Mass Media and Political Mobilization 1

Mass Media and Political Mobilization

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Mass Media and Political Mobilization

Introduction

Mass media plays a critical role in facilitating the creation, distribution and sharing of

political news. Over the past three decades, it has evolved quickly and continues to expand in

new and often unexpected ways. Mass media has a wide-ranging impact on democratic

governance and electoral practice. They have fundamentally transformed the way government

agencies work as well as how elected officials interact (Donald & Keane, 2012). As such, mass

media has radically altered the political landscape and redefined journalists’ roles. Moreover, it

also influenced the way citizens participate in politics and hence the way elections are contested.

Both the development of political consciousness and organization of demonstrations via mass

media channels have been emphasized and debated internationally (Donald & Keane, 2012). The

role of mass media’s impact on these movements is a topic that has attracted numerous studies

and debates. In line with this, study examines the various aspects of mass media as tools of

political mobilization. In particular, the aim is to explore how mass media is used to facilitate

mobilization of electorates/voters during electioneering period. To have a clear understanding,

the study will focus on the nature of operation of mass media in China, particularly the top

Chinese media outlets.

Background Information

Mass media refers to an array of media platforms that are used to reach a large audience.

There are many mass media channels that are used to broadcast media information electronically

including radio, Tvs, recorded music, and films. Digital media include mobile and internet

platforms such as social media networks, email, websites, and internet live streamed radio and

TVs. Outdoor media outlets include billboards, blimps, and placards that are placed on
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 3

commercial buildings, vehicles, shops, trains, and other places. The other form of mass media is

print media. It involves dissemination of information via physical objects such as magazines,

books, newspapers, and pamphlets.

Sharing of political information is an essential mechanism in the political environment

and the mainstream media have a key role to play in this practice. The news media channels

provide electorate with a mechanism for understanding the past and current political affairs.

Thus, mass media is a major force in modern culture as the society. The radio, television, press,

and other mass media channels should at all-time uphold fundamental objectives as well as

highlight the responsibility of the government to its citizen.

Globally, only a small percentage of the people is directly involved in politics, and thus

knows from first-hand knowledge about political news. What most people know about politics is

primarily what they hear from the news media. In other terms, the mainstream media describe

their 'true' world of politics for those people who do not engage actively in politics. Peter

Golding claimed that 'the media is essential to the provision of concepts and ideas that citizens

use to view and appreciate a great deal of their daily existence' (Golding, 1974). Seemingly, this

gives mainstream media tremendous influence in the contemporary society, since it either set

people's minds against the political establishment or help garn public support.

Mass media is still evolving, comprising not just radio, television, newspapers, theatre,

journals, film, and advertisement, but also, more recently, multi-channel tv, cable, the Internet

and other forms such as mass messaging. This rise means more options for the consumer, as well

as globalization of mass communication. For instance, the cable and satellite tv may have

introduced British audiences to programs that do not mirror British values.

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The Internet, a highly interlinked network of, has also provided a 'knowledge

superhighway,' which allows a person residing in the remotest parts of the world have access to

information. Through doing so, the individual has the ability to join up with other like-minded

individuals anywhere in the world to build a 'virtual' association from which they can achieve

political objectives.

There are two basic points of view on the interaction between mainstream media and

culture. First, there is the view that the media is an integral part of society, because it positions

itself as a 'free' entity. The media promote the operation of a democratic society by promoting

free expression and unrestricted public discourse. In Britain, there is no state regulation over

either the press or broadcasting, while the latter is controlled in such a way that it still meets the

needs of the society as a whole. This results in a large range of political views being aired, and

many of the media channels are against to the government of the day.

The law bounds the broadcasting process to always remain objective and unbiased. For

instance, the Independent Broadcasting Authority, for example, is constitutionally obligated to

guarantee that all news are properly presented and that 'due impartiality is upheld on the part of

individuals delivering the programming in respect of political or workplace conflicts or existing

public policy concerns. Moreover, the government may apply greater influence over

broadcasting during periods of national emergency as part of its coping strategy. Chang (2019)

direct political interference in television is uncommon, as policymakers are be highly receptive

about what is being transmitted.

On its part, the Chinese mass media system comprise primarily of radio, television,

newspaper, and magazines. The Internet has also risen as a significant medium of media contact

since 2000 and has been put under the oversight of the Chinese government. From the
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establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 to around 1980s, nearly all media

outlets in Mainland China were state-run. Independent media outlets only started to appear with

the start of economic reforms, while state media outlets such as People's Daily, China Central

Television (CCTV), and Xinhua continue to retain substantial market share. Independent media

that work under the PRC are no longer expected to strictly observe journalistic standards

established by the Chinese government (Chang, 2019). In China, mass media has a huge impact

on Chinese politics and popular views. There are hundreds of newspapers and magazines and

numerous online media that fiercely compete for market share. At the same time, the state is

continuous to reassess media policy and regulation, both on the media in general and on specific

media workers in particular.

