Heat Transfer

Lab Report

Experiment 1: Study of Heat Conduction through Copper

Bar.
Instructor: Mr. Ammar Ahmad

Name: Muhammad Farhan Saleem

Roll #: 04-3-1-024-2017

Group #: G 6

Date of Submission: June 6, 2021

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences,
Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan.
 Table of Contents
1 Abstract...............................................................................................................3

2 Learning Objectives..............................................................................................3

3 Introduction.........................................................................................................3

4 Experimental Setup..............................................................................................5

5 Theory..................................................................................................................7

6 Procedure.............................................................................................................9

7 Observations & Calculations.................................................................................9

8 Summary and Conclusion....................................................................................11

List of Figures
FIGURE 3-1 RANGE OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FOR VARIOUS PHASES OF MATTER AT NORMAL
TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURE [1].......................................................................................................5
FIGURE 4-1 SCHEMATIC OF THERMAL CONDUCTION SYSTEM WITH CONSTANT AND VARIABLE X-SECTION 6
FIGURE 4-2 THERMAL CONDUCTION SYSTEM MODEL 9051............................................................................7
TABLE 1 TEMPERATURE AT 10 DIFFERENT LOCATIONS FROM BASE.............................................................10
FIGURE 1 TEMPERATURE VS. DISTANCE GRAPH............................................................................................10
TABLE 2 PARAMETERS OF COOLANT AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES........................................................11
FIGURE 2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY VS. POWER GRAPH...............................................................................11

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1 Abstract
The thermal conductivity of copper was measured experimentally using a constant cross-
section insulated copper bar apparatus in this experiment. The purpose of the experiment
was to determine the thermal conductivity of copper and its dependence on temperature,
it verifies the Fourier’s law of heat conduction in metals. The experiment was performed
at different input powers of 300W,400W and 500W delivered through heater at base.
Thermocouples were attached at 10 different locations along the length of copper which
gave us the temperature at each location and thus we can determine the temperature
gradient. The phenomenon was observed at different input power to have temperature
variations. The temperature was measured at different positions marked on the
instruments (“thermal conduction system model 9501”). Input power is increased and
measured the temperature at the specified positions. The flow rate also calculated
experimentally to calculate the heat from formula which is mentioned in the calculations.
The final results were recorded in the observation table. The cross-sectional area is
constant and ambient temperature is 15oC.

2 Learning Objectives
i. The students will learn about the phenomenon of heat conduction through solid
metallic bars.
ii. The students will evaluate the thermal conductivity of copper experimentally
using “Thermal Conduction System – Model 9051”.
iii. Value of conductivity will be used to determine the conduction through constant
area copper bars.

3 Introduction
When a temperature gradient exists in a stationary medium, which may be a solid or a
fluid, we use the term conduction to refer to the heat transfer that will occur across the
medium. The physical mechanism of conduction involves concepts of atomic and
molecular activity, which sustains the transfer of energy from the more energetic to the
less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions between the particles.

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Consider a gas occupying the space between two surfaces maintained at different
temperatures and assume that there is no bulk motion. We associate the temperature at
any point with the energy of the gas molecule. This energy is related to the random
translational motion, as well as to the internal rotational and vibrational motions of the
molecules.

Higher temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies, and when
neighboring molecules collide, as they are constantly doing, a transfer of energy from the
more energetic to the less energetic molecules must occur. In the presence of a
temperature gradient, energy transfer by conduction must then occur in the direction of
decreasing temperature. We may speak of the net transfer of energy by this molecular
motion as a diffusion of energy. The situation is much the same in liquids, although the
molecules are more closely spaced, and the molecular interactions are stronger and more
frequent. In a solid, conduction is attributed to atomic activity in the form of lattice
vibrations and electron migration. We treat the conduction phenomena by Fourier’s law,
which is defined in terms of an important material property, defined as thermal
conductivity.

