CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

I.1. Experiment Objectives

1. To study the process of heat and mass transfer that occurs simultaneously
on drying.
2. To obtain a material drying rate curve.
3. Determine the phase gas mass transfer coefficient (kG) at a constant drying
rate.

I.2. Experimental Principle

The wet material to be dried is placed over the tray in the dryer where the hot
air will flow at a certain rate parallel to the tray surface.

I.3. Basic Theory

Drying is an event of mass and energy that occurs in the separation of liquid
or moisture from an ingredient to a water content determined by using gas as fluid
the heat source and recipients steam liquid (Treybal, 1980). The process of drying
is happening evaporation of water into the air and water vapor due to differences
between air and a dried. A process of drying different from the process of
evaporation. Most of the evaporation shows the removal of material in which
water be eliminated as water vapor at its boiling point in draining water usually
omitted some steam with air support.
Some industries, especially the food industry use the drying process (drying).
There are several types of dryers that can be used such as spray dryer, tunnel
dryer, rotary dryer, tray dryer, drum dryer, and so on. The selection of dryer types
is based on the type and size of material to be dried, drying capacity and operating
temperature. Mechanical drying can be done with 2 methods:
1. Continuous drying
A drying material in which the introduction and discharge of the material
done continuously.
2. Batch drying

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 A drying wherein the material enters the dryer until the dry product is
removed, then the next ingredient is introduced.
Factors of Drying Process
In general, the factors that affect drying are 2 classes, that is: factors related
to drying air (temperature, volumetric velocity of drying airflow, air humidity),
and factors related to material properties (material size, initial moisture content,
partial pressure in ingredients).
A. Surface Area
The broader surface of the sooner material into dry. Water evaporate
through the surface of the material, while the water in the middle part of will
out to the part of a surface and then evaporate. To accelerate drying generally
food will dried cut into a pieces. This is because:
 The cutting or incision will expand the surface of the material and the
broad surface may be related to the heating medium so that the water is
easily discharged.
 Small pieces or thin layers reduce the distance from which the heat
should move to the food center. Small pieces will also reduce the
distance through the water mass from the center of the material that must
come out to the surface of the material and then out of the material.
B. Differences of Temperature and Air Surrounding
The greater temperature difference between the heating medium and the
food the faster the heat transfer into the material and the faster the removal of
water from the material. The water coming out of the dried material will
saturate the air so that its ability to get rid of water is reduced. So with the
higher drying temperature then the drying process will be faster. However, if
not in accordance with the material dried, the consequence will occur an
event called Case Hardening, which is a state where the outside of the
material is dry while the inside is still wet.
C. Air Flow Rate
The higher air velocity, the more removal of moisture from the surface of
the material so, it prevent the occurrence of saturated air on the surface of the
material. Air that moves and has a high movement in addition can take

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 moisture also will remove the water vapor from the surface of food, so it will
prevent the occurrence of saturated atmosphere that will slow the removal of
water. If the air flow around the drying place goes well, the drying process
will accelerate, that is, the easier and faster the water vapor will carry and
evaporate.
D. Air Pressure
The smaller air pressure the greater the ability of air to transport water
during drying, because with the smaller pressure means the air density is
reduced so that water vapor can be more tetandung and removed from food.
But, if the air pressure gets bigger then the air around the drying will be
moist, so the ability to accommodate water vapor is limited and inhibits the
process or the rate of drying.
E. Humidity Air
The more humid air then the longer the dry while the drier the air the
faster the drying. Because dry air can absorb and retain moisture. Each
material has its own relative moisture balance. Humidity at a certain
temperature where the material will not lose water (moved) into the
atmosphere or will not take water vapor from the atmosphere.

When a wet solid is brought into contact with humidity lower than the
moisture of the solid, it releases a portion of its water content and dries to balance
with the air. When the air is damper than a solid that is in equilibrium with the air,
the solid will absorb the moisture from the air, thus achieving an equilibrium.
The air entering the dryer is rarely completely dry, but always contains
moisture and has a relative humidity. For air having a certain moisture, the
moisture content in the solid coming out of the dryer can not be less than the
equilibrium moisture associated with the incoming air humidity. The water
content contained in the wet solids can not be removed by air, because this
incoming air also contains moisture, called equilibrium moisture (equilibrium
moisture content). The amount of water content of equilibrium is determined by
the type of material, temperature and humidity (humidity) air.

