INVITED
PAPER
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale
Energy Storage
The authors discuss power electronic conversion systems and components for the
interconnection of energy storage systems with the electric grid.
By Brandon M. Grainger, Student Member IEEE , Gregory F. Reed, Member IEEE ,
Adam R. Sparacino, Member IEEE , and Patrick T. Lewis, Student Member IEEE
ABSTRACT | Power electronic conversion units will serve as a
key enabling technology for assisting in the continued growth
of grid-scale energy storage. This paper presents existing and
future power electronic conversion systems and components
that aid the interconnection of grid-scale energy storage or
utilize storage to minimize grid disruption at all voltage classes
including transmission, distribution, and future grid architec-
tures such as the microgrid. New R&D solutions to aid the
interconnection process including efforts in bidirectional
charger design and potentially solid-state transformers (SSTs)
are emphasized. The role of energy storage to support micro-
grid research and growth, while highlighting power electronic
behavior within this environment, is considered. Last, an
example that bridges the microgrid and energy storage theme
is given through the design and operation of a direct current
(dc) electric vehicle (battery) charging station. When appropri-
ate, manufacturer solutions and success stories of utilizing
latest battery technologies interfaced via power electronic
solutions at the utility scale are provided.
KEYWORDS | Battery energy storage systems; electric vehicle
charging station; flexible ac transmission system (FACTS);
microgrids; power electronics
I. INTRODUCTION
Grid level battery storage plays a critical role in today’s
electric utilities. Battery energy storage systems (BESSs)
are used to regulate frequency, act as spinning reserve,
Manuscript received September 29, 2013; revised March 29, 2014; accepted
March 30, 2014.
B. M. Grainger, G. F. Reed, and P. T. Lewis are with the Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261 USA
(e-mail: bmg10@pitt.edu; reed5@pitt.edu; ptl7@pitt.edu).
A. R. Sparacino was with the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261 USA.
He is now with Mitsubishi Electric Power Products Inc., Warrendale, PA 15086 USA
(e-mail: adam.sparacino@gmail.com).
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2014.2319819
0018-9219  2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
improve power quality metrics, support voltage, and help
to peak shave and level load [1]. Currently, 30% of all
electric power generated uses power electronics technol-
ogies somewhere between the point of generation and end
use. By 2030, 80% of all electric power will flow through
power electronics [2]. Regulating nonlinear output and
coupling battery storage to the grid is done through power
electronic systems. Several successful installations within
the transmission and distribution network are elaborated
upon in this paper but improvements in this technology are
continually being invested into by industry and govern-
ment constituents.
For completeness, the hierarchy of this paper begins
with a discussion of the common battery chemistries and
grid interfacing equipment of these units. The overall
trend, beyond this discussion, is to emphasize the role of
power electronics for interfacing BESS within the trans-
mission, microgrid, and distribution layers of current and
future grid architectures.
This paper is organized in the following manner.
Section II presents a few of the mature battery technology
options including lead–acid, sodium–sulfur (NaS), and
lithium-ion (Li-ion) currently used in grid level applica-
tions. Section III briefly describes the latest research ad-
vances for equipment that are used to interface battery
storage systems into the grid. These components include
solid-state transformers (SSTs) and bidirectional chargers.
Section IV is a thorough discussion of the types of flexible
alternating current (ac) transmission system (FACTS)
technologies that utilize energy storage with manufacturer
products listed when appropriately. Section V is a treat-
ment of how power electronics behave within a microgrid
setting. BESSs are expected to play a critical role in any
microgrid environment. With increasing interest in direct
current (dc) system design, Section VI introduces a de-
tailed model of an electric vehicle (EV) charging station
supplied by a dc backbone though bidirectional converters.
The EVs in the charging station are modeled as a Li-ion
| Proceedings of the IEEE 1
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
Fig. 1. Energy storage options with capacity [1].
phosphate battery. Finally, Section VII provides some
concluding remarks.
II. BATTERY TE CHNOLOGY OPTIONS
BESSs range from mature and industry tested (NaS) to
those that are still in an experimental state (zinc–bromine
flow) [3]. Additionally, across the various energy storage
technologies, their installation sizes range from kilowatts
to gigawatts, their discharge times range from seconds to
hours, and, as an effect of this varying rated power output
and discharge time, the uses of these technologies vary
greatly. This trend is graphically represented in Fig. 1.
There are currently many different energy storage
technologies that are in various stages of development. The
following is a list of battery storage technologies with
levels of maturity ranging from commercial to research
and development. Those technologies include lead–acid,
zinc–bromine, zinc–chloride, zinc–air, iron–air, Li-ion,
nickel–cadmium, NaS, lithium–iron sulfide, nickel–metal
hydride, and flow batteries. Each technology provides
unique benefits that make them more practical than other
technologies depending upon the situation [4], [5]. For our
discussions, lead–acid, NaS, and Li-ion are discussed in
greater detail because they are the most mature and
commonly used in grid level applications.
Lead–acid batteries are most commonly utilized in
automobiles or as a form of backup power such as in an
uninterruptible power supply [5] and power quality man-
agement for control systems and switching components
[3]. Lead–acid batteries have a nonlinear power output,
and their lifetime varies greatly based off of usage, dis-
charge rate, and number of deep discharge cycles [3].
Newer lead–acid batteries use advanced materials and
technologies to improve life cycle and performance. Some
of these advanced lead–acid batteries are being developed
specifically to perform transmission and distribution grid
level support [3].
2 Proceedings of the IEEE |
NaS batteries exhibit high power output levels, high
energy density, high Columbic efficiency, good temper-
ature stability, long cycle life, and low material costs [6],
[7]. Their energy density is approximately three times
that of traditional lead–acid batteries [8]. They have a
high dc conversion efficiency of approximately 85% [7].
This high dc conversion efficiency makes NaS batteries an
ideal candidate for implementation into future dc
distribution systems [9]. NaS batteries can be used for a
wide variety of applications, including peak shaving, re-
newable integration, power quality management, and
emergency power. They have the ability to discharge
above their rated power, which makes them ideal to ope-
rate in both a peak shaving and power quality manage-
ment environment [10]. NaS batteries are also one of the
more commercially mature battery technologies, with use
by American Electric Power (AEP, Columbus, OH, USA)
and Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO, Tokyo,
Japan) [11]–[13].
Li-ion batteries have traditionally been used to power
consumer electronic devices, and more recently for plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) [3]. Li-ion battery tech-
nology is one of the newer technologies (first commer-
cialized in 1991 by Sony Co., Tokyo, Japan) [14]. There are
many chemical configurations that are classified as a Li-ion
battery. Each of these configurations has its own power
and energy characteristics [14].
Advantages of Li-ion batteries include high energy
density, no memory effect, long calendar life, and a low
self-discharge. Having no memory effect means that Li-ion
batteries do not require scheduled cycling [14], [15]. Due
to the scarcity of lithium, Li-ion batteries are more ex-
pensive than other battery technologies [4]. Current grid
level Li-ion storage installations include smaller demon-
stration systems of 1 MW or less [3]. According to the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE), Li-ion batteries used for
frequency regulation are one of the fastest growing mar-
kets for energy storage. The U.S. DOE estimates that the
installed capacity of Li-ion batteries in the United States
for grid level storage is 54 MW [16].
I II . GRID INTERFACING TECHNOL OGY
FOR B ATTERI ES
Power electronics are expected to play an integral role in
interfacing battery storage to the grid. Bidirectional battery
chargers and SSTs are two primary examples of making
this role a reality.
The Advanced Research Projects AgencyVEnergy,
Agile Delivery of Electrical Power Technology (ARPAVE
ADEPT, Washington, DC, USA) program is currently
working with HRL Laboratories (Malibu, CA, USA) on a
related project entitled ‘‘Gallium nitride switch technology
for bi-directional battery to grid charger applications’’ [17].
The project started in October 2010, and extends through
March 2014.

