Dixon J. Energy storage for electric vehicles. In: IEEE international conference
2009;24(2):539–47.
on industrial technology; 2010. p. 20–6.
[41] Yuri Makarov, Pengwei Du, Michael CW Kintner-Meyer, et al. Optimal size of
[11] Kusko A, DeDad J. Stored energy-short-term and long-term energy storage
energy storage to accommodate high penetration of renewable resources in
methods for standby electric power systems. IEEE Trans Ind Appl
WECC system. In: Innovative smart grid technologies; 2010. p. 1–5.
2007;13(4):66–72.
[42] Huang Haihong, Wang Haixin, Gao Ge, et al. Application of phase-shift PWM in
[12] Ridgers TJ, Boucey C, Frambach JP et al. Challenges in integrating distributed
east fast control power supply. IEEE Trans Appl Supercond 2011;20:1671–5.
energy storage systems into future smart grid. In: IEEE radio and wireless,
[43] Zhou Haihua, Bhattacharya Tanmoy, Tran Duong, et al. Composite energy
symposium; 2008. p. 547–50.
storage system involving battery and ultracapacitor with dynamic energy
[13] Yeleti Sandeep, Fu Yong. Impacts of energy storage on the future power
management in microgrid applications. IEEE Trans Power Electronics
system. In: North American power, symposium; 2010. p. 1–7.
2011;26(3):923–30.
[14] Paska Józef, Biczel Piotr, Kłos Mariusz. Technical and economic aspects of
[44] Hoffman MG, Sadovsky A, Kintner-Meyer MC et al. Analysis tools for sizing and
electricity storage systems co-operating with renewable energy sources. In:
placement of energy storage in grid applications: a literature review. Pacific
10th International conference on electrical power quality and utilisation;
Northwest National Laboratory; 2010.
2009. p. 1–6.
[45] Leou Rong-Cen. An economic analysis model for the energy storage system
[15] Smith SC, Sen PK, Kroposki B. Advancement of energy storage devices and
applied to a distribution substation. Int J Electrical Power Energy Syst
applications in electrical power system. In: IEEE power and energy society
2012;34(1):132–7.
general meeting – conversion and delivery of electrical energy in the 21st
[46] Rodriguez GD. A utility perspective of the role of energy storage in the smart
century; 2008. p. 1–8.
grid. In: IEEE power and energy society general meeting; 2010. p. 1–2.
[16] Paloheimo H, Omidiora M. A feasibility study on compressed air energy
[47] Available from: http://www.sandia.gov/ess/esselect.html.
storage system for portable electrical and electronic devices. In: international
[48] Available from: http://www.kema.com/services/consulting/etd/es/PLATOS.aspx.
conference on clean electrical power; 2009. p. 352–66.
[49] Yeleti S, Fu Yong. Impacts of energy storage on the future power system. In:
[17] Zhu Yongqiang, Wang Tengfei, Tian Jun. Means selection and capacity
North American power, symposium; 2010. p. 1–7.
configuration of energy storage. In: International conference on sustainable
[50] Pike research. Energy storage on the grid. Pike Report; 2010.
power generation and supply; 2009. p. 1–4.
[51] DOE. Advanced materials and devices for stationary electrical energy storage
[18] DOE. Electric power industry needs for grid-scale storage applications. DOE
applications. DOE Report; 2010.
Report; 2010.
[52] Available from: http://www.technologyreview.com/BizTech/wtr_16673,
[19] Available from: http://www.energystorageexchange.org/projects.
296,p1.html.
[20] Gyuk I, Kulkarni P, Sayer JH, et al. The united states of storage. IEEE Trans
[53] Georgescu M, Barote L, Marinescu C, Clotea L. Smart electrical energy storage
Power Energy 2005;3(2):31–9.
system for small power wind turbines. In: 12th International conference on
[21] DOE. 20% Wind energy by 2030. DOE Report; 2008.
optimization of electrical and electronic equipment; 2010. p. 1191–197.
[22] Sebastian R. Modelling and simulation of a high penetration wind diesel
[54] Xingguo Tan, Shan Lu. Study on smart energy storage technology and control
system with battery energy storage. Int J Electr Power Energy Syst
strategy in micro-grid. Lecture notes in electrical engineering. Vol. 138. 2011;
2011;33(3):767–74.
p. 189–96.
[23] Styczynski ZA, Lombardi P, Seethapathy R et al. Electric energy storage and its
[55] Hanley C, Peek G, Boyes J et al. Technology development needs for integrated
tasks in the integration of wide-scale renewable resources. In: GIGRE/IEEE PES
grid-connected PV systems and electric energy storage. In: 34th IEEE
joint symp; 2009. p. 1–11.
photovoltaic specialists conference; 2009. p. 1832–37.
[24] US department of energy. The smart grid: an introduction. DOE Report; 2008.
 X. Tan et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 44 (2013) 179–191 191

[56] Ribeiro Paulo F, Johnson Brian K, Crow Mariesa L, Arsoy Aysen, Liu Yilu. Energy [58] Available from: http://www.epa.gov/etv/pubs/600f06016.pdf.
storage systems for advanced power applications. Proc IEEE [59] Maitra Arindam, Sundaram Ashok, Gandhi Mahesh et al. Intelligent universal
2001;89(12):1744–56. transformer design and applications. In: 20th International conference and
[57] Hajizadeh Amin, Golkar Masoud Aliakbar. Control of hybrid fuel cell/energy exhibition on electricity, distribution; 2009. p. 1–7.
storage distributed generation system against voltage sag. Int J Electr Power
Energy Syst 2010;32(5):488–97.