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 The moisture in a solid material can be expressed in percent by weight on a
wet basis or on a dry basis which can be expressed in:
kg (water)
 wet basis : x = ×100%
kg ( dry solids + water )
kg (water)
 dry basis : x = ×100%
kg ( dry solids )
Free moisture is the difference between the total water content in solids and
the water content of equilibrium.
X= XT - X * (1)
Where : X = free water content
XT = the total water content in solids
X* = the water content of equilibrium
In the drying process there is also the term bound water and unbound water.
The bound water is a solid equilibrium moisture content which gives a vapor
pressure that is smaller than the vapor pressure of the liquid at that temperature.
Unbound water is a solid equlibrium moisture content that gives the vapor
pressure equal to the vapor pressure of the liquid at that temperature.

Drying Mechanism
When the wet material is thermally dried, there are 2 processes that take
place simultaneously, that is:
 Transfer of energy from the environment to evaporate water present on the
surface of solids.
The transfer of energy from this environment can take place by
conduction, convection, radiation, or a combination of all three. This process
is influenced by the temperature, humidity, rate and direction of the airflow,
the physical form of the solid, the surface area of contact with air and
pressure. This process is an important process during the early stages of
drying when unbound water is removed. Evaporation occurring on the surface
of the solid is controlled by the event of vapor diffusion from the solid
surface to the environment through a thin film film of air.
 Mass transfer of water in the body to the surface.

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 When there is evaporation on the surface of the solid, there is a
temperature difference so that water flows from the interior of the body to the
solid material surface.
Wet solids placed in a continuous gas stream will lose the water content
until the vapor pressure in the solid is equal to the partial pressure of water
vapor in the gas. This is called equilibrium and the water content in solids is
called equilibrium moisture content. In equilibrium, the removal of water will
not occur again unless the material is placed in the environment (gas) with a
lower relative humidity (lower water vapor partial pressure).

In the drying process a suitable drying rate is required to plan the drying time
and estimate the size of the tool used to dry the particular material. The drying
rate is defined as the amount of water vaporized per unit time per unit area. The
drying rate is required to plan the drying time as well as to estimate the size of the
tool used to dry certain materials. Based on the drying period, there are two kinds
of drying rate:
1. Constant rate period.
2. Falling rate period.

cons
tant
Falli rate
ng
rate

X (kg water/ kg
solid)
Figure 1.1. Drying Rate Curve
After the material is in contact with the drying air there is a change in the
temperature of the solid material until it reaches a steady state (line AB). The
drying rate will remain for a certain time interval (BC line). This is called the
constant rate period. This state continues until the water state of the material

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reaches the critical water content (Xc). After passing Xc, the drying rate will
decrease steadily until it finally stops when the water content of equilibrium (X *)
is reached. The rate of drying in that state is called the falling rate period.

Constant Rate Period

During a constant rate period, there is a continuous film on the entire surface
of the material and the water behaves as if there were no solids there. With the
reduction of the water content in the material, the period of constant rate will stop
at a certain water content. The end point of the constant rate period is shown by
the point C in the above figure called the critical point.
If the solid is not porous, the water that exits during this period is primarily
the surface water present on the solid surface. In a porous solid, most of the water
discharged at a constant rate period is from the interior of the solid. This period
lasts as long as the water supplied to the surface is the same as the evaporated
water. Calculations based on mass transfer or heat transfer as follows:

Mass transfer : mv =M v . k y .( y i − y ). A (2)

h y .(T −T i ). A
mv =
Heat transfer : λi (3)
Where:
mv = the rate of evaporation Ti = interface temperature

A = surface area y = the mole fraction of the vapor in the

hy = heat transfer coefficient gas

ky = mass transfer coefficient yi = the mole fraction of the vapor at the

Mv = molecular weight of water interface

i = latent heat at Ti temperature

T = gas temperature
When air flows parallel to the solid surface, the heat transfer coefficient
follows the equation:
h y = 0,0204 G0,8 (4)
If the air flow is perpendicular to the solid surface then follow the equation:

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 h y = 1,17 G0,37 (5)
Where:

( mWK )
hy = heat transfer coefficient 2

kg lb
G = gas mass velocity of dryer (
hr . m hr . ft )
∨ 2 2

The constant drying rate Rc is:

mv h y .(T −T i )
Rc = =
A λi (6)
In general the temperature of Ti is assumed to be the same as Twb if only
convection occurs. If the radiation from the hot environment and the conduction
of the solid surface in contact with the material can not be ignored then the
interface temperature will be greater than Twb, yi will increase, and the drying
rate will increase as well.
Falling Rate Period
With the reduction of the water content in the material, the period of constant
rate will end up in a certain water content, and in the next drying the rate will
decrease. The end point of the period of constant rate indicated by the point C in
figure 1.3.1. called critical point.
This point marks the time at which the liquid on the surface of the material is
not sufficient to maintain a continuous film that covers the entire surface of the
material. In a non-porous solid, the critical point takes place at about the same
time as the water vaporized on the surface. In a porous solid, this critical point is
reached when the moisture flow rate to the surface is no longer equal to the
evaporation rate required by the wet bulb evaporation process. If the initial water
content in the solid is below the critical point, the period of constant rate is absent.
The critical water content of a material varies according to the thickness of the
material and the rate of drying.
In the drying falling rate period the surface condition is no longer wetted
perfectly because the rate of water diffusion in the material can no longer
compensate for the evaporation rate that occurs, so the drying rate decreases.

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 The second falling rate period starts at point D where the surface is
completely dry. In some cases, this point D is not encountered and the
displacement from wet to dry gradually so that point D is not encountered.

Calculating Drying Rate and Time

In designing the dryer, an important quantity is the time required to dry the
material in the condition of the dryer. Because this will determine the size of the
equipment needed for a given capacity. From the mass balance, the rate of drying
of the material at any time can be expressed as follows:
dm v L s dX
R=− =− .
A . dt A dt (7)
Where: Ls = dry material mass
A = surface area of the material
X = water content of materials per unit of mass of dry matter
The integration of equation (6) becomes:
X
Ls i dX
tT = . ∫
A X R
f (8)
Where: tT = total drying time
Xi = initial free water content
Xf = the final free water content
In a constant rate period, X2 = Xc and the drying time becomes:
L s (X 1− X 2)
t c= (9)
A . Rc
If R is linear to X, as is the case with the substance at the porous during the
period of rate decreases:
R = aX + b
Where a and b are constant, dR = a dX.
Substitution dX into equation (7) results for a decreasing rate period:
R1
L dR L R
tf = s ∫ = s ln 1 (10)
a. A R R a . A R2
2

where R1 and R2 are ordinate from the initial starting water content, a constant is
the slope of the drying rate curve and can be written as:

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 R1−R2
a= (11)
X 1−X 2
Where:
Rc = rate at the first critical point  R1 = Rc
R’ = rate at the second critical point  R2 = R’
Xc = free wet content at the first critical point  Xc = X2 in equation (9)
X’ = free wet content at the second critical point

The substitution a of equation (11) into equation (10) yields:

Ls ( X 1−X 2) R1
tf = ln (12)
A (R1−R2 ) R2
When the drying process includes a constant rate period as well as a decreasing
rate period, X2 in equation (9) equals Xc and R1 in equation (12) equals Rc,
resulting in total drying time:
'
Ls X 1−X c ( X 1− X ) R c
t T =t c +t f =
a [ Rc
+ ln '
( Rc −R' ) R ] (13)

In some situations, a straight line through the center is sufficient enough to

describe the entire period of rate-down. The point (X c, Rc) lies on this line. When
this approach is made, equation (12) can be simplified and that
Rc Rc Xc
a= dan = .
Xc R2 X 2
(14)
Equation (12) becomes:
Ls X
t T= ( X 1− X 2 ) + X c . ln c (15)
A . Rc X2
where X2 is the moist content at the end of the whole process.