Fig. 2. Diagram of example SST configuration [18].
The goal of the project is to develop an efficient, eco-
nomical power converter for the application of EV charg-
ing. The converter technology will boast vehicle to grid
bidirectional charging capability for grid interactive power
management support while improving efficiency and
maintaining cost effectiveness. This converter will utilize
gallium–nitride (GaN) devices, offering high speed, and
efficient performance. Improved efficiency has been a
critical motivation for the use of GaN. In less than 20
years, it is expected that 80% of used electricity will pass
through power electronic devices [17]. The improved effi-
ciency offered by GaN devices has the potential of aiding
the successful implementation of this bidirectional battery
charger technology, as well as other advanced converter
technologies being developed by R&D firms.
Grid-scale battery storage projects that consist of large
battery banks are currently interfaced to the grid by large
60-Hz transformers. In fact, the 60-Hz power transformer
is the piece of equipment that interfaces any grid-scale
technology. The SST has potential of replacing the
conventional transformer as a further advanced, more
advantageous, next-generation grid technology. The SST is
a hybrid technology between traditional 60-Hz power
transformer technology and converter technologies. The
elements of an SST are a dual active bridge including a
physically smaller high-frequency transformer and two
converters (rectifier and inverter per given direction). An
assembly diagram of the SST is found in Fig. 2 [18]. This
diagram also provides an example of a generic SST ap-
plication, just as a conventional 60-Hz transformer would
be applied to any generic load.
The technology for SSTs has existed for some time, but
there have been limitations with semiconductor materials.
More recently, these power limitations are being elimi-
nated due to the advancement of high power semiconduc-
tor technologies, allowing the grid-scale SSTs to become a
reality in the near future.
The SST functions as a traditional transformer in that it
steps ac voltage up and down, but it also offers significant
advantages that conventional 60-Hz transformers do not
have. Primarily, these advantages center around FACTS
features, namely reactive power compensation and harmo-
nic filtering. Depending on the SST design used, advan-
tages can include bidirectional power flow (four-quadrant
operation), reactive power compensation, harmonic isola-
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
tion, voltage sag compensation, fault isolation, a common
dc link, or energy storage integration. Another benefit of
the SST is communication capability between utilities, end
users, various other switching devices in the network, and
other SSTs. The low-voltage dc link inherent to an SST
design supports battery storage integration applications.
For example, a dc fast charging station can be integrated
on the distribution level more efficiently using an SST
compared to a traditional transformer.
SST development has been specifically targeted at the
distribution level. There are a few SST designs that are
provided by FREEDM (Raleigh, NC, USA) [19], the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, USA) [20],
Universal and Flexible Power Management (UNIFLEX-
PM, Nottingham, U.K.) [21], and General Electric (GE,
Fairfield, CT, USA) [22]. These systems operate at 20 kVA,
20 kVA, 300 kVA, and 1 MVA, respectively, and range
between 7.2 and 15 kV on the distribution side. The designs
are based off of either silicon power devices or silicon–
carbide metal–oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
(SiC MOSFET) devices and they utilize multilevel
converter topologies [20]. ABB and EPRI personnel have
together designed a concept of an SST with a field demon-
stration that operates at 500 kVA, 12.47 kV/480 V [23]. All
of these SST designs are compared in [18] showing their
unique benefits and limitations.
This technology is a prime example of advanced power
electronics technology potentially replacing conventional
power system equipment. The SST has great potential of
becoming the standard for interfacing various power
system technologies to the grid, including battery storage
systems.
IV. UTILITY S CALE POWER
EL E CT RONICS UTI LI ZI NG
ENE RGY STORAGE
Dynamic voltage support, dynamic var compensation,
power system stability, increased power transfer capabil-
ity, renewable energy and energy storage integration, and
overall enhanced power quality have become increasingly
important in the electric power industry’s competitive
marketplace, not only for electric utility applications but
also for industrial and commercial operations. For over
four decades now conventional static var compensator
systems (SVCs) have been successfully installed and
implemented for various types of reactive power compen-
sation applications, while over the past two decades suc-
cessful demonstrations of advanced static synchronous
condensor (STATCOM) technology have shown the tech-
nology’s merit.
The rapid advancements of power semiconductor de-
vices and enhanced control technologies have enabled the
development of controllable shunt reactive compensation
devices with rapid response capabilities and improved
performance characteristics from early generation
| Proceedings of the IEEE 3
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
Fig. 3. Siemens SVC plus (STATCOM) topology [24], [25].
conventional SVC. Specifically, STATCOM systems, which
are designed with self-commutated voltage sourced con-
verter (VSC) technology, have become a more widely ac-
cepted, advanced technology, solution for reactive power
compensation applications because of faster response and
improved operational characteristics as compared to the
conventional SVC. However, at the same time, improve-
ments in the speed of response and advanced control
technologies have also benefited conventional SVC.
A. SVC Plus and SVC LightVSTATCOM Solutions
One of Siemens (Munich, Germany) solutions to ad-
dress new challenges associated with the electric grid is
STATCOM-based technology referred to as SVC Plus. SVC
Plus uses a power electronic topology referred to as a
modular multilevel converter (MMC) technology. The
topology for an n-level, multilevel converter is illustrated
in Fig. 3. To date, this topology creates the smallest con-
verter ac voltage steps, has a small rate of rise in voltage,
and generates lower harmonics and low switching losses.
The total required capacitance is shared by the modules
instead of being concentrated, as in other traditional
power converter designs [24].
SVC Plus uses robust, proven standard components
such as typical ac power transformers, reactors, capacitors,
and industrial class insulated-gate bipolar transistors
(IGBTs). The design of the SVC is flexible and has lower
space requirements due to the reduced size and fewer
passive components resulting in a smaller footprint.
Standard sizes are available and include 25, 35, and
50 Mvar. The open rack modular system configuration
enables a transformerless grid connection up to 36 kV and
100 Mvar [26].
Competing with Siemens STATCOM technology is
ABB’s (Zurich, Switzerland) SVC Light turnkey solution.
Unlike Siemens, ABB used the neutral point clamped
(NPC) as their chosen topology [27], [28]. The three-level
NPC inverter shown in Fig. 4 is composed of two tradi-
4 Proceedings of the IEEE |
Fig. 4. Three-level neutral point clamped converter topology [29].
tional two-level voltage source inverters stacked on top of
another with minor modifications per phase leg. The two-
level inverters are connected by two clamping diodes to
form the neutral point, thus dividing the dc-link voltage in
two. The advantage of connecting the semiconductors in
this fashion allows the power devices to block only half of
the total converter input voltage.
A brief note on the control of the switches is worth
mentioning here. There are only two control signals per
phase, which are complementary in nature to avoid a dc-
link short circuit. The gate signal is binary in nature,
represented by a zero for the off state of the switch and a
one for the on state. Table 1 provides the three different
switching states of the three-level NPC inverter with
associated voltage outputs.
ABB has utilized its SVC Light design in electric arc
furnace (EAF) applications, primarily, for reducing flicker.
SVC Light is scalable and functional in all feeding grids
including weak grid scenarios.
B. DynaPeaQVSVC Light With Energy Storage
ABB has targeted industrial, distribution, and trans-
mission level energy storage applications. The focus has
particularly been on applications that require continuous
reactive power control and short-time active power needs.
ABB has recently developed and tested an SVC solution
referred to as DynaPeaQ, which is an SVC Light technol-
ogy with energy storage. The chosen battery storage
Table 1 Binary Switching States of the NPC Topology [29]

