EP329 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY VII

BEP3031 ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT LABORATORY

NO. OF EXPERIMENT: 4
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: FOURIER’S LAW STUDY
NAME: VINCENT ARTHUR
ID: 1001955087
GROUP: 5
DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 6 July 2022
TUTOR: MS. RAFIZAH BINTI ZAITON; DR. SUM JING YAO; DR. LAI LI
SZE

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & BUILT
ENVIRONMENT

2022
Table of Contents

1.0 Problem Statement ....................................................................................................... 1

2.0 Hypothesis ..................................................................................................................... 1

3.0 Objective ....................................................................................................................... 1

4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1

5.0 Material and Apparatus .............................................................................................. 3

A. LINEAR CONDUCTION OF HEAT ALONG HOMOGENEOUS BAR ..................... 3

6.A Procedure ................................................................................................................... 3

7.A Results and Calculation ............................................................................................ 4
B. CONDUCTION OF HEAT AND OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER ALONG A
COMPOSITE BAR.................................................................................................................. 6

6.B Procedure ................................................................................................................... 6

7.B Results and Calculation ............................................................................................ 6
C. TEMPERATURE PROFILE AND RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER FOR RADIAL
CONDUCTION THROUGH WALL OF CYLINDER ........................................................ 8

6.C Procedure ................................................................................................................... 8

7.C Results and Calculation ................................................................................................ 8
8.0 Discussion .................................................................................................................... 10

9. Limitation and Precautions ....................................................................................... 11

10.0 Conclusion................................................................................................................... 12

11.0 References ................................................................................................................... 12

12.0 Appendix ..................................................................................................................... 14

13.0 Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 17

EXPERIMENT 4: FOURIER’S LAW STUDY

1.0 Problem Statement

Heat conduction happens when a heat is transferred through a medium,
however, the efficiency of heat conduction is affected by many factors such as the
heating medium, distance from the heat source, insulator, and shape of heating medium.
Hence, this experiment was conducted to analyze to investigate on how to maximize
the efficiency of heat transfer (conduction).

2.0 Hypothesis
The closer the heating medium from the heat source the higher the temperature
will be, and the temperature measurement near the thermal insulation will have a higher
temperature as the function of the insulation is to enhance the heat transfer. The heat
transfer in bar will have a linear temperature distribution while in cylinder will have a
temperature distribution with a various cross-sectional area.

3.0 Objective
• To investigate Fourier's Law for the linear conduction of heat along a
homogeneous bar.
• To study the conduction of heat along a composite bar and evaluate the overall
heat transfer coefficient.
• To examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of heat transfer
resulting from radial conduction through the wall of a cylinder.

4.0 Introduction
In everyday life, there are many phenomena of heat transfer from materials or
fluids that have higher temperatures to materials or fluids that have lower temperatures.
As a result of a temperature differential acting as a driving force, heat transfer is the
process of moving energy from an item or system with a higher temperature to another
object or system with a lower temperature. The temperature differential between the
two situations will determine this rate of heat transfer and the rate of heat transmission
increases with the size of the differential.
There are three known heat transfer mechanisms, namely conduction,
convection and radiation. In the food sector, heat transfer from one material to another
frequently happens periodically during processes like cooking, burning, sterilizing, or

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cooling. In most operations, it is necessary to enter or remove heat, to achieve and
maintain the required state during the process.
In this experiment only conduction heat transfer will be conducted. Conduction
is the transfer of heat resulting from direct contact between the surfaces of objects.
Conduction occurs only by touching or connecting hot surfaces. The capacity of an item
to transmit heat has a particular thermal conductivity, which will have an impact on
how much heat is carried from the hot side to the cold side. An object's ability to transfer
heat quickly from one side to the other depends on its thermal conductivity value.
There are some factors that affect heat conduction such as, temperature gradient
(heat source), path length, properties of material, time, and cross section of material
involved (linear & radial).

Figure 1. Linear Temperature Distrubution

Figure 2. Radial Temperature Distribution

Effect of temperature gradient results in, the greater the difference in

temperature between the two ends of the bar, the greater the rate of thermal energy
transfer, so more heat is transferred. For the path length, the longer the bar, the less heat

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 that will make it all the way through. Therefore, the conducted heat is inversely
proportional to the length of the bar. Next, for the properties of material, as a material
that has a high density will have a greater thermal conductivity (Gujarati, 2021).
Whereas, for time the heat conduction increases linearly along time (Holzner, 2016).
Lastly, for the cross-sectional area, in linear conduction, as area of cross-section
increases the conductance increases; in radial conduction, the temperature gradient
decreases with radius. Hence, to further study the principle of heat conduction this
experiment is conducted.

