MACHINE DESIGN

FORMULAS

V1

Machine Elements
1. Cylinders Rolling in opposite direction:
A. Tangential speed V1 = V2 =  D1 N1 =  D2 N2 V2
B. Relation of diameter and speed D1 N1 = D2 N2
Speed of Driver
C. Speed Ratio =
Speed of the Driven

D1 + D2
D. Center Distance = R1 + R 2 =
2
V2
2. Cylinders Rolling in the same direction
A. Tangential speed V1 = V2 =  D1 N1 =  D2 N2
B. Relation of diameter and speed D1 N1 = D2 N2
Speed of Driver
C. Speed Ratio =
Speed of the Driven V1
D − D1
D. Center Distance = R 2 − R1 = 2
2

Stresses
1. Stress (S) = a total resistance that a material offers to an applied load, lb/in2 , kg/cm2 , KN/m2
2. Ultimate stress (Su ) - is the stress that would cause failure
3. Yield stress(Sy) - maximum stress without causing deformation
4. Allowable stress(Sall) = Ultimate stress/Factor of Safety
Su Sy
5. Design stress(Sd) - stress used in determining the size of a member. Sd = or Sd =
FS FS
where: FS = factor of safety
F  2
1. Tensile Stress (St) St = t For solid circular cross-section: A = D
A 4
 2 2
For hollow circular cross-section: A = (Do − Di )
4
For rectangular cross-section: A = base x height = b x h
Fc
2. Compressive Stress(Sc) Sc =
A
3. Shearing Stress(Ss)
F
A. For single bolt of rivet needed to join to plates together. Ss =
A
where: For single rivet: A = /4 D2 D
For double riveted joint: A = 2(π/4 D2) F
B. Shearing due to punching of hole. F
F
S = where A =  D t (for punching a hole) A = 4 S t (for
A
square hole)
Where: S = length of side of square t = plate
thickness
C. Pressure needed to punch a hole, F: F = d x t x 80, tons
Where: d = hole diameter, in t = thickness, in
4. Bearing Stress(Sb) Sb = Fb /A where: A = DL

5. Factor of safety(FS) a. Based on yield strength FS = Sy / Sall

b. Based on ultimate strength FS = Su / Sall
Tc 16T
6. Torsional Shear Stress(Ss) F Ss = =
Projected Area J  D3
where: J = polar moment of inertia = π D4 /32 (for solid shaft)

D
 T = torque c = distance from neutral axis to the farthest fiber
c = r (for circular cross section) d = diameter
Mc 6 M
7. Bending Stress(Sf) Sf = For rectangular beam Sf =
I b h2
where: M = moment
c = distance of farthest fiber from neutral axis
I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis
I = bh3/12 (for rectangular cross section)
I M
Z = section modulus = =
c Sf
Y F Stress FL FL
8. Strain and Elongation Strain = Stress = E = = Y =
L A Strain AY AE
where: y = elongation due to applied load L = original length
F = force A = area S = stress
9. Thermal Elongation; Stresses D
y
y = k L (t2 - t1) S = E = k E (t2 - t1) L
L
where: k = coefficient of thermal expansion, m/m-C
For steel k = 6.5 x 10-6 in/in-F = 11.7 x 10-6 m/m-C
E = 30 x 106 psi Y
Relation between shearing and tensile stress based on theory of
failure:
Stmax = Sty Ssmax = Sty / 2
10. Variable Stress
1 S S
= m + a where: FS = factor of safety
FS S y Sn
Sy = yield point Sn = endurance limit
Smax + Smin S − Smin
Sm = mean stress = Sa = variable component stress = max
2 2
Smax = maximum stress Smin = minimum stress
11. Poisson’s Ratio(u) = is the ratio of lateral unit deformation to axial unit deformation.
E F
u = −1 where: G = shear modulus of elasticity  = strain =
2G AE

Lateral Strain y z L 2 − L1 w 2 − w1 t 2 − t1
u= = = x = y = z =
Longitudinal Strain  x x L1 w1 t1

MACHINE DESIGN
MOTOR Machine Shaft
SHAFT
1. Shaft - is a rotating member that is used to transmit power. Main Shaft
2. Axle - a stationary member carrying rotating wheels, pulleys.
3. Line shaft - transmission shaft driven by prime mover. Counter Shaft
4. Machine shaft - shaft which is an integral part of the
machine.
5. Counter shaft - transmission shaft intermediate between the
line
shaft and the driven machine.
6. Spindles - is a short axles and shafts.
7. Transmission shaft - is a shaft used to transmit power Driven Machine 1
between Driven Machine 2
the source and the machines absorbing the power, and
include
countershafts, line shafts, head shafts, and all factory shafting.

Formulas:

1. Power Formula in SI unit:

P = 2  T N where: P = power, KW T = torque, KN-m N = speed, rps
 2TN
P = where: P = power, Hp T = torque, ft-lb N = speed, rpm
33,000

2. Torque, T T = FxR
where: F = applied force R = radius = D/2

3. Stresses in shaft when subjected to pure torsion(Ss)

Tc 16T 16TDo
A. For solid shaft: Ss = = B. For hollow shaft: Ss =
J D 3
(Do 4 − Di4 )
C. For designed shearing stress and compressive stress with given S y and Su.
SHEARING: Ss = 0.18 Su, Ss = 0.3 Sy COMPRESSIVE: Sc = 0.36 Su Sc = 0.6 Sy
Note: Choose whichever is smaller
where:
Do = outside diameter Di = inside diameter J = polar moment of inertia
c = is the distance of the farthest fiber from neutral axis T = torque
d = diameter of shaft
4. Torsional deflection(), rad
TL
 = , rad where: L = length of shaft
JG
d4 (Do 4 − Di 4 )
J = polar moment of inertia = (for solid shaft) J = (for hollow)
32 32
G = modulus of rigidity in shear = 11.5 x 106 psi for steel