Fig. 5. Markets of SVC technology [30], [31].
technology is Li-ion. Currently, the amount of power that
can be delivered by the energy storage system is about
20 MW for tens of minutes. But the technology permits up to
50 MW for periods of 60 min. The lifetime of the Li-ion
cells is 20 years with 3000 cycles at a depth of discharge
of 80% or one million cycles at a depth of discharge of
3%. Generally, the Li-ion battery technology was chosen
because of its high energy density, short response time,
cycling capability, round-trip efficiency, high charge re-
tention, and high power capability both in charge and
discharge cycles [30].
There are four application areas where DynaPeaQ is
expected to find widespread use. The first is the renewable
generation market where steep power changes, necessary
voltage control, and frequency regulation during and after
faults can be mitigated with energy storage. If power is
lost, DynaPeaQ continuously supports the grid with reac-
tive power or pushes active power into the electric system
if generation is lost. This latter application is a traditional
SVC concept. At the distribution level, DynaPeaQ provides
load support and, during blackout restoration, the energy
storage in the DynaPeaQ unit can serve as the starting
point to restore this power. Finally, accelerating a heavy
train can expose the grid to a peak load that traditionally
gives rise to extensive capacity build out investments. With
DynaPeaQ, the required acceleration power is literally
taken from the train’s latest deceleration. Fig. 5 summa-
rizes the general areas SVC Plus and Light help to support.
C. Notable Static and Dynamic Energy
Storage Installations
Golden Valley Electric Association (GVEA, Fairbanks,
AK, USA) has a successful static BESS, completed in
December 2003, which it uses to provide 27 MW of power
for 15 min in the event of a generation or transmission
related outage [32]. The storage system uses nickel–
cadmium batteries, constructed by Saft, with an inverter
designed and supplied by ABB. Each battery weighs 165 lb,
with an anticipated life of 20–30 years. The total system
weight is approximately 1500 tons. For this installation,
ABB was awarded the Platts 2003 Global Energy Award for
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
their design and development of the converter that inter-
faces the grid with the world’s most powerful energy
storage battery.
ABB’s first dynamic energy storage solution in the
United Kingdom utilizes their SVC Light technology. The
system is installed in an 11-kV distribution grid that is
supplied by a considerable amount of wind-generated
power. The FACTS device helps to regulate the variable
nature of wind-generated electricity and also provides a
range of voltage control and power-flow management ca-
pabilities. The energy storage system includes eight stacks
of battery modules housed within a 25-m2 building. These
batteries can store up to 200 kWh of electrical energy,
which is enough to supply 200 homes for an hour [33]. The
statcom is rated at þ600 kvar/725 kvar.
V. BATT ERY STORAGE APPL ICATIONS
IN MI CROGRIDS
The microgrid concept was first proposed in 2002 as a
better way to implement the emerging potential of distri-
buted generation. During disturbances, the generation and
corresponding loads can separate from the disturbed grid,
maintain service, and not harm the overall grid’s integrity.
As pointed out in [34], the difficult task is to achieve the
microgrid functionality without extensive custom engi-
neering and still have high system reliability and genera-
tion placement flexibility. A ‘‘plug-and-play’’ property of
the microgrid is defined as a unit (either generation source
or load) that can be placed at any point without reengi-
neering the system or controls. Ideally, the microgrid
should maintain system operation even if one component
is lost [34] and operate without communications [35] be-
cause of the long distance between distributed generation
units [36].
The fundamental microgrid requirements include the
capability of operating in islanding and/or on-grid modes
with high stability, mode switching with minimum load
disruption and shedding during transitions, and after a
transition, stabilizing in a certain amount of time. The
technical challenges associated with microgrids include:
1) operation modes and transitions that comply with
IEEE1547; and 2) control architecture and communica-
tion. For the case of an ac-based microgrid, the following
items have been considered by various research teams:
• islanding mode: frequency and voltage stability,
optimal power flow;
• grid-to-islanding mode: transition and stabiliza-
tion, minimum load shedding and disruption;
• islanding-to-grid mode: resynchronization and
reconnection, minimum impact on sensitive loads
and electronics as transients evolve during state
transitions.
Key research and development needs are centered
upon operational inverter improvements (harsh environ-
ment design, robust operation during fault conditions,
| Proceedings of the IEEE 5
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage

Fig. 6. (a) Grid-forming converter and (b) grid-feeding converter [38]. Fig. 7. Current-source-based grid supporting [38].

improved overload, volume and weight reduction, etc.) the grid frequency and voltage amplitude close to their
and improved system yields (microconverters and mini- rated values. Detailed control schemes associated with the
converters). A listing of topics referred to as advanced grid-supporting converters are found in [38].
concepts provided in [37] focused on: 1) an integrated
storage inverter; 2) direct medium-voltage inverter design;
B. Droop Control Fundamentals in Microgrids
and 3) dc microgrid subsystems. These components are
Droop control algorithms have been traditionally used
extremely important but protection is also one of the most
to control the power sharing in microgrids without using
vital challenges facing the deployment of microgrids.
communication channels. This eliminates the limits im-
posed by the physical location and improves the microgrid
A. Power Electronics Operating Modes Within
performance. Droop regulation techniques are implemen-
a Microgrid
ted in grid-supporting power converters to regulate the
Power converters can be classified into grid feeding,
exchange of active and reactive powers with the grid to
grid forming, and grid supporting. Grid-feeding power
keep the grid voltage, frequency, and amplitude under
converters are mainly designed to deliver power to an
control [39].
energized grid. These units are modeled, simply, as a
Consider a two-generator system with grid impedance
current source with high impedance in parallel with the
Z between both units. The apparent power S flowing
source. Grid-forming power converters are represented by
from the reference generator to the next can be described
a voltage-controlled source and low series impedance. The
with
best example of the latter type is an uninterruptible power
supply. Finally, grid-supporting converters are used to
   