It is important to emphasize that he origin of Fourier’s law is phenomenological. That is,

it is developed from observed phenomena - the generalization of extensive experimental
evidence rather than being derived from first principles. Mathematically, it is defined as
[1-3]

Where qx is heat transfer rate in Watts; A is heat transfer area normal to direction of flow
in m2; k is thermal conductivity in W/m.K; ΔT is temperature difference in K; Δx is the
rod length in m.

The above expression defines the important material property, thermal conductivity, one
of most important transport properties that you will encounter in performing conduction
analyses. Tabulated values of the thermo-physical properties required for solution of heat

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transfer problems are provided in your textbook. A typical range of thermal conductivity
values for various matter are shown in Fig. 8.1.

Figure 3-1 Range of thermal conductivity for various phases of matter at normal temperatures and
pressure [1]

It is thus important to know thermal conductivity of various conducting and insulating

materials that are used in many industrial processes. In this regard, we will conduct an
experiment to determine heat transfer rate through constant and variable solid areas. First,
we will determine thermal conductivity of copper bars and then use simple analysis to
calculate heat transfer rates through these bars.

4 Experimental Setup
The objectives of this experiment are achieved through the use of Thermal Conduction
System, Model 9051 (refer to Figures 8.2 and 8.3) available in our laboratory. The system
consists of two hot plate type heat sources copper bars (unit 3 and unit 4) and 10
thermocouple junctions on each bar. Unit 3 has a tapered bar and Unit 4 has a cylindrical
bar as indicated in the figure.

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It should be noted that these units provide vertical heat flux paths. Referring to Figure
1.3, the one at the left is a cylindrical bar while the one at the right is a tapered bar. Each
bar is in contact at its lower end with its own hot plate. Contact for the tapered bar is at
the smaller end. The maximum electrical input through the plate is 750 Watts. The
surface temperature can be modulated between 5 oF above the room temperature to 400
o
F. A metal plate attached to the actual heater plate functions as a heat source,
concentrating the heat flux concentrically into the test bar. Both bars are of the same
diameter at the upper end and in contact with a non-immersion type fluid-cooled heat
sink. Instrumentation and control of coolant flow through these heat sinks is provided to
monitor and control the heat flow rates through the bars.

Figure 4-2 Schematic of thermal conduction system with constant and variable X-section

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 Figure 4-3 Thermal Conduction System Model 9051

5 Theory
Under steady-state condition, heat flux (in W/m2) through the constant cross-section
cylindrical bar is constant over the entire length. As a result, the heat flux is given by

The quantity of heat, which is conducted through the rod, is transferred to the cooling
water. Therefore, the heat transferred to the cooling water can be expressed as

Now from the above equation, we can express thermal conductivity, k as

Where:

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It is important to recognize that in the tapered bar, the heat flux is not constant along it. In
fact, it is the heat transfer rate that remains constant, while the flux increases with the
decrease of cross-sectional area. The temperature distribution through the bar can be
calculated by using Equation 8.1 in the limiting condition; i.e., when x → 0 . This gives
after separating the variables [1-3],

Integrating, the left-hand side from x1 to x, and the right-hand side from T1 to T, we have

Notice that A(x) can be expressed in terms of x and d(x). From the geometry of the
tapered bar, d(x) can be expressed as

Where,

The desired temperature distribution can be obtained from above equations.

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6 Procedure
The following experimental procedure should be followed while conducting this
experiment:

1. Establish constant and steady cooling water flow of about 400 mL/min
2. Turn on heaters to Units 3 and 4 - set each one to 500 W. Allow the system to
reach steady-state conditions.
3. Start recording temperatures using a digital thermometer. Note that two selector
switches on the apparatus allow you to select whatever thermocouple you wish to
read.
4. Measure cooling water flow rates using the flow rate-measuring device provided
by your instructor.
5. Record data at least once every 15 minutes and continue until steady conditions
have reached. You may have to wait for about an hour after setting up the
apparatus to allow the unit to reach the desired state conditions.