FROM MACHINERIES HANDBOOK

584 T L
A. For solid shaft: Θ = , deg
D4 G
584 T L
B. Using ALCORCON’S FORMULA for hollow shaft: Θ = , deg
(Do 4 − Di4 ) G
F
5. Stress in shaft when subjected to Torsion and Bending loads:

a. For solid shaft:

16
Ss = (KmM)2 + (K t T)2
d3
16  2 2
St = KmM + (KmM) + (K t T)  Note: Km and Kt not known, assume 1.0
d3 
where: T = torqueM = moment Ss = maximum shear stress
St = maximum tensile or compressive stress
b. For hollow shaft:
16Do 16Do  2 2
Ss = (KmM)2 + (K t T)2 St = 4 4 K mM + (K mM) + (K t T ) 
4 4
(Do − Di ) (Do − Di )

6. Strength of shaft with assumed allowable stresses (PSME Code p. 18)

D3N
a. For Main Shafts: (S = 4000 psi) P =
80
D 3N
b. For Line Shafts: (S = 6000 psi) P =
53.5
D3N
c. For short shafts: (S = 8500 psi) P =
38
where: P = power, Hp N = speed, rpm D = diameter, inch

7. From Machineries Handbook Formula

A. Shaft diameter for 0.08 degrees per foot of length of shaft deflection.
4 4
P
For English units: D = 0.29 T or D = 4.6
N
Where: D = diameter, in T = torque, in-lb P = horsepower
N = speed, rpm
 4 4
P
For SI units: D = 2.26 T or D = 125.70
N
Where: D = diameter, mm P = power, watts N = speed, rpm
T = torque, N-mm
3 3
P
B. Shaft deflection of 1 degree for a length of 20 times its diameter. D = 0.10 T or D = 4.0
N
Where: P = power, hp D = diameter, in N = speed, rpm T = torque, in-lb
C. Linear deflection of shafting
3
a. Shafting subjected to no bending action of pulleys except its own weight L = 8.95 D2
3
b. Shafting subjected to bending action of pulleys, etc L = 5.2 D2
Where: L = shaft length, ft D = shaft diameter, in

KEYS - a machine member employed at the interface of a pair of mating male and female circular
cross-sectional members to prevent relative angular motion between
these mating members. Pulley

Types of keys: 1. square key 2. flat key 3. round key

Shaft
4. barth key 5. woodruff key 6. gib-head key 7. saddle key
Key
8. kennedy key 9. feather key

FORMULAS

1. Power of key: P = 2 T N, KW
T T
2. Force transmitted, F F = = where: d = shaft diameter
r d/ 2
Fc
3. Compressive Stress (Sc) of key Sc =
(h / 2)L /2
F
4. Shearing Stress (Ss) of key Ss = s
wL F
L
where: L = length of key w = width of key h = height of key
5. Relation of key and shaft for the same material:
D
w = L = 1.2 D
4 Compressive area
6. Force tangent to pulley rim T = T’ F . r = F’ . R Shear Area
F’
7. Ff = force tends to remove key
from F R
the hub and shaft = 2 f F T’
T
F = force tangent to the key
L
F’ = force tangent to pulley rim
R = radius of pulley F
W

7. SPLINE SHAFT
Is recommended when the power transmitted is too high that three keys is not enough.
1. Types of Fits
Types of 6 Splines 4 Splines 10 Splines
Fits
Permanent d = 0.9D d = 0.85D d = 0.91D
Fit w = 0.25D w = 0.241D w = 0.156D
h = 0.05D h = 0.075D h = 0.045D Id D
To slide d = 0.85D d = 0.75D d = 0.86D Iw
when not w = 0.25D w = 0.24D w = 0.156D
under load h = 0.075D h = 0.125D h = 0.07D
To slide d = 0.80D d = 0.81D
when w = 0.25D w = 0.156D
under load h = 0.10D h = 0.095D
In
Where: d = minor diameter, in or mm

D = major diameter, in or mm R Ir Rm

Id
Ih
Iw

L
 r = radius, in or mm = d/2; R = D/2 w = width, in or mm
L = length of spline
r +R
2. Rm = mean radius =
2
Note:
If L is not given use the recommended, L = 1.5 D,
from Vallance, Machine Design Flange
T
3. Calculations for safe dimensions of splines: F

3.1 Based on shearing of splines

F F
Ss = = Dc
A s Ns w L
d 2T
Since Ts = F  or F =
2 d
3.2 Based on Compression between splines and hub. Shaft
Bolt
F F
Sc = =
A c h L Ns T
NS = number of splines Ac = compressive area
Fb
r +R r +R
Tc = F Rm = F( ) or F = 2Tc / ( )
2 2
F = compressive force
16 Tt Dc
3.3. Based on Torsion of splined Shaft Ss =
 d3
Tt
Note: For torque capacity, T for one spline is: T= (1.1)
Ns
This recommendation is based by shearing one spline only. Shear Area

FLANGE COUPLING
1. Coupling - is a mechanical device which is used to Flange
connect length of shafts permanently.
FORMULAS