5.0 Material and Apparatus

• SOLTEQ Heat Conduction Study Bench HE-105

A. LINEAR CONDUCTION OF HEAT ALONG HOMOGENEOUS BAR

6.A Procedure
1. The main switch was ensured to be off at the beginning of the experiment. A
brass conductor (25 mm diameter) was inserted into the intermediate section
and clamped in the linear module.
2. The water supply was then turned on. The water flowing was ensured to be
from free end of the water pipe to drain. This was checked at intervals of every
5 minutes.
3. The heater power control knob at the control panel was turned fully to
anticlockwise position and the sensor leads were connected.
4. The power supply and main switch were both switched on.
5. The heater power control was turned, and the heater power was regulated
between zero to 40 Watts in every interval of 3 minutes (when the heater
power achieved steady state conditions).
6. The temperature readings from T1 to T9 was measured and recorded.
7. A graph of temperature against distance (between T1 to T9) was plotted.
8. The theoretical and actual thermal conductivity was determined.

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7.A Results and Calculation
Power Temperature (oC)
(Watt)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
0.1 27 26.9 26.9 27 26.9 27 28 28.1 28.1
10 44.5 42.8 38.6 39 36.7 33.2 29.6 29.4 29.6
20 58.5 55 47.4 48.1 42.9 36.7 30.4 29.8 30.2
30 79.2 73.7 60.8 63.1 56.1 44.1 32.1 30.7 31.4
40 106.3 98.1 79.5 84.8 70.7 52.4 34 31.8 32.7
Distance, 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Xn (m)
Table 1. Linear conduction of heat along homogeneous bar (in Celsius)

Conversion to Kelvin, K equation:

T(K) = T(°C) + 273 K

Power Temperature (K)

(Watt)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
0.1
10 317.5 315.8 311.6 312 309.7 306.2 302.6 302.4 302.6
20 331.5 328 320.4 321.1 315.9 309.7 303.4 302.8 303.2
30 352.2 346.7 333.8 336.1 329.1 317.1 305.1 303.7 304.4
40 379.3 371.1 352.5 357.8 343.7 325.4 307 304.8 305.7
Distance, 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Xn (m)
Table 2. Linear conduction of heat along homogeneous bar (in Kelvin)

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 390
y = -1027,8x + 389,98 0 Watt
380
10 Watt
370
20 Watt
360
y = -661x + 358,41 30 Watt
Temperature (K)

350 40 Watt
340 Linear (30 Watt)
y = -390,33x + 334,63
330 Linear (30 Watt)

y = -206x + 319,23 Linear (40 Watt)

320
Linear (20 Watt)
310
y = 17x + 299,47 Linear (10 Watt)
300
Linear (0 Watt)
290 Power (Watt) Linear (40 Watt)
0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08
Linear (30 Watt)

Figure 1. Graph of Temperature vs Distance (X) for part A

Calculation
𝑑𝑇
Q = - kA 𝑑𝑋

D = 25mm; X = 1 cm,
Cross-sectional Area = πr2
A = π(12.5 x 10-3)2 = 4.9087x10-4
𝑑𝑇
− 𝑑𝑋 can be obtained from the value of gradient of the slopes of the chart.

Hence,
𝑑𝑇 0.1
When Q = 0.1 W, then – 𝑑𝑋 = 17, 𝑘1 = (4.9087𝑥10−4)∗(17)= 11.984 W/m.K
𝑑𝑇 10
When Q = 10 W, then – 𝑑𝑋 = 206, 𝑘2 = (4.9087𝑥10−4)∗(206)= 98.89 W/m.K
𝑑𝑇 20
When Q = 20 W, then – 𝑑𝑋 = 390.33, 𝑘3 = (4.9087𝑥10−4)∗(390)= 104.383 W/m.K
𝑑𝑇 30
When Q = 30 W, then – = 661, 𝑘4 = (4.9087𝑥10−4)∗(661)= 92.46 W/m.K
𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑇 40
When Q = 40 W, then – 𝑑𝑋 = 1027.8, 𝑘5 = (4.9087𝑥10−4)∗(1027.8)= 79.284 W/m.K
(𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 + 𝑘5)
Average thermal conductivity, 𝑘𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 93.75425 W/m.K
4