Chang (2019) points out that mass media should aid in nurturing democracy including

embracing its success or failures. Thus, this research seeks to investigate the role played by mass

media in political mobilization, which is key tenet of democracy.

Problem Statement

Public involvement in election matters is critical to democratic governance. Although

civic participation ensures political continuity, it also deepens the foundations of democracy. In

young democracy, with common law (Dalton, 2017). Research has found that media plays a

crucial role in facilitating political engagements. News utilizes political participation factors

through increasing political awareness and perceived effectiveness, thus directing the perceptions

and decisions of people. Moreover, scientific studies have found out that consumption of online

including by social media accelerates engagement in political events (Chan, Chen, & Lee, 2017).

It is undoubted truth that the media acts as watchdog for the public, particularly during

electioneering period. It is used as the major instrument to mobilize and inform the public about
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 6

the political unfolding in a country. As such, it is plays an indispensable role in fostering

democracy. Arguably, the political mayhem experienced in most of the countries during election

period is attributable to many factors.

Despite numerous past studies analyzing media influences on political activities in the

Western democracies, few studies have delved on Asian countries, particularly China. The

current study seeks to address this gap through examining the role that mass media plays in

political mobilization.

Objectives

Broad Objectives

To examine the role played by mass media in political mobilization in China.

Specific Objectives

1. To investigate whether mass media can be used to inform and mobilize Chinese people

during electioneering period

2. To investigate the role that mass media has played in ensuring a viable democracy in

China

3. To examine whether mass media has been playing any part in ethnic clashes during

electioneering period in China

Research Questions

1. Is mass media used to inform and mobilize electorates during electioneering period in

China?

2. What contribution has mass media played in ensuring a viable democracy in China?

3. Has mass media being employed to facilitate ethnic crashes electioneering period in

China?
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Hypothesis

1. Mass media is used to inform and mobilize voters during electioneering period in China

2. Mass media has contributed immensely towards creating a democratic Chinese society

through being impartial when reporting, providing facts and statistics, and stimulating

public debates on contentious issues.

3. Yes. Mass media has media being employed as a tool to facilitate ethnic crashes

electioneering period in China.

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will be of immense benefits to the government, media

companies, and the public at large. This is because they will highlight the importance of mass

media as a tool for political mobilization. Through the mass media channels, especially Tvs and

Radio, China might have an opportunity of cultivating a viable political culture, and hence

choose leaders that will inculcate sustaining democracy.

Limitations of the Study

The study will be limited as it will assess a few mass media channels that are mostly used

in China; specifically People’s Daily, China Daily, and Xinhua.

Definition of Terms

Role: the function that mass media plays in contributing to political development.

Mass media: existing channels that are used to inform the public/greater number of people

spontaneously.

Mobilize: make people become actively involved in politics

Censorship: suppression of media on the basis that such news is harmful or sensitive.
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CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

Mass Media

There is a lot of literature on the mass media and its influence on political activities,

mostly focused on the notions of modes of media control and how various media activities

inevitably set certain goals. For much of the science and study that takes place in later pages, this

chapter will set the foundations. Therefore, the foundation for this chapter would be to establish

a theoretical structure that explores the implications of media mass media on politics.

Mass media refers to a wide set of media technologies that, through mass

communication, reach a broad audience. A number of channels are used in the technologies by

which this correspondence takes place. It can broadly be classified into two categories;

traditional mass media and digital mass media.

Traditional Mass Media

This category includes all form of mass media that was available before the advent of the

digital media. It comprises of radio, Tv, magazine, books, billboards, newspapers.

Digital Media

The category comprises both mobile and internet mass communications. The

internet media includes channels such as websites, social media sites, and Internet-based radio

and tv

Theoretical Framework

The principle of uses and gratifications is the central scientific concept of mass

advertising that can be found in multiple kinds of media. This explores the drive of individuals to
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search and acquire knowledge (Weaver Lariscy, Tinkham, & Sweetser, 2011). Back to the roots

of the philosophy of uses and gratifications, the study of Lazarsfeld and Stanton (1942) centered

on the purpose of requesting media material, such as newspapers and radio. The principle of uses

and gratifications stresses the roles of individuals are linked to media rather than media functions

of individuals (Katz, 1959). Katz (1959) also notes that the desires, beliefs, and social standing

of people are important variables in the selection of such media. The hypothesis of uses and

gratifications for mass media studies whereby the cognitions of persons such as feelings,

expectations and motives impact the habits of media consumption (McQuail, 2005). The

philosophy of uses and gratifications, however, extended the reach of its inquiry from

conventional media to digital media through the growth of technology and the Internet. As a

dominant online interactivity media, social media provides users with more decisions and

motives (Whiting & Williams, 2013). Social networking, content searching and relaxation are

the essential scale of the method to uses and gratifications to evaluate the intentions of people

through utilizing social media (Ko et al., 2005).