1. Power transmitted: P = 2  T N , KW

T T
2. Total force transmitted, (F) F = = Dc
r Dc / 2
F
3. Force transmitted per bolt, (Fb) Fb =
n
where: n = no. of bolts Dc = bolt circle diameter
Fb Compressed Area
4. Shearing of bolts(Ss) Ss =
 2
d
4
5. Compressive stress on bolts and flange(Sc)
F
Sc = b where:
td
t = thickness of flange d = bolt diameter
PRESSURE VESSEL
Thin wall pressure vessel
If the ratio of wall thickness to the inside diameter (t / Di) is less than 0.07, then the cylinder is
considered as thin-wall.
A. For Cylindrical Pressure Vessel
1. St = tangential stress or hoop stress
PDi
S=
2t
2. SL = longitudinal stress
PD i
SL =
4t Di
3. If efficiency of joint is considered
P Di
St =
2te
PDi
SL =
4t e
where: e = joint efficiency
Di = inside diameter
S = tangential stress
t = thickness of the wall
Di = Do - 2t
Do = outside diameter
4. For a cylindrical vessel filled with fluid:
P = maximum pressure at the bottom
w h = (SG x w) h

B. For Spherical Pressure Vessel

1. If efficiency of joint is not considered: P
PDi
S= Di
4t
2. If efficiency of joint is considered:
P Di
S=
4t e
3. Di = Do - 2t
P
where: e = joint efficiency

Thick wall pressure vessel

If the ratio of t/Di is greater than 0.07, then the vessel is considered as Di
thick-wall. Do
Using Lame’s equation for internal pressure:
D  S + Pi 
t=  t − 1
2  S t − Pi 
where: t = wall thickness
D = inside diameter
St = tangential stress
Pi = internal pressure
Vessel is subjected to an internal and external
pressures. Po
For Maximum Internal Stress:
2 2 2
Pi (ro + ri ) − 2Poro
Sti =
Pi
ro2 − ri2
For Maximum External Stress:
2Piri2 − Po (ro2 + ri2 )
Sto =
i
ro2 − ri2
O
where: Sti = maximum internal tangential stress
Sto = maximum external tangential stress
Pi = internal pressure
Po = external pressure
ro = outside radius
ri = inside radius

MACHINE DESIGN
Wah

Dm
Arm

Hub Wr

Shaft Rim
Flywheel - a rotating energy reservoir which absorbs energy from a power source during a portion of
the operating cycle and delivers that stored energy as useful work during the other portion of the cycle.
Flywheel applications:
1. Punch press 2. Shears 3. Internal combustion engines 4. Compressors
5. Reciprocating pumps 6. Steam engines

FORMULAS

1. Kinetic energy released by the flywheel(KE).

W 2 C W v2
KE = ( v1 − v 22 ) = f
2g g
where: Dm
v1 = maximum speed =  D N1
v2 = minimum speed =  D N2
W = total weight of the flywheel
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec 2
v = average velocity
Cf = coefficient of fluctuation

2. Total weight of Flywheel(W)

W = Wr + Wah
where:
Wr = weight of the flywheel rim
Wah = weight of arm an the hub

3. Weight of the flywheel rim (W r)

Wr = V x w
Wr = ( D b t)(w)
where: b = width of the flywheel rim
t = thickness of flywheel rim
w = density of flywheel material
For cast iron: w = 7200 kg/m3
4. Energy required to punch a metal(E)

E = 1/2 F tp E = 1/2(Ssu x A)tp

For circular hole: E = E = 1/2(Ssu x A)tp
where:
A = shearing area
A =  d tp (for circular hole)
F = average force needed to punch a hole
Ssu = ultimate shear stress
tp = thickness of the plate
d = hole diameter
Dm = mean diameter of flywheel

5. Power needed to punch a hole(P)

Energy
P =
Time needed to punch a hole

6. Kinetic energy released by the flywheel = Energy needed to punch a hole

W 2
1/2(Ssu x A)tp = ( v1 − v 22 )
2g
7. Coefficient of fluctuation(C f)

v1 − v 2
Cf =
v

v1 + v 2
where: v=
2

2( v1 − v 2 ) 2(N1 − N2 )
Cf = =
v1 + v 2 N1 + N2

Bolts and Screws

Bolts and Screws are threaded fasteners which are used to hold together machine members which
require easy dismantling.
Pitch(p) = is the axial distance between adjacent threads.
Lead - is the axial distance a thread advances in one revolution.
Minor diameter - is the smallest diameter of the threads.
Pitch diameter - is the mean of major and minor diameters.
Major diameter - is the outside diameter of the threads and is the nominal diameter
Stress area - is the area of an imaginary circle whose diameter is the mean of the pitch and minor
diameter. Stress area = π/16 (Dm + Di)2

Types of threads:
1. UNC(Unified National Course) - for general use, except where other types are recommended.
2. UNF(Unified National fine) - frequently used in automotive and aircraft work and where a fine
adjustment is required.
3. UNEF(Unified National Extra Fine) - used in aeronautical equipment and where very fine
adjustment is required.
Common forms of threads: 1. Acme thread 2. Sellers square thread

Threads Specifications:
1. American and UNC thread: Example: 1 – 8UNC – XY – Z 1 stands for nominal diameter in
inches; 8 stands for TPI(Thread/inch); X stands for value ( 1 for widest tolerance, 2 for normal fit, 3 for
closest fit); Y stands for ( A for external thread, B for internal thread); Z stands for (RH – right hand
thread, LH-left hand thread)

Bolt Stress Area: (English Unit) As = (D − 0.9743p)2, in2 D = nominal diameter, in p = pitch, in
4
2. Metric Thread: Example: M-16 x 2-6A M stands for metric series; 16 stands for nominal
diameter, mm; 2 stands for pitch, mm; 6 stands for tolerance; A stands for (g for external thread, h for
internal thread)

Bolt Stress Area: (SI Unit) As = (D − 0.938p)2, mm2 D = nominal diameter, mm p = pitch, mm
4

Common Thread Forms:

1. Sellers Square thread 2. Trapezoidal Thread 3. Buttress Thread

 = 7o

BOLTS
1. Formulas from Vallance:
A. Sw = C(Ar)0.418 B. Fa = C(Ar)1.418
C. Depth of tap = 1.5 D (for cast iron) = 1.25 D (for steel) D. Initial torque = 0.2 Fa D
where: Sw = permissible working stress, psi Fa = applied load, lb Ar = stress area, in2
C = 5,000 (for carbon steel) C = 15,000 (for alloy steel) D = nominal diameter

2. Formulas from Faires:

Sy ( A s )1/ 2 S y ( A s )3 / 2
A. Sd = B. Fe = C. Depth of tap = 1.5 D (for cast iron) = D (for
6 6
steel of wrought iron) D. Initial Torque = C D Fi
where: Sd = design tensile stress Fe = tensile load As = stress area Sy = yield stress
C = 0.20 for as received = 0.15 for lubricated D = nominal diameter Fi = initial tension

POWER SCREWS
1
1. Pitch(p) - is the axial distance between two adjacent threads. p =
No. of threads per inch
2. Lead (L) L = p (for single thread) L = 2p (for double thread) L = 3p (for triple thread)
3. Linear velocity, v = (rotational speed)(Lead) = N L
Lead LOAD, W
4. Lead angle(x) tan x =
D m
5 Torque applied to turn the screw in raising the load, T
X
WD m  tan x + f 
For square thread: T =
2  1 − f tan x 
WD m  cos  tan x + f  P
V
For ACME thread: T =  
2  cos  − f tan x 
where: Dm = mean diameter of screw W = weight or load
f = coefficient of friction of threads  = 14.5 for
ACME T

6 Torque required to overcome collar friction, T c

f W (ro + ri ) fc W Dc
Tc = c = where: Dc = (Do + Di)/2 = ro + ri Dc = mean diameter of collar
2 2
ro = outside radius of collar ri = inside radius of collar fc = coefficient of friction of collar
WD m  cos  tan x − f 
7. Torque required to turn the screw in lowering the load: T =  
2  cos  + f tan x 
 Note: For any thread (but for square thread,  = 0 )
8. Total torque to operate the screw, TT TT = T + Tc
9. Output power of screw(Po) Po = Weight x linear velocity of screw = W x v
10. Power input of screw(Pi) Pi = 2  TT N

11. Efficiency of power screw(e).

tan x(1 − f tan x )
A. For square thread: = Power Output/Power input =
f D
tan x + f + ( c c )(1 − f tan x )
Dm
tan x(cos  − f sin x )
B. For ACME thread: e =
fD
tan x cos  + f cos x + ( c c )(cos  − f sin x )
Dm

12. From Machineries Handbook:

A. W = working strength to screwed up tightly to packed joint
W = St (0.55d2 - 0.25d), lbs
Where: St = working stress, psi d = bolt diameter, in2
D N d2.3
B. For Set Screws: T = 1250 D d2.3, in-lb HP = , hp / set screw
50
D = shaft diameter, in d = set screw diameter, in
N = speed, rpm

SPRING
Tabulated Data of springs: ( p = pitch)
Types of coil end Actual no. of coil Solid Length Free Length
Plain N (n + 1)d np + d
Ground N Nd np
Squared n+2 (n + 3) d np + 3d
Squared & Ground n+2 (n + 2) d np + 2d
1. Stress of coil spring(Ss)
8KFDm
Ss =
d3
2. Stress factor(K) or Wahl Factor:
4C − 1 0.615
K = +
4C − 4 C
3. Spring Index (C)
FL
D
C = m
d CL
SL
Where :Dm = Do – d
Dm = Di + d
4. Deflection(y) Dm
8FC 3n
y =
Gd
Where F = axial load Di
Dm = mean diameter Do
d = wire diameter
n = no. of active or effective coils
G = modulus of rigidity
5. Deflection at solid force(ys)
ys = Free length - Solid length
6. Spring rate(K) W
F2 − F1
K = F/y = F1 / y1 = F2 / y2 = constant =
y 2 − y1
7. Impact load on spring:
F
W(h + y) = y Y F
2
F
Fav e =
2
 F
Energy = W (h + y ) = y
2
where: F = maximum force acting on the spring
y = deflection on spring
W = weight of the object
h = height of the object
Fave = average force
8. For series connected spring:
y = total elongation
= y1 + y2 + y3
F F F K1
y = 1 + 2 + 3
K K2 K3
F = total load = F1 = F2 = F3 = K y K2
9. For parallel connected spring:
y = total elongation = y1 = y2 = y3
F F F K3
y = 1 = 2 = 3
K K2 K3
F = F1 + F2 + F3 = k1y1 + k 2y2 + k3y3
F
11. Leaf spring:

18FL
A. Sf =
2
bt (2ng + 3nf )
2
B. Sg = Sf
3
6FL
C. Smax =
bt2 (ng + nf )