**k1 does not be included in average thermal conductivity calculation because it’s only to
make sure the experiment is conducted in initial conduction.
Theoretical value of k for brass is 109 W/m.K.
109−93.75425
% Error = *100% = 13.987%
109

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B. CONDUCTION OF HEAT AND OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER
ALONG A COMPOSITE BAR
6.B Procedure
7.B Results and Calculation
Power Temperature (oC)
(Watt)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
0.1 39 38.4 37.5 30 29 29.4
10 47.9 45.1 42 30.2 27.5 29.9
20 62.5 57.3 50.6 31.2 30.2 30.7
30 80.4 63.5 41.9 32.8 31.2 32
40 102.9 95.3 80.6 34.7 32.3 33.5
Distance, 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Xn (m)
Table 3. Conduction of Heat and Overall Heat Transfer Along a Composite Bar with
Temperature (in Celsius)
Conversion to Kelvin, K equation:
T(K) = T(°C) + 273 K

Power Temperature (K)

(Watt)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
0.1 312 311.4 310.5 303 303 302 302.4
10 320.9 318.1 315 303.2 303.2 300.5 302.9
20 335.5 330.3 323.6 304.2 304.2 303.2 303.7
30 353.4 336.5 314.9 305.8 305.8 304.2 305
40 375.9 368.3 353.6 307.7 307.7 305.3 306.5
Distance, 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Xn (m)
Table 4. Conduction of Heat and Overall Heat Transfer Along a Composite Bar with
Temperature (in Kelvin)

6
 390

380 0 Watt
y = -1662,6x + 394,41
10 Watt
370
20 Watt
360 30 Watt
40 Watt
350 y = -994,29x + 354,77
Linear (0 Watt)
340 Linear (10 Watt)
y = -742x + 342,72
Linear (20 Watt)
330
y = -441,71x + 325,56 Linear (30 Watt)
320
Linear (40 Watt)
y = -239,14x + 315,25
310 Linear (40 Watt)
Linear (30 Watt)
300
0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05

Figure 2. Graph of Temperature vs Distance (X) for part B

Calculation
D = 25mm; X = 1 cm,
Cross-sectional Area = πr2
A = π(12.5 x 10-3)2 = 4.9087x10-4
Overall resistance to heat flow,
1 𝑋𝑏 𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑏2
= + +
𝑈 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑏2

Kactual brass = 93.75425 W/m.K

Ktheoretical brass = 109 W/m.K
Ktheoretical stainless steel = 15 W/m.K
𝑋
Kstainless steel = 𝐴∆T 2𝑥
−
𝑄 𝐾𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠

∆𝑇 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇9
0.01
Kstainless steel when Q equal to 10 = 4.9087x10−4∗17.1 2∗0.01 = 15.973
−
10 93.75425

Power (Watt) ∆T K (W/m.K)

0.1 9.6 0.2132
10 17.1 15.973
20 31.8 17.632
30 48.4 17.283
40 69.4 15.666

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Kavg = 16.6385 W/m.K
1
Uactual = 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
+ +
𝐾𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐾𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑠
1
Uactual = 0.03 0.03 0.03
+ +
93.75425 16.6385 93.75425

Uactual = 409.33 W/m2oC

1
Utheoretical = 0.03 0.03 0.03
+ +
109 15 109

Utheoretical = 392.086 W/m2oC

392.086−409.33
%Error = | |*100% = 4.398%
392.086

C. TEMPERATURE PROFILE AND RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER FOR RADIAL

CONDUCTION THROUGH WALL OF CYLINDER
6.C Procedure
1. The main switch is ensured to be off at the beginning of the experiment C. A 6
mm brass is inserted into the intermediate section between the hot and cold
ends and is clamped.
2. The water supply is switched on and the water is ensured to be flowing from
the free end of water pipe to drain.
3. Then, the main switch of the equipment is switched on.
4. The heater power control knob at the control panel is turned on into
anticlockwise position.
5. The heater power control is regulated from 0 to 40 watt. After each change,
sufficient time is allowed to achieve steady state conditions.
6. The temperature reading from T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6 respect to watts is
recorded.
7. The graph of temperature T versus radius, r at different heater power is plotted
8. The graph of temperature, T (K) versus ln r at different heater power is plotted
9. Thermal conductivity of brass is then calculated and recorded.