Evolution of Mass Media

The development of mass media stretches from ancient modes of art and literature, to

basic printing technologies from about 800 AD; the creation of the printing press of Gutenberg in

1415; the first printed weekly newspaper in Antwerp in 1606; the invention of Marconi's radio in

1896; John Logie’s television in 1924; and there after the Tim Berners Leee's internet.

The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg enabled the mass production

of books to sweep across the world. He printed the first text, the Latin Bible, in 1453 on a

movable form printing press. The advent of the printing press gave birth to some of the earliest
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 10

modes of mass media by encouraging books and newspapers to be distributed on a far greater

scale than had traditionally been feasible. The innovation further changed the way written

materials were processed by the world, while books stayed too costly for at least a century after

that to be considered a mass-medium.

The first newspaper was developed in the seventeenth century, in Germany in 1609.

However, it took until the nineteenth century to enter a mainstream audience directly. In the

early 1800s, the first high-circulation newspapers, such as The Times, appeared in London and

were made possible by the advent of high-speed rotary steam printing presses and railroads that

enabled large-scale dissemination through vast geographical regions. However, the rise in

circulation contributed to a drop in the readership's reviews and interactivity, leaving newspapers

a more one-way medium.

The newspaper industry has experienced many stages of development. The current

newspaper paradigm of the 21st century, aimed at a broad audience, is very modern. It was

produced between the middle and the late nineteenth century. The paradigm was focused on

reaching specialized markets prior to this. The first 100-150 years of American newspapers,

according to Picard (2002), were spent covering between 15-25 percent of the nation. It was a

niche audience including the elites in culture, governance and economy (Rubin, 2017). They had

to rely on copy sales for newspapers to be successful during this time. As ads was limited or

almost non-existent, the system of pricing or subscriptions to

A press that is autonomous and unencumbered by executive or regulatory control is

endorsed by Liberal Pluralist Ideology. The press is meant to be the government's monitor and

educate the politics about government policy thus promoting democracy's entrenchment. Curran

(2000) notes that, under liberal philosophy, the media should be regarded as a knowledge and
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discussion organization that promotes the functioning of democracy. In national discourse and

debate on topics that concern politics, it also offers a channel between government and citizens.

The theory of the 'public domain' by Habermas (1964) adds credence to this notion of the media.

He shares the expectation that pluralist dialogue and the free development of popular opinion can

be encouraged by the mainstream media. The liberal pluralist philosophy of the media would

thus promote a free and autonomous press that functions in the position of the democratic

watchdog, while at the same time performing the role of customer representation. It is believed

that with the media working in the marketplace, it represents common concerns and eventually

plays an informative function. In a democratic climate, this amplifies the function of the media.

Curran (2015) argues that media scholars commonly regard with intense skepticism any

government effort to interfere with or control the media and stress that essential government

monitoring of the media is central to the functioning of democracy. "This works with Duncan

and Seleoane's (1998: 13) perspectives, who note that "it is necessary for the press to audit the

government's excesses in a democratic democracy as it will make the government officials

responsible to the electorate. In a developed economy such as South Africa, the position of the

media becomes crucial to the system's proper functioning (Strömberg, 2015). Democracy may rely

on the media for South Africa to try to resolve the intellectual, political and economic divide

generated by apartheid.

Nevertheless, Marxist and Neo-Marxist approaches offer a clear rejection of the

independence of the mainstream media of western capitalist democracy. In the production of

analysis into the political economy of the newspapers, this practice has become a stimulus. The

Marxist tradition views the media as pursuing the ruling class's ideological interest in society; the

media is absorbed with the new economic and political elites and is not excluded from their
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 12

controversy. As the media could represent a big challenge to power coalitions, such as states,

political parties or large companies, this is not far from the facts. Both publicly or covertly,

regulation over the media is always attempted. Even, the newspaper is frequently rejected as

promoting corporate business. This may be that the media have been huge business for Herman

and Chomsky, 1988; Bagdikian 1998, that whoever manages the media regulates what the media

creates.