12 F L3
D. y = 3
bt E (2ng + 3nf )
where: Sf = flexural stress
F = load at the supports
L = distance of force to produce maximum moments
b = width of plates
t = thickness of plates
ng = no. of graduated leaves
nf = no. of full length leaves
y = deflection of spring
E = modulus of elasticity = 30 x 106 psi for steel
SPUR GEAR N1 N2
1. Pitch line velocity, V
V = π D1 N1 = D2 N2
2. Speed and diameter relation:
D1 N1 = D2 N2
3. Speed and no. of teeth relation:
T1 N1 = T2 N2 Pc
4. D and T relation:
D1 / D2 = T1 / T2
5. Speed Ratio C
Speed of Driver
=
Speed of driven
6. Center Distance:
A. When turning in opposite direction:
D1 + D 2
C=
2
B. When turning in the same direction or internal gear
Fr
D2 − D1
C =
2
Fn Ft
7. DP = diametral pitch N2
T N1
DP =
D
25.4
DP =
M
where:
D = pitch diameter, in
T = no. of teeth
8. Module, M
D
M =
T
25.4
M = D = pitch diameter, mm
DP
where:
D = pitch diameter
T = number of teeth
9. Pc = circular pitch
D 2C
Pc = =
T T1 + T2
10. The product of circular pitch and diametral pitch is equal to π.
Pc x DP = π
11. Dynamic forces on meshing gears:
A. P = 2  T N, KW
B.T1 = Ft x r1
where:
Ft = tangential force
r1 = radius of driving gear
T1 = torque developed on driving gear
C. Total load, Tangential load and separation load relation
2 2 Ft
Fn = Ft + Fr Fn = For ordinary industrialgears operating at velocities :
cos 
where: S b Y  600 
up to 2000 fpm Ft = w  
Fn = total load or tooth pressure between teeth. DP  600 + v m 
Fr = resisting load or separation load
For accurately cut gears operating at velocities up to :
 = pressure angle
S b Y  1200 
4000 fpm Ft = w  
DP  1200 + v m 
Strength of Gear Teeth
For precisiongears cut with over 4000 fpm :

Sw b Y 78 
Ft =   where : Y = Lewis form factor
DP  78 + v m 
b = face width DP = diametralpitch b = face width
S w = safe working stress v m = pitch line velocity
12. GEAR TOOTH PROPORTION TABLE
Gear Parts 14 ½ o 20o
Addendum 1/DP 1/DP
Dedendum 1.157/DP 1.25/DP
Working depth 2/DP 2/DP
Whole depth 2.157/DP 2.25/DP
Clearance 0.157/DP 0.25/DP
Backlash 0.141/DP 0.035/DP
Outside Diameter (N + 2)/DP (N + 2)/DP
Tooth thickness 1.5708/DP 1.5708/DP
Where:
DP = diametral pitch
N = number of teeth

MACHINE DESIGN

HELICAL GEARS

Helical gear nomenclature:

Relation of Angles:
DPc Pc T
1. DPn = 2. Pcn = 3. tann = tan cos 4. Tv =
cos  cos  cos3 

Relation of Forces:
2 2 2
5. Power = Ft V 6. Fa = Ft tan 7. Fr = Ft tan 8. Fn = Fr + Fa + Ft
Where: Fr = radial load Fa = axial load Ft = tangential load Fn = total load

Sw f Y  78 
9. Strength of Helical Gears Ft =  
P  78 + V 
F = 2 Pa where: Pa = axial pitch = Pcn / sin
0.05V(C f cos2  + Ft ) cos 
10. Dynamic Load on Helical Gears Fd = Ft +
0.5V + C f cos2  + Ft

where: V = pitch line velocity = DN, fpm

 = helix angle Pc = circular pitch Pcn = normal circular pitch
 = pressure angle n = normal pressure angle f = face width, in
DP = diametral pitch DPn = normal diametral pitch T = number of teeth
Tv = virtual number of teeth Y = form factor based on the virtual number of teeth
Sw = safe working stress, psi C = a factor dependent upon machining errors
V = pitch line velocity, fpm

WORM GEARS
Worm gears are used where high speed ratios(10:1) and above are desired.

Worm Gear Nomenclature

1. Linear pitch, p = distance between adjacent threads
Dg
2. Pc = circular pitch of the gear Pc = =
Tg
Dg
3. Pitch of worm = Circular pitch of gear p = Pc =
Tg
Nw Tg
4. Speed ratio = =
Ng Number of threads on worm
Note: No. of threads on the worm is equal to 1 for single threaded and 2 for double threaded.

5. Tangential velocity of worm, vwt = π Dw Nw

6. Linear velocity of worm, vwL = Nw L

7. Tangential velocity of gear, vg = π Dg Ng

8. But: vwL = vg , therefore Nw L = π Dg Ng

9. Lead, L - the distance from any point on one thread to the corresponding point on the next turn of
the same thread.
Lead angle - the angle between the tangent to the pitch helix and the plane of rotation.
Lead L = p (for single thread) = 2p ( for double thread) = 3p (for triple thread)
Dw + Dg
10. Center Distance, C C=
2
Where: Dw = pitch diameter of the worm Dg = pitch diameter of the gear
Ng = speed of gear Nw = speed of worm Tw = number of teeth of worm
Tg = number of teeth of gear vw = tangential velocity of worm
Vg = tangential velocity of gear vwL = linear velocity of worm

Lead  Dw
11. Relation of angles: tan x = tan = where:  = 90o - x
Dw Lead
   tan n
tann = tan (cos x) tan  =
 2  tan x
where: x = lead angle of worm  = pressure angle  = face angle (usually60o )
n = normal pressure angle = 14.5o if not given  = helix angle of worm
Note: lead angle of worm = helix angle of gear
tan x(cos n − f tan x )
12. Efficiency of Worm gear: e =
cos n tan x + f

To maximize efficiency, tan x = 1+ f 2 − f

13. Power transmitted: Pw = power of worm = 2 π Tw Nw = Wt vw

Pg = power of gear = 2 π Tg Ng = Pw e = Ft vg

2 Tw
14. Tangential force on worm, Wt: Tw = Wt (Dw / 2) or Wt =
Dw
 2Tg
15. Tangential load on gear, Ft: Tg = Ft (Dg / 2) or Ft =
Dg
e cos  cos x − f sin x
or Ft = Wt = Wt
tan x cos  sin x + f cos x
Ft (sinn )
16. Separation Load, S: S =
cos n cos x − f sin x
2 2
17. Total Force of resultant force: Fn = Ft + Wt + S2
18. Strength of Worm Gear
Note: The worm gear is weaker than the worm, therefore the design for strength is based on the
worm gear.
S w f Y  1200 
Tangential Load on the gear: Ft =  
DP  1200 + V 
where: Ft = tangential pitch line load on the gear Sw = safe stress, Table 12-2
f = face width Y = form factor, Table 11-2
V = pitch line velocity of the gear, fpm DP = diametral pitch
D w + 2 add
f = face width =
2
where: add = addendum = 1/DP

BEVEL GEAR

Bevel gears - are used to connect intersecting shafts, usually at right angle.