regulate their output current/voltage to keep the value of
 V1  V2  V1  V2 ej
the grid frequency and voltage amplitude close to their P þ jQ ¼ S ¼ V 1 I ¼ V 1 ¼ V1 :
Z Zej
rated values. Its main objective is to deliver proper values
(1)
of active and reactive power to contribute to the regulation
of the grid frequency and voltage.
Grid-forming power converters require an extremely The real and reactive power components from (1) are
accurate synchronization system to operate in parallel with described, respectively, by
other grid-forming converters. The phase-locked loop
(PLL) is a main component of this synchronization to
grid frequency and very rich research subject in power V12 V1 V2
P¼ cos   cosð þ Þ (2)
electronics. In a microgrid, the ac voltage generated by Z Z
the grid-forming power converter is used as a reference V2 V1 V2
Q ¼ 1 sin   sinð þ Þ: (3)
for the rest of grid-feeding power converters connected to Z Z
the microgrid. These converters are suitable to operate in
islanded mode [38].
Grid-feeding power converters cannot operate inde-
pendently in island mode. There must be a grid-forming or
grid-supporting power converter, or local source of
generation that sets the voltage amplitude and frequency
of the microgrid. Most of the power converters belonging
to distributed generation systems operate in grid-feeding
mode, specifically wind power systems [38]. Fig. 6 shows
illustrations of grid-forming and grid-feeding converters.
The grid-supporting converters found in Figs. 7 and
8 regulate their output current or voltage to the value of Fig. 8. Voltage-source-based grid supporting [38].

6 Proceedings of the IEEE |

 Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage

Utilizing the fact that Zej ¼ R þ jX, (2) and (3) can be
rewritten as

V1
P¼ ½RðV1  V2 cos Þ þ XV2 sin  (4)
R2
þ X2
V1
Q¼ 2 ½RV2 sin  þ XðV1  V2 cos Þ: (5)
R þ X2

Relationships (4) and (5) can be simplified to

XP  RQ
V2 sin  ¼ (6)
V1
RP þ XQ
V1  V2 cos  ¼ : (7)
V1

By utilizing a small angle approximation and neglecting Fig. 9. General MVDC architecture [42].
line resistance; one arrives at

XP recent events such as Hurricane Sandy, at least within the

ffi (8)
V1 V2
XQ
V1  V2 ffi : (9)
V1
From (8) and (9), the angle  can be controlled by
regulating P and the inverter voltage V1 is controllable
through Q. Control of the frequency dynamically controls
the power angle and, thus, the real power flow. By adjust-
ing P and Q, frequency and amplitude of the grid voltage
are determined. These notions form the basis of frequency
and voltage droop regulation through active power
f  fo ¼ kp ðP  Po Þ (10)
and reactive power
V  Vo ¼ kq ðQ  Qo Þ: (11)
These principles are traditionally used in coordinating
parallel synchronous generators but were recently used by
researchers to regulate the dc microgrid bus voltage and
share power among parallel BESSs without communica-
tion [40].
C. Role of Energy Storage in Microgrids
A critical component of microgrids is energy storage.
Energy storage will play a major role in facilitating the use
of renewable energy resources necessary to power micro-
grids, while also ensuring stable and reliable operation of
the microgrid. Traditionally, diesel generators have been
the power source of choice for powering microgrids. With
United States, vulnerabilities arise with relying upon diesel
generation. Diesel generation can be susceptible to fuel
supply disruptions. As renewables become increasingly
more practical, specifically wind and solar power, these
resources are becoming a preferred choice over diesel
generators for powering microgrids [41]. Renewables,
however, are not the ideal solution because of their va-
riable nature and, therefore, cannot always support load.
The latter can easily result in power system stability issues.
Energy storage can help to address these issues. Energy
storage systems act as a buffer, either absorbing excess
generation, or discharging energy to meet minimum load
requirements. Energy storage can smooth renewable
energy output and frequency deviations, thereby prevent-
ing voltage instability. Most importantly, energy storage
can supply power during outages that last for extended
periods of time.
The medium-voltage direct current (MVDC) architec-
ture (Fig. 9) has often been referred to as a type of micro-
grid upon first view. Components of interest are the
battery storage elements, including the EV (charging
station).
VI . ELECTRIC VEHICLE
CHARGING STATIONS
Currently, the vast majority of energy consumption by the
transportation sector comes from petroleum [43]. Vehicles
with unconventional fuel systems (flex fuel, diesel, hybrid
electric) constituted 15% of new vehicles sales in 2009
[43]. While EVs make up a small percentage of vehicles
sold, consumers are comfortable with buying vehicles
containing alternative fuel systems. Auto manufacturers
large (General Motors and Nissan) and small (Tesla