7 Observations & Calculations

Inlet Water Temperature = Tin = 15oC

Cross-sectional area of bar = A = (pi*D^2)/4 = 2.0258*10^-3 m2

Specific heat of water = C = 4.186 kJ/(kg*oC)

As

Q= ṁC ( T out −T ¿ )

Where Q = rate of heat flow (kJ/s) Tout = temperature of water at outlet

Tin = Temperature of water at inlet

From Fourier’s law of conduction:

Q=−kA ( ∆∆ Tx )

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 ∆T
Where k=thermal conductivity =temperature gradient
∆x

Now

−ṁC (T out −T ¿ )
k=
∆T
A( )
∆x

Table 1 Temperature at 10 different locations from base

Temperature (oC)
Thermocouple x (m)
Q = 300W Q = 400 W Q = 500 W

1 0.0493 60 79 109
2 0.0739 58 77 105
3 0.0986 57 74 100
4 0.1229 56 72 96
5 0.1476 54 70 92
6 0.1722 53 67 89
7 0.1969 51 65 85
8 0.2215 50 64 82
9 0.2461 49 62 78
10 0.2708 48 60 75

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 120

100 f(x) = − 152.95 x + 115.57

80 300 W

Temperature oC
f(x) = − 86.2 x + 82.79 Linear
(300 W)
60 400 W
f(x) = − 54.68 x + 62.35 Linear
(400 W)
40 500 W
Linear
20 (500 W)

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Position (m)

Figure 1 Temperature Vs. distance graph

Table 2 Parameters of coolant and thermal conductivities

Parameters Q = 300 W Q = 400 W Q = 500 W

Inlet Temperature (oC) 15 15 15

Outlet Temperature (oC) 39 48 56

Flow Rate (kg/sec) 0.3948 0.463 0.69

k (W/mK) 358 366 382

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 385

380

375

370
k (W/mK)
365

360

355

350

345
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Power (W)

Figure 2 Thermal Conductivity Vs. Power Graph

8 Summary and Conclusion

The value of thermal conductivity of copper was experimentally determined and its
average is 370 W/mK. In literature its value is almost 385 W/mK, however theoretical
value also varies with temperature. The results show that with increase in input power the
temperature gradient along the bar increases and we get steeper slope i.e. first -55oC/m,
then -86oC/m and at last -153oC/m at 500W. However, with increase in temperature
gradient the rate of heat rejected by water also increases, this means we can assume that
value of thermal conductivity should almost remain constant. However, in reality the
thermal conductivity value rises with temperature and this relation with temperature is
almost linear on small intervals of temperature change.

k =k o ( 1+ βT )

Where, ko = thermal conductivity value at measured temperature To , β=constant

Since the rate of heat rejected by water increases as the temperature gradient increases,
we can conclude that the value of thermal conductivity will almost remain constant. In
reality, the thermal conductivity value rises with temperature, and the relationship
between temperature and conductivity is almost linear at minor temperature changes.

Summarizing, the main causes of errors found in this experiment were:

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  Experiment done without reaching steady state
 Imperfect insulation
 Improper calculation of heat flux due to inability of measuring outlet water
temperature reliably
The errors in values may be due to heat loss from radial direction of cylinder which is
thickly insulated but still some heat escapes to surrounding through curved surface of
cylinder. The discrepancies in values can also arise due to non-steady state of system as
the system requires lot of time to reach steady state but readings were taken at intervals of
about 15 minutes after changing power input which are not sufficient. The errors can also
be due to limitations of thermocouples as they also have uncertainties and are not 100%
perfect. Another factor is human error while determining the water inlet temperature and
finding mass flow rate of water. We can find heat losses from curved surface and
incorporate it to minimize error however it will not affect results much because heat rate
rejected is measured by using water temperature which is independent of heat losses to
surrounding however these heat losses affect the measured temperature gradient, but this
effect is also minor as readings of temperature at 10 different locations is taken which
reduces/dilutes the error as sample size is large. Hence the measured value of ‘k’ is
experimentally verified.

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