1. Number of teeth and Speed relation T1 N1 = T2 N2

2. Speed and Diameter relation: D1 N1 = D2 N2
3. Angle between shafts, θ  = p +  g
where:  p = pitch angle of the pinion  g = pitch angle of the gear
4. Speed and Angle relation: Ng sin  g = Np sin  p

sin  sin 
5. Angle of Gear: tan g = 6. Angle of Pinion: tan p =
Ng Np
+ cos  + cos 
Np Ng

6. If the shafts are right angle (90o) or θ = 90o if not given

Np Ng
A. tan g = B. tan p =
Ng Np

7. Face Angle
Addendum (2 sin g )
A. Face angle of Gear,  g : g =  g +  a where: tan a =
Dg
Addendum (2 sin p )
B. Face angle of Pinion p : p =  p +  a where: tan a =
Dp
8. Cutting Angle:
Dedendum (2 sin g )
A. Cutting angle of Gear  g :  g =  g -  d where: tan d =
Dg
 Dedendum (2 sin p )
B. Cutting angle of Pinion p : p =  p -  d where: tan d =
Dp
9. Power Transmitted: P = 2 π T N

10. Torque transmitted by bevel gear: T = Ft (R ) = Ft (Dp / 2)

11. Dynamic Load on Gear:

2T
A. Tangential Force, Ft Ft = B. Radial Force, Fr Fr = Ft tan n cos p
Dp

C. Axial Force, Fa Fa = Ft tan n sin p D. Resultant Force, Fn Fn = Fr 2 + Fa2 + Ft 2

12. Strength of Gear Teeth

S fY f f 2   78 
Ft = w 1 − + 2   
DP  L 3L   78 + V 
Where: Sw = working stress f = face width DP diametral pitch Y = form factor
V = pitch line velocity L = distance from the point of shafts axis intersection to the
outermost point of contact of gears.

MACHINE DESIGN
ROLLER CHAIN AND SPROCKET
Are used in transmitting power from one shaft to another shaft that
are parallel. It could be single or multiple strand.
A. Roller Chain Designation: RCXY ---- RC means Roller Chain.
X means one or two-digit no. that shows the number 1/8” in the chain
pitch. Y means (Y = 0 for chains of usual proportion, Y = 1 for
lightweight chain, Y = 5 for roller-less bushing chins.
Example RC40 has X = 4, therefore the pitch p = 4/8 = ½ inch.
2/3
 900 
B. Estimation Formula for the Chain Pitch. p   
 , inch
 N1 
where: p = pitch, N = speed
C. Sprocket Teeth in terms of Sprocket Bore:
4d
1. For RC with pitches up to 1 inch: Tmin = +5
p
d = bore
4d
2. For RC with pitches 1 ¼” to 2 ½” Tmin = +4
p
4d
3. For a silent chain Tmin = +6
p
Where: d = bore, inches p = pitch

FORMULAS:
1. θ = angle between two adjacent teeth of sprocket θ = 360O / T
P
2. Pitch diameter , D D =
 180 
sin  
 T 
3. Pitch line velocity, v v = π D N = p (t)(N)
Where: p = pitch N = speed
d = pitch diameter of smaller sprocket D = pitch diameter of larger sprocket
T = number of teeth of larger sprocket t = number of teeth of smaller sprocket
θ = angle between two adjacent teeth of sprocket
4. Power transmitted, P P = Fv P = 2πTN
Where: F = force v = velocity T = torque N = speed
T + t (T − t ) 2
5. Length of Chain, L in pitches L = 2C + + Where: C = center distance, in pitches
2 40 C
 p 
6. Center Distance, C C= 2 L − T − t + (2 L − T − t )3 − 0.81(T − t )2 
8  
7. Average good center distance (Standard)
d
C = D + , inches =
(D + d / 2) , pitches
2 p
9. Horsepower Capacity of Roller Chain:
A. Based on link plate fatigue strength. hp / strand = 0.004 (T1)1.08 (N1)0.9 (p)(3−0.07p)
pV  V 
B. Silent Chain hp / inch of width = 1 − 
53  425(T1 − 8) 
Design hp
Width of chain, b =
hp / inch of width

BELTS
FLAT BELT
1. For Open Belt Connection:
A. Pulley diameter and speed relation:
D1 N1 = D2 N2
(D2 − D1)2
B. Belt length: L = 1.57(D2 + D1) + 2C +
4C
C. Angle of contact:
 R − R1 
 =   2sin-1  2  , radians  =
 C 
D2 − D1
  , radians
C
Note: Use + sign for larger pulley Use - sign for smaller pulley

2. For Crossed Belt Connection

A. Pulley diameter and speed relation: D1 N1 = D2 N2

B. Belt Length: L = 1.57 (D2 + D1) + 2C +

(D2 + D1)2
4C
where: L = length of belt D1 = diameter of smaller pulley
D2 = diameter of larger pulley R = radius of larger pulley
r = radius of smaller pulley  = arc of contact, radians
C = center distance
C. Angle of contact:
 R + R1  D2 + D1
 =  + 2sin-1  2  , radians  =  + , radians
 C  C