| Proceedings of the IEEE 7

Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
Motors) are beginning to manufacture and produce full
EVs. The U.S. Government predicts that over one million
EVs will be on the road in the United States by 2015 [44].
These predictions of increased EV penetration are more
than just predictions; serious investments are being
made in the industry, for example, Google has invested
$10 million in EV research, and the U.S. Government has
in its goal of one million EV by 2015 agreed to over
$2 billion in stimulus spending [45]. To meet this in-
creased penetration of PHEVs and EVs, new infrastructure
is required from charging stations to enhanced electric
distribution networks.
A. Design Considerations for EV Charging Stations
Consider the EV charging station (EVCS) (see Fig. 10),
consisting of a 20-kW solar array, two level 2 dc fast
chargers, and a tie to an MVDC network via a bidirectional
dc–dc converter, which allows for the EVCSs to operate as
a source of generation when no load is present. This study
investigates the power conversion infrastructure present
within the EVCS as well as its interaction with the larger
MVDC network.
The use of a low-voltage direct current (LVDC) bus in
the EVCS allows for greater system efficiency by removing
the inversion step which would otherwise be necessary
at the output of the solar panels. The dc EVCS also reduces
footprint by replacing the large 60-Hz input transformer
with a smaller high-frequency transformer present within
the bidirectional dc–dc converter while still providing
galvanic isolation. Fig. 11 presents a typical EVCS with
roof-mounted solar panels. A bus voltage of 800 V dc was
chosen for the LVDC bus. A standard LVDC bus voltage
has not been currently accepted in the engineering com-
munity, and many dc voltage levels have been utilized in
existing literature [46]–[48]. The dc bus was grounded via
capacitive coupling at the sources and loads, as described
in [49].
Fig. 10. EVCS one line diagram.
8 Proceedings of the IEEE |
Fig. 11. EVCS with solar generation [52].
The designed system utilizes level 2 dc vehicle charg-
ing. Level 2 dc charging utilizes 50–70 kW of charging
power and is capable of fully charging an EV in 15–50 min.
Current charging systems are classified as level 1 and level
2 ac. Level 1 ac chargers provide 1.4 kW of power and take
18 h to charge. Level 2 ac chargers provide 3.3 or 6.6 kW
of power and take 8 or 4 h to charge, respectively [45],
[50], [51]. At 50 kW of charging power, a Level 2 dc fast
charger will almost exclusively be installed at commercial/
industrial locations, such as the system presented in this
study.
B. Power Electronic Converters in EVCS
The bidirectional dc–dc converter interfacing the
MVDC bus and the LVDC bus allows for a bidirectional
flow of power to utilize grid power when necessary and to
supply power to the grid when excess power is generated.
Applications of bidirectional dc–dc converters include
BESSs, next-generation motor drives, and interconnecting
load centers that possess onsite generation [46], [53]–[55].
The bidirectional dc–dc converter used in this section is
based off of the one designed in [46] and [55].
In buck mode, the bidirectional dc–dc converter
(Fig. 12) utilizes constant voltage control to operate as a
voltage regulator for the LVDC bus.
The gating signals and key operating waveforms as well
as the converter current paths for the boost and buck
modes of operation for the bidirectional dc–dc converter
Fig. 12. Bidirectional dc–dc converter.

Fig. 13. Bidirectional dc–dc converter boost mode operating
waveforms.
are presented in Figs. 13–16, respectively. The currents
IHV and ILV are measured using the reference of ‘‘going
into the converter’’ as the positive direction, which is why
IL is negative in buck mode and positive in boost mode. In
boost mode, only one current wave form is displayed
(Fig. 13), because the ideal input current is also the in-
ductor current. IHV represents the current entering/
leaving the high-voltage side of the converter, ILV is the
Fig. 14. Boost mode converter current paths for operating states.
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
Fig. 15. Bidirectional dc–dc converter buck mode operating
waveforms.
current entering/leaving the low-voltage side of the con-
verter, and IL is the current through the choke inductor L.
The gating signals shown in Figs. 13 and 15 are based off of
those presented in [55].
In boost mode, the bidirectional dc–dc converter
increases the input voltage from the LVDC bus voltage of
800 V to the MVDC bus voltage of 4.25 kV. As shown in
Fig. 16. Buck mode converter current paths for operating states.
| Proceedings of the IEEE 9
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
Fig. 14, switches 1, 2, 3, and 4 are used to generate a
sinusoidal waveform which is then rectified via switches 5,
6, 7, and 8. In interval 1, the flow of current is shown in
Fig. 14(a). During intervals 1 and 3, switches 1, 2, 3, and 4
are all on and power is stored in the choke inductor ðLÞ. In
interval 2 [Fig. 14(b)], switches 1 and 2 turn off and power
is transferred from the low-voltage side through the
transformer, rectified via switches 7 and 8 and transferred
into the load. Interval 4 [Fig. 14(c)] once again transfers
power stored in the choke inductor to the load.
In buck mode, the bidirectional dc–dc converter
reduces the input voltage from the MVDC bus voltage of
4.25 kV to the LVDC bus voltage of 800 V. As shown in
Fig. 15, switches 5, 6, 7, and 8 are used to generate a
sinusoidal waveform which is then rectified via blocks 1, 2,
3, and 4. During interval 1, power is transferred from the
high-voltage side through the transformer and stored in
the choke inductor ðLÞ. In interval 2 and 4 [Fig. 16(b)], all
switches are off and power is cycled through the primary
side of the circuit and onto the LV bus. Interval 3
[Fig. 16(c)] once again transfers power from the high-
voltage side of the circuit and stores it in the choke
inductor.
In order to predict the steady-state output of the
converter, inductor volt-seconds balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small-ripple approximation are utilized in
determining the average output voltage and current [56].
Analysis is performed using the buck mode operating
states presented in Fig. 16. The steady-state relationships
are listed, without proof, as
VHV D
VLV ¼
n
VLV
I¼ : (13)
R The level 2 dc fast charging is anticipated to be a game
In buck mode, the bidirectional dc–dc converter pro-
vides voltage regulation for the LVDC bus. The regula-
tion is accomplished utilizing voltage feedback control
(Fig. 17). The controller measures the LVDC bus voltage
and compares it to a reference value. A proportional–
integral (PI) block is used to adjust the converters
steady-state error and response time. A reference carrier
operating at ðTS =2Þ compared with the PI blocks output
Fig. 17. Controller for bidirectional dc–dc converter buck mode
regulation.
10 Proceedings of the IEEE |
Fig. 18. Synchronous buck converter.
is used to generate the systems gating signals. All nu-
merical values in the bidirectional dc–dc converter are
based off of the values presented in [46].
The synchronous buck converter is used to simulate the
battery charger in the EVCS model. The synchronous buck
converter (Fig. 18) is used to regulate the charging power
at the desired level (in the case of level 2 dc fast charging,
50 kW). The synchronous buck converter operates simi-
larly to a traditional buck converter, the main difference
being that, rather than using a diode to naturally com-
mutate during the D0 segment of the switching period, a
second switch ðS2 Þ is controlled. To regulate charging
power at 50 kW, the synchronous buck converter utilizes
constant current feedback control.
The main benefit of using a synchronous buck converter
over a regular buck converter is the reduced conduction
losses due to the use of IGBTs during both portions of the
switching period [57]. An example of a synchronous buck
converter being used for EV battery charging is imple-
mented in hardware and presented in [58].
(12)
C. Electric Vehicle Linear Battery Model
changer in the EV industry [50]. Traditional EV charging
methods such as level 1 and 2 chargers take between 4 and
16 h to fully charge a depleted battery, which is only
feasible for overnight or at work charging. Level 2 dc fast
chargers allow for charging of a EVs battery in as little as
15 min [50]. A 50-kW level 2 fast charger operating at
400 Vdc will have a charging current of 125 Adc .
An example charging profile of a Li-ion phosphate
(LFP) battery, which is widely used in automotive appli-
cations, is presented in Fig. 19 [51]. A typical battery
charge cycle consists of two modes. These modes are con-
stant current (CC) charging and constant voltage (CV)
charging. For an LFP battery used in automotive applica-
tions, the CC charging time takes 75% of the total charging
time and reaches a state of charge (SOC) of approximately
95%. The remaining 25% of the charge time, the battery is
charged utilizing CV charging. From inspection of the
charging profile presented in Fig. 19, maximum charging
power occurs at the end of CC charging. For this reason,
the battery charging simulation assumes 90% SOC.