Mass Media in China

In China, the mainstream media mostly comprises of television, journals, radio, and

magazines. The Internet has also arisen as a significant medium of media contact since 2000 and

has been put under the oversight of the Chinese government.

Nearly all media outlets in Mainland China have been state-run since the creation of the

People's Republic of China in 1949 and before the 1980s. Independent media outlets only started

to appear with the advent of economic reforms, while substantial market share remains to be

retained by state media outlets such as Xinhua, China Central Television (CCTV), and People's

Daily. Independent media working within the PRC are no longer expected to strictly obey the

Chinese government's journalistic guidelines. However, Hong Kong is experiencing growing

self-censorship complaints. Regulatory authorities, such as the General Administration of Press

and Publishing (GAPP), however, are witnessing increasing complaints regarding self-

censorship.

In mainland China, the number of newspapers rose from 42 in 1968 to 382 in 1980 and

more than 2,200 today. There are more than 7,000 magazines and newspapers in the world today,

according to one official report. In the mid-1960s and the mid-to-late 1980s, the amount of
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 13

copies of regular and weekly newspapers and magazines in print rose fourfold and reached 310

million by 1987.

Mass Media Profile

China is the world's largest mass media market in the world, with also the world’s largest

online community. Outlets work under the close supervision of the Communist Party. The

industry's opening-up has spread to delivery and advertisement rather than to editorial material.

There is, therefore, a leeway for independent media which is not viewed by the Party or as a

challenge to social order.

In most households, TV is accessible and the market, especially in cities, is competitive.

There are more than 3,000 TV stations, local, regional and global. The largest television

organization in China is the state-run Chinese Central TV (CCTV). Its supremacy is contested by

provincial television stations, which are transmitted nationwide by satellite. China positions itself

as a major market for the subscription TV, which is delivered almost entirely via cable. Many of

the 2,600-plus radio stations in China are state-owned. There are nearly 100 newspapers. Each

town has its own title, commonly published on a regular basis by the city government, as well as

a local Communist Party.

Media Censorship

In China, there is a persistent tension between the desire for freedom of knowledge to

ensure further growth and the ability of the Chinese government to regulate material and

preserve information hegemony. People live in China have to contend with censored websites

and distorted search results; it is not possible to freely reach several foreign communication

channels such as Tv, Radio, Facebook, YouTube and Twitter in China.

 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 14

There are avenues around censorship in China, though, and journalists use humour and

political criticism in sites such as the blogosphere to undermine the Chinese government. In

order to bypass censorship instruments, bloggers often phonetically spell Chinese characters or

substitute similar-sounding harmless characters.

Media Use and Political Participation in China

It is important to examine political engagement in relation to various cultural contexts.

Political engagement in Western countries applies to average people that have intentions and real

actions that may explicitly or implicitly affect government decisions or policy making, or 20

(Bennett & Bennett, 1986). Political involvement involves participation in political events,

including paying attention, voting for politicians, and contributing to political parties (Kenski &

Stroud, 2006; Brady, Verba, & Schlozman, 1995). Education, wages, and age are three essential

predictors of political involvement from a demographic viewpoint, according to Rosenstone and

Hansen (1993). Political engagement tools have also been built by Brady, Verba, and Schlozman

(1995): time, money and civic skills. Institutional activity is often described in their study as

overt intervention in political events. Family history and education interactions may affect the

motives and behavior of engaging in institutional engagement (Brady, Verba, and Schlozman,

1995). Furthermore, reference to favorable and misleading knowledge regarding election

elections has a direct effect on political engagement (Hyland, 1995). It further highlights the

roles of civic engagement in the mainstream media (Negrine, 2013). In the other side, elections

and election movements affect the external success of entities in the political arena.

The effect of the Internet on civic engagement in this century is clear. In a democratic,

non-democratic and changed culture, the Internet offers people with important access to connect

with the government in order to gain civic engagement. There is a clear connection between
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 15

Internet use and online speech. The Internet offers users with easy, affordable and private access

to share their views, which gives users a secure and relaxed feeling (Medaglia & Zhu, 2017).

Political involvement on the Internet exists, according to Muir and Oppenheim (2002), because

users with online knowledge are' more knowledgeable regarding government rules, legislation,

strategies, and programs' (p.175). Internet use and consumption of online political information

have a strongly positive association with political behavior (Vitak et al., 2011).