Mass Transfer Inside Dryer

In all dryers which the gas is flowed over or through solids, mass transfer
always occurs from the surface of solids into the gas, and sometimes through the
inland channels contained in solids. The drying rate may be determined by the

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resistance to mass transfer rather than heat transfer. In terms of gas, such drying is
very similar to adiabatic humidification; in the case of a solid, it is evaporated
when the solid is very wet and is like the desorption of the adsorber when the solid
is near dry.The average mass transfer rate mv can be easily calculated by :
mv =ms ( X a −X b )
(16)
the gas enters on the humidity of Ha, the humidity out of Hb is given by:
m s .( X a−X b)
H b=H a+
mg
mv
H b=H a+
mg
(17)

Calculating Mass Transfer Coefficient (kg)

During the drying process, mass transfer and simultaneous heat transfer occur.
hot radiating surface
T R
q R , radiant heat q c N
convection heat A
gas drying surface
T, H, y ys, Ts, Hs

padatan yang dikeringkan

metal tray
gas
T, H, y
q k , conduction heat

Figure 1.2. The Process of Mass Movement and Heat Solid Drying Proses
It is assumed that all heat transferred from air to material (q) is used entirely
for water evaporation. The heat required for water evaporation by ignoring small
sensible heat changes:
q=N A . M A . λi . A (18)

Fluks NA:
NA = ky (yi – y) (19)

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Where:
ky = mass transfer coefficient

yi = the mole moisture fraction in the gas at the interphase

y = the mole fraction in the gas

The relationship between H and y:

H
MA
y=
1 H
+
MB MA (20)
Where:
H = humidity
MB = weight of air molecules

H 1
When H is small, <<< so as an approach:
MA MA
H . MB
y=
MA (21)
From equation (19):
MB
N A =k y . ( H s −H )
MA (22)
The total heat (q) comes from air transferred by convection, conduction and
radiation. From the heat balance on the control surface is obtained:
q = q c + q r + qk (23)
where c, r and k respectively show the convection, radiation and conduction
processes. The equation for the rate of convection heat transfer:
q c=h c .(T −T s ). A (24)

Where:
T = gas temperature (dry air)
Ts = surface temperature of the material

A = surface area of the material

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 hc = convection coefficient

The equation for the rate of radiation heat transfer:

q r =hr .(T r −T s ). A (25)

Tr 4 Ts 4

hr =ε .(5 . 676 ).
( ) ( )
100
−
100
(T r −Ts) (26)
Where:
hr = radiation coefficient

 = emissivity of the material

The equation for the heat transfer rate of conduction:

q k=U k .( T −Ts). A (27)

1
Uk=
1 LT
Lb
+ +
hc kT k b (28)
where:
LT = thick tray

kT = thermal conductivity tray

Lb = thick material

kb = thermal conductivity of the material

Subtitution of equation (18) to equation (22):

MB
q=M A . k y . .( H s−H ). λi . A
MA
q=k y . M B .( H s −H ). λi . A (29)

Combining equation (23), (24), (25), (27), (29) will be obtained:

(h c +U k ).(T −T s )+hr .(T r −T s )
R=
λs (30)
Equation (30) can also be written in the form:

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 ( H s −H ). λs U h
hc ( )
= 1+ k .(T −T s )+ r .(T r −T s )
hc hc
ky . MB (31)
Determine Ts Trial
Calculate:
1. v H ¿( 2.83× 10−3 +4.56 × 10−3 × H ud )× T dry
1+ H
2. ρudara =
vH
3. G= ρudara × v
4. h c =0.0204 ×G 0,8
1
Uk=
5. 1 zs zM
( )( )( )
hc
+
ks
+
kM
4 4
T T
6.
h =ε × 5.67×
r
(
[
100 ) −(
dry
100 )
T dry −T s
s

]
7. T s' =Tdry −¿

Drying Aplication
1. Food products, to prevent the growth of microbacterial and quality decline.
2. Some products other than food, some for example wood and paper. These
products need to be dried because they have organic properties that allow
mold, if not dried properly.
3. Production of soap powder and dye.
4. Production of drugs.

I.4. Hypothesis
1. The thicker material used the longer drying time.
2. The greater air flow rate of the value of gas phase mass transfer coefficient
will be greater.
3. The higher the temperature used the faster the rate of drying.

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