Fig. 19. Charging profile for an LFP battery [51].
The EV battery is represented using a linear battery
model. The simulation assumes that all vehicles have the
same size battery (22.1 Ah). As explained earlier, to maxi-
mize system load, the simulation assumes that the EV
batteries are at the end of the CC charging cycle at 95%
SOC. The simulation is only run for a few seconds (2.1 s),
and during those few seconds, the battery is charged for
approximately 1.0 s. As shown in Fig. 19, over any 1-s
interval, the charging of an LFP battery can be approxi-
mated as being linear. The linear battery model used in this
simulation (Fig. 20) consists of a dependent voltage source
(EMF) in series with a variable resistance ðRint Þ.
The linear battery model is designed to have a fully
charged terminal voltage of 600 Vdc and charge at around
88.3 Adc . Due to constant power charging, the battery will
have a higher current at the beginning of charge due to a
lower terminal voltage. The electromotive force (EMF)
and internal resistance ðRint Þ both adjust linearly as a
function of the battery’s SOC, as shown in
EMF ¼ Vmin þ ðKV SOCÞ (14)
Rint ¼ Rmin þ ðKR SOCÞ (15)
Zt
Qe ¼  Ibat ðÞd (16)
0
Qe
SOC ¼ : (17)
Cmax
Fig. 20. Electric vehicle linear battery model.
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
Table 2 Operating Parameters of Linear Battery Model
The values for Vmin (battery voltage at 0% SOC), Rint
(battery internal and terminal resistance), KV , and KR
(constants determined by battery type) were approximated
to yield the desired operation.
The values of EMF and Rint are both functions of the
battery’s SOC. The battery’s extracted charge Qe and SOC
are calculated via (16) and (17). Cmax is the battery’s max-
imum capacity in amp-seconds. The linear battery model
parameters are presented in Table 2.
D. Simulation Results of Interconnected System
The EVCS is validated in all modes of operation, when
serving purely as a load (charging EVs), serving purely as a
source (supplying power to grid), and combinations of the
two. The simulation of the EVCS capturing follows the
operating regime presented in Table 3. The letters in
the ‘‘State’’ column are used to provide a visual cue in
figures as to when mode transitions are occurring.
Referring to Fig. 21, the first 0.5 s of simulation time is
necessary for the wind turbines within the MVDC system to
ramp up to full power operation. At 0.5 s (state B), the
MVDC grid is connected to the EVCS system (Fig. 10), and
begins to charge the input capacitor of the bidirectional
dc–dc converter. At 0.61 s (state C), the solar array is
connected to the LVDC bus, and begins supplying 20 kW
of power. The bidirectional dc–dc converter operating in
boost mode will supply power to the MVDC grid while
regulating the LVDC bus voltage at 1 p.u. (800 Vdc ).
Table 3 Operating Regime for Testing of the EVCS During Various Modes
of Operation
| Proceedings of the IEEE 11
Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage

charging at approximately 50 kW. At 1.75 s (state H), the

PV array disconnects meaning that all 100 kW of load is
being supplied via the bidirectional dc–dc converter.
During this period, the voltage ripple of the LVDC bus
reaches 6.625%. Finally, at 1.9 s (state I), EV-2 stops
charging.