3. Belt Tension
F1
A. If Centrifugal Tension is Neglected = ef 
F2
where: F1 = tension in tight side F2 = tension in slack side f = coefficient of friction
 = arc of contact, rad
The maximum tension on belt is: F1 = Fmax = Sd (b t)
where Sd = belt’s design stress = 400 e, psi
e = joint efficiency (1.0 for cemented joint, 0.88 for wirelace ends, 0.35 ends joined by metal hooked)
F1 − Fc
B. If Centrifugal Tension is Considered = ef 
F2 − Fc
where: Fc = centrifugal tension = 12wbtv2/g w = belt weight, lb/in3
b = belt width, in t = belt thickness, in v = belt velocity, ft/sec
C. Net belt pull (tangential force on pulley), F F = F1 - F2
 F1
D. Stress in Belt: Sw = where: Sw = working stress = 300 psi for leather belts
bt
E. Power Transmitted and Torque Relation by Belt:
T = (F1 - F2) r = F x r P = 2TN, Kw
where: P = power, KW T = torque, KN-m N = speed, rps
F. Horsepower transmitted and stress relation
(F1 − F2 )v  550 (Hp)   ef  
P = , hp bt =  2
  f 
550  v(Sw − 12wv / g)   e − 1

V-BELT

(D − d)2 b + b2 − 32(D − d)2

A. Belt Length L = 1.57(D + d) + 2C + B. Center Distance C =
4C 16
(D − d)60
C. Arc of contact on small sheave  = 180 −
C
where: L = pitch length of belt C = center distance D = pitch diameter
d = pitch diameter of large sheave b = 4L - 6.28(D + d)
BEARING
lb − sec dyne − sec
A. Units of Viscosity: 1 reyn = 1 1 poise = 1
in2 cm2
B. Sliding Bearings:
D−d
Cd = diametral clearance = D - d Cr = radial clearance =
2
Cd D − d
C. Diametral Clearance Ratio = =
D D
where: p = unit loading or bearing pressure = F/LD e = eccentricity
e = radial distance between center of bearing and the displaced center of the journal
D = diameter (bore) of the bearing d = diameter of the journal
L = axial length of the journal inside the bearing F = radial load
un
Bearing Modulus = where: u = viscosity in reyns n = speed in rps p = unit loading, psi
p
D. Frictional torque in bearings (Vallance p 231) Tb = F fb D/2
4u 2 r 3 Ln s
Petroff’s equation for frictional torque (Faires p 302) Tf =
Cr
where: Tf = frictional torque, in-lb u = viscosity, reyns (Fig. AF 16, p 595)
r = journal radius, in L = axial length of bearing, in
ns = journal speed, rps Cr = radial clearance, in
ChLD
Heat dissipation in journal bearings (Valiance p 240) H
778
where: H = heat dissipated in Btu/min
Ch = heat dissipation coefficient, of projected area, ft-lbs/min-in2
L = length of bearing, in D = diameter of bearing, in
E. Ball and Roller Bearings
1. Bearing Sizes and Designation
Example of bearing designation: SAE or IS 314 is 300 series, No.14
2. Tabulated data on ball and roller bearings: Vallance: Table 9-2 p 206
3. Bearing Capacity based on stresses (Vallance p 205)
k1nD2 k nLD
Fr = ( for ballbearings) Fr = 2 (for roller bearings)
5 5
where: Fr = total radial load, lbs n = number of balls or rollers
D = ball diameter or roller diameter, in L = length of rollers, in
k1 = 550 for unhardened steel = 700 for hardened carbon steel
= 1000 for hardened alloy steel on flat races = 1500 for hardened carbon steel
= 2000 for hardened alloy steel on grooved races
k2 = 7000 for hardened carbon steel = 10,000 for hardened alloy steel
4. Radial Load Catalog Capacities of Ball and Roller Bearings (Vallance: pp 207-213)
5. Tabulated catalog capacities of ball and roller bearings: Table 9-7, p 212 and Table 9-8, p 213
Fc = (ka k1)ko kp ks kt Fr
where: Fc = Catalog rating of bearing, lb (tables 9-7 and 9-8)
 Fr = actual radial load on the bearing, lb Ha = desired life of bearing, hrs of use
Hc = catalog rated life of bearing, hr
ka = application factor taking into account the amount of shock (Table 9-4)
Ha
k1 = 3 , the life factor where: ko = oscillation factor = 1.0 for constant
HcK rel
rotational speed of the races = 0.67 for sinusoidal oscillations of the races
kp = preloading factor = 1.0 for non-preloaded ball bearings and straight roller bearings
kr = rotational factor = 1.0 for bearings with fixed outer races and rotating inner races
K r Na
krel = reliability factor, Table 9-3 ks = 3 , the speed factor
Nc
kt = thrust factor = 1.0 if there is no thrust-load component

MACHINE DESIGN
BRAKES
Brake - is a device which is used to regulate or stop the
motion of a body.
F
A. Simple Band Brake: Tension in the band = 1 = e f
F2
where: F1 = force on tight side F2 = force on slack side
f = coefficient of friction  = angle of contact, rad
B. Brake Torque Developed: T = (F1 - F2)r
where: T = brake torque r = radius of friction surface on the drum
C. Actuating Force Required: (by taking moment about the pivot point)
Fa = a F2 / L
F 2 F1
D. Maximum Unit Pressure: Pmax = 1 =
wr wD

where: w = width of the band D = diameter of drum = 2 r

F
E. Stress in band: S = 1
wt
where: t = thickness of the band
F. Differential Band Brake
F2 (a ) − F1(b)
By taking moment about the pivot point: Fa =
L
G. Self-Locking Differential Band Brake:
A differential band brake is self-locking when Fa is zero or
negative.
H. Block Brake (Valiance p 364)
1. Single Block
4fFr r sin( / 2) P wr
T = f Fr h T = Fr = max ( + sin )
 + sin  2
where:
T = braking torque Fr = radial force between the drum and each shoe
f = coefficient of friction h = effective moment arm of the friction force
r = radius of the friction surface of the drum  = angle of contact
Pmax = maximum normal pressure between block and drum
w = axial width of block
2. Double Block
Principles of Double Block Brake:
A, Torque, T = (FL + FR) (D/2)
 4 sin L 
B. FL = PL fL  