Finally, the mediating roles of democratic effectiveness in the usage of the media and

political engagement have been investigated. The mediating role of internal political

effectiveness between political awareness and political engagement has been investigated by

Reichert (2016). Some previous research has shown that political awareness can improve voting

activity, but other researchers have shown that political knowledge has a lower effect on other

forms of engagement in politics (Oesterreich, 2003). Political awareness did not have a major

impact on political engagement in Reichert's (2016) study. Therefore, as mediating factors that

affect political activities, it is important to analyze political effectiveness. Reichert's study

indicates that there is little association between internal political effectiveness and voting, but

that internal efficacy plays a mediating function, allowing political awareness to affect political

involvement. It is undeniable that political awareness, especially the usage of social media, is

positively linked to media use (Kenski & Stroud, 2006), 2012). As a consequence, internal

electoral effectiveness may often be an intermediary in the usage of social media and political

engagement. Reichert also discussed the motives of civic engagement, in addition. Intentions are

prerequisites for the real actions of (Ajzen, 2012). Intentions aligned with personal preferences,

democratic attitudes and religions, etc (Galston, 2001; Polonsky et al., 2013).
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 16

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This section presents Methodology to be used in the study. It is presented under; research

design, target population, sample size ,sampling technique and, research instruments, validity of

research instruments, reliability of research instruments, ethical issues, data collection

procedures and data analysis techniques.

3.2. Research Design

This study adopted the qualitative research design. It is a systematic subjective approach

that is used to understand people’s views and experiences as well as draw findings their opinions.

As such, the researcher used the qualitative research design to gain insight, explore the

complexity, depth, and richness inherent in the role played by mass media in political

mobilization in China. According to Bryman (2012), the quantitative research technique is

useful, especially when the topic of research can be condensed to a simple yes or no answer.

Conversely, in this study, in the simplest terms, the researcher sought to understand whether

mass media has played a contributed in fostering democracy in China.

Target Population

Target demographic relates to the particular elements that the analysis works on and to which the

study’s results of are generalized. Thus, it describes certain units with which they can include

study’s data that will assist in interpreting the phenomena being studied. According to Flick

(2015), for a target group to be ostensibly identified, there is need to identify features that the

researcher anticipates to explore. In this study, the researcher targeted employees of the three
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 17

major media channels in China People’s Daily, China Daily, and Xinhua. It also targeted public

members.

3.4. Sample Size and Sampling Technique

The researcher utilizes elements in tandem with the goals of the analysis with the

necessary knowledge and the criterion for selecting the participants must be defined (Kumar,

2019). In particular, this research used a random sampling method to sample employees of the

three afore-highlighted major media channels who were interested in the study. There are several

advantages that have been accomplished by utilizing the random sampling method to pick

participants from pupils, including cost-effectiveness and prejudice elimination (Jamshed, 2014).

Moreover, this method was employed since it is cost-effective and time saving.

Data Gathering Tools

Two primary techniques of data gathering will be used in this study; questionnaires and
interviews. The questionnaires will be administered to the selected employees’ participants of the
three media channels. It will include both open ended and closed ended questions. The use of
questionnaires has several advantages including being easy to administer, cheap, saving time,
and increases accuracy.
Also, the researcher used interviews to gather the views of employees on the role of mass

media on political mobilization. A pilot study will be conducted, where the researcher will seek

to modify the interview questions according to the interviewees’ responses. Importantly, the

audio responses will be recorded for transcription thereafter.

Data Collection Procedure

The initial step will be to seek permit from the Research Integrity Office's Code of

Practice for Research in China. The body is tasked with the responsibility of issuing our research

permits in Mainland China. Next, the researcher will proceed to seek further clearance from the

department prior to selecting the study’s participants. Notably, questionnaires will be issued and
 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 18

collected on the same day. However, interview session will be done in three days the preference

location of the interviewees.

Data Analysis Techniques

The research will adopt the thematic analysis technique to analyze the collected data.

This technique entails categorizing the gathered data into themes and sub-themes, in an effort to

compare them and identify common opinions (Vaismoradi et al., 2016). The findings of the

study will be discussed in-depth in the next chapter.

 Mass Media and Political Mobilization 19

References

Chang, W. H. (2019). Mass media in China: The history and the future. Ames: Iowa State University

Press.

Donald, S. H., & Keane, M. (2012). Media in China: New convergences, new approaches. Media in

China: Consumption, content and crisis, 3.

Donald, S. H., Hong, Y., & Keane, M. (Eds.). (2014). Media in China: Consumption, content and crisis.

Routledge.

Negrine, R. (2013). Politics and the mass media in Britain. Routledge.

Rubin, B. (2017). Media, politics, and democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.

Street, J. (2010). Mass media, politics and democracy. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Strömberg, D. (2015). Media and politics. economics, 7(1), 173-205.