VII. CONCLUS ION

Fig. 21. EVCS component absorbed and received power.
At 1.00 s (state D), the PV array disconnects and the
EVCS enters a standby mode resulting in minimal power
flow. At 1.15 s (state E), the first EV begins charging at
approximately 50 kW. At 1.20 s (state F), the PV array
connects to the bus supplying 20 kW of power to the
overall load. At 1.35 s (state G), the second EV begins
Power electronics do in fact have a key role to play in grid-
scale energy storage applications. Any regulation of non-
linear output and any coupling of battery storage to the
grid are performed by the use of power electronic systems.
As stated earlier, it is expected that 80% of all electric
power will flow through power electronics by 2030 and,
from the research presented in this paper, this statistic is
becoming more of a reality. Bidirectional dc chargers,
FACTS devices with integrated energy storage, battery
storage within microgrids, and EVCSs are a number of
examples that show power electronics being interfaced to
battery storage. Successful realizations were expounded
upon, exemplifying the utilization of power electronics in
each. Within the transmission, microgrid, and distribution
layers of the current and future grid, power electronics
technologies are integral to the implementation of new
equipment developments including battery storage
systems. h

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Brandon M. Grainger (Student Member, IEEE)
was born in Pittsburgh, PA, USA. He received the
B.S. degree (magna cum laude) in mechanical
engineering in 2007 and the M.S. degree in
electrical engineering with a concentration in
electric power engineering from the University of
Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, in 2011, where he
is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree,
concentrating in power electronics, microgrids,
and medium-voltage dc systems.
From August 2004 through August 2006, he performed four work
rotations with ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA, USA. From April 2008 to April
2009, he interned for Mitsubishi Electric Power Products, Inc.,
Warrendale, PA, USA; during summer 2010 and 2011, with ABB Corporate
Research Center, Raleigh, NC, USA; and during summer 2012, with
Siemens-Robicon, New Kensington, PA, USA. His research interests are in
power electronic technologies and electric machines, specifically, power
electronic converter design, power electronic applications suitable for
renewable integration, and FACTS devices.
Mr. Grainger is a student member of the IEEE Power and Energy
Society (PES), the IEEE Power Electronics Society (PELS), and the
Industrial Electronics Society. He is also one of the first endowed R.K.
Mellon graduate student fellows at the University of Pittsburgh.

| Proceedings of the IEEE 13

Power Electronics for Grid-Scale Energy Storage
Gregory F. Reed (Member, IEEE) received the B.S.
degree in electrical engineering from Gannon
University, Erie, PA, USA, in 1985, the M.Eng.
degree in electric power engineering from the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA, in
1986, and the Ph.D. degree in electric power
engineering from the University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, PA, USA, in 1997.
He is the Director of the Electric Power
Initiative in the Swanson School of Engineering,
University of Pittsburgh; an Associate Director of the University’s Center
for Energy; and a Professor of Electric Power Engineering in the Swanson
School’s Electrical and Computer Engineering Department. He is also the
Director of the newly established Grid Technologies Collaborative of the
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) National Energy Technology Labor-
atory’s Regional University Alliance; and an inaugural member of the
National Academies of Science and Engineering’s Energy Ambassador
Program. His research interests, teaching activities, and related pursuits
include advanced electric power and energy generation, transmission,
and distribution system technologies; power electronics and control
technologies [flexible ac transmission system (FACTS), high-voltage,
direct current (HVDC), and medium-voltage direct current (MVDC) sys-
tems]; renewable energy systems and integration; smart grid technol-
ogies and applications; and energy storage. He has over 27 years of
combined industry and academic experience in the electric power and
energy arena, including engineering, research and development, and
executive management positions throughout his career with the
Consolidated Edison of New York, NY, USA; ABB Inc., Raleigh, NC, USA;
Mitsubishi Electric Corp., Warrendale, PA, USA; and DNV–KEMA,
Pittsburgh, PA/Raleigh, NC, USA.
Dr. Reed is an active member of the IEEE Power and Energy Society
(PES) and the American Society of Engineering Education.
14 Proceedings of the IEEE |
Adam R. Sparacino (Member, IEEE) received the
B.S.E.E. degree and the M.S. degree in electrical
engineering with a concentration in electric power
engineering from the University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, PA, USA, in 2011 and 2012, respectively.
He is currently a System Studies Engineer with
Mitsubishi Electric Power Products Inc., Warrendale,
PA, USA. His previous internship experience in-
cludes Siemens-Robicon, New Kensington, PA, USA,
and FirstEnergy, Shippingport, PA, USA. His re-
search interests include electromagnetic transients, power electronic
technologies, flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) devices, and energy
storage.
Mr. Sparacino is a member of the IEEE Power and Energy Society (PES)
and the IEEE Power Electronics Society (PELS).
Patrick T. Lewis (Student Member, IEEE) was
born in Pittsburgh, PA, USA, in 1989. He received
the B.S. degree (cum laude) in electrical engineer-
ing from the University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
PA, USA, in 2012, where he is currently working
toward the M.S. degree in electrical engineering
while concentrating in electric power engineering.
From January 2010 through August 2011, he
worked three rotations within three different
departments at Curtiss Wright Flow Control Com-
pany, Cheswick, PA, USA. During summer 2012, he interned at Mitsubishi
Electric Power Products Inc., Warrendale, PA, USA, within their Power
System Engineering Studies (PSES) group. His research interests include
the integration of renewables to the grid, power electronic applications,
converter design, high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) technologies, and
power system fault and transient studies.
Mr. Lewis is a student member of the IEEE Power and Energy Society
(PES) and the IEEE Power Electronics Society (PELS).