 2L + sin 2L  2L 2R
  4 sin R 
C. FR = PR fR  

 2R + sin 2R 
D. Power, P = 2 π T N
Where: PL and PR = normal forces , FL and FR = frictional forces, θL and θR = angle of contact
I. Heat Dissipated in Brakes (Valiance p 374) H = f Fr V
where: H = heat dissipated f = coefficient of friction Fr = radial force V = surface velocity
J. For Brake used in lowering of a weight: H = Wh
where: W = weight lowered h = total distance traveled

CLUTCH
Clutch - is a machine member which is used to connect
shafts so that the driven shaft will rotate with
the driving shaft, and to disconnect them at will.
Single Plate of Disc Clutch
A. Power transmitted: P = 2 T N T = n f Fa rf
I
B. Clutch Starting Torque, T T= Where:  = angular acce
g
where: I = inertia T = torque transmitted
n = number of pairs of mating friction surfaces = (np – 1)
f = coefficient of friction Fa = axial load
rf = mean friction radius np = number of plates or disc
C. Mean frictional Radius, rf
For uniform pressure disc clutch:

2  R3 − r 3  1  D3 − d3  Fa
rf =  =   Pmax =
3  R2 − r 2  3  D2 − d2   2
(D − d2 )
4
For uniform wear clutch worm clutch:
R+r D+d Fa
rf = = Pmax =
2 4 (d / 2)(D − d)
D. Bearing Pressure on the jaw faces: Pb = Fb / Ab
Where: Fb = bearing force = 2T/Dm
Ab = bearing area = t h nj
Where: t = axial length h = jaw height nj = no. of jaws

Cone clutch:
A. Power: P = 2TN
F fr
B. Torque: T = a f
sin 
C. Fe = force needed to engage cone clutch
Fe = Fn ( sin  + f cos  )
Fa
D Fn = normal Force =
sin 
E. Pn = Fn / An where: An = normal area = π Dm b
D+d
Where: Dm = mean diameter =
2
D−d
b=
2 sin 
WIRE ROPES
A. Wire Rope Designation:
For 6 x 7 wire rope - 6 stands for the number of strands; 7 stands for the number of wires

B. Approximate wire diameters and areas:

ROPE dw A
6x7 0.106 d 0.38 d2
6 x 19 0.063 d 0.38 d2
6 x 37 0.045 d 0.38 d2
8 x 19 0.050 d 0.35 d2
d = rope diameter, in A = rope area, in2
E d
C. Bending Stress, Sb: Sb = r w
D
Where: Sb = bending stress, psi
Er = modulus of elasticity of wire rope, psi = 12,000,000 psi (for steel)
dw = wire diameter, in D = drum or sheave diameter, in
D. Bending Load
A Er dw
Fb = = Sb A
D
Where: A = wire area
E. The ultimate strengths (Fu) of plow steel is approximately:
Fu = 76,000 d2, lb (for 6 x 7 and 6 x 19 ropes)
Fu = 75,000 d2, lb (for 6 x 37 ropes)
Where: d = rope diameter, in
F. The weight of wire rope is approximately: W = 1.58 d2, lb/ft

FL
E. Approximate wire elongation: y = , in
A Er
FACTOR OF SAFETY, FS
Fu − Fb
FS = where: Ft = tensile load
Ft
 a
A. If moving upward: Ft = WL + WR  1 + 
 g
 a
B. If moving downward: Ft = WL + WR  1 − 
 g
Where: WL = weight attached on the rope
WR = weight of the rope
From DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS by: Faires
For 6 x 7 wire ropes: For 6 x 19 wire ropes: For 6 x 37 wire ropes:
w = 1.52 Dr2, ft/lb w = 1.6 Dr2, ft/lb w = 1.55 Dr2, ft/lb
Dw = 0.111 Dr, in Dw = 0.067 Dr, in Dw = 0.048 Dr, in
Am = 0.38 Dr2, in2 Am = 0.40 Dr2, in2 Am = 0.40 Dr2, in2
Er = 13 x 106, psi Er = 12 x 106, psi Er = 13 x 106, psi
Min. Ds = 42 Dr, in Min. Ds = 30 Dr, in Min. Ds = 18 Dr, in

WELDED JOINTS:
Welding - a process of joining the metal by heating the metal to a state fusion permitting it to flow into a
solid joints.

A. Strength of BUTT weld: St = F / t L

where: F = tensile force
t = plate thickness
L = length of weld
B. Strength of Fillet weld: St = F/2A
Where: A = t L
t = throat thickness = b sin45o
So, A = (b sin 45o)
F
Therefore: St =
2( b sin 45) L

RIVETED JOINTS
Application - use for pressure vessels, building structures, tanks, bridges, etc.

Size of Rivets: A. Before driving, rivet diameter is 1/16 inch less than the rivet hole.
B. After driving, the rivet diameter is equal to the rivet hole.
Strength of Rivets
1. Fu = force that can be carried by unpunched plate
Fu = St (t L)
Where: St = tensile stress
t = plate thickness L = plate length

2. Ft = force that can cause tensile stress on plate between rivets

F t = St A
where: A = t [ L – n D ] n = no. of rivets
D = hole diameter
3. Fs = force that cause shearing stress on rivets

Fs = Ss n D 2
4
Where: Ss = shearing stress A = π/4 D2

4. Fb = force that can cause bearing stress in the rivets

Fb = Sb ( n t D)
Where: Sb = bearing stress