7.C Results and Calculation

Power Temperature (oC)
(Watt)

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 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
0.1 28.5 27.7 26.4 26.3 26.2 26.1
10 29.3 28.4 26.7 26.5 27.2 26.7
20 32 30.2 27.1 27 27 27.1
30 36 33 27.5 27.1 27.1 27.2
40 47 37.3 28.2 27.6 27.6 27.8
Distance, 0.01 0.02 0.03
Xn (m)
Table 5. Result of Experiment C (in Celsius)

Power Temperature (K) K value (W/m.K)

(Watt)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
0.1 1.188
301.5 300.7 299.4 299.3 299.2 299.1
10 109.68
302.3 301.4 299.7 299.5 300.2 299.7
20 116.395
305 303.2 300.1 300 300 300.1
30 97.216
309 306 300.5 300.1 300.1 300.2
40 59.41
320 310.3 301.2 300.6 300.6 300.8
Distance, 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Xn (m)
Table 6. Result of Experiment C (in Kelvin)

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 325
0 Watt
10 Watt
320
20 Watt
30 Watt
315
y = -359,14x + 318,15 40 Watt
Linear (0 Watt)
310
y = -177,43x + 308,86 Linear (10 Watt)
Linear (20 Watt)
305 y = -97,714x + 304,82
Linear (30 Watt)
y = -48x + 302,15
Linear (40 Watt)
300 Linear (40 Watt)
y = -47,429x + 301,53
Linear (30 Watt)

295 Linear (20 Watt)

0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06

Calculation
𝑟2
𝑄∗ln ( )
𝑟1
Kbrass = 2𝜋𝐿(∆T)
0.06
10∗ln ( )
0.01
Kbrass when q equal to 10 = 2𝜋∗0.01(301.5−299.1) = 118.82 W/m.K
109.68+116.395+97.216+59.4
Kavg = = 95.67275 W/m.K
4
Theoretical value of k for brass is 109 W/m.K.
109−95.67275
% Error = *100% = 12.23%
109

8.0 Discussion
The Fourier research experiment was separated into three separate experiments:
linear conduction along a homogeneous bar, conduction of heat and total heat transfer
along a composite bar, and radial conduction through the wall of a cylinder. Five
distinct heats, 0 W, 10 W, 20 W, 30 W, and 40 W, were used in this experiment.
For experiment A, linear heat conduction down a homogeneous bar using brass
conductors with a 25 mm diameter. The value of thermal conductivity can be calculated
𝑑𝑇
by using formula Q = - kA 𝑑𝑋. The value of dT/dx can be obtained from the slope of

10
 the graph temperature vs distance. The calculation of Brass conductors with a 25mm
diameter gives an experimental thermal conductivity coefficient of 93.75425 W/m.K,
while the theoretical K brass value is 109 W/m.K. Hence, the error % of this experiment
A is13.987%.
Next, for experiment B, similar to experiment A, thermal paste must be applied
to the sample surface before the stainless-steel sample is mounted to the linear. To
improve the effectiveness of heat transfer from high-temperature to low-temperature
materials, thermal paste is used. From the result obtained above, the actual thermal
conductivity of the stainless steel is 16.6385 W/m.K, and the theoretical value of
Kstainless steel is 15 W/m.K. Next, with known K stainless steel value, the overall heat
transfer value obtained for the actual and theoretical are 409.33 W/m2oC and 392.086
W/m2oC, respectively.
Lastly, for experiment C, using a radial module to determine the thermal
conductivity of the brass. Thermal paste must be applied to the brass sample surface
area, and it must be positioned between the hot zone and the cool zone. In this
experiment, the value of the thermal conductivity of the brass is determined. The value
𝑟2
𝑄∗ln ( )
𝑟1
of thermal conductivity of the brass can be calculated by using Kbrass = . Hence,
2𝜋𝐿(∆T)

the value obtained is 95.67275 W/m.K for the actual K brass and 109 W/m.K for the
theoretical value. Thus, the percentage error for this experiment is 12.23%.

9. Limitation and Precautions

There are several limitation and precaution in this experiment that may cause
some error value towards the data obtained.
First, the main switch, heater and water supply must be switched off before
starting the experiment to make sure the equipment is not in working state.
Secondly, ensure there is water out before starting the experiment to prevent any
damage to the apparatus during the experiment, because the metal piece
(brass/stainless-steel) might melt due to overheat if there’s not cooling system during
the experiment.
Next, Thermal paste must cover all of the sample surface to increase the heat
transfer efficiency. The temperature must in stable condition before the readings
recorded, and make sure to cool down the equipment before starting another experiment

11
 as to let the heat in the equipment to cool down so it won’t affect the reading value for
the next experiment.
Lastly, another limitation is the equipment is not in a perfect condition (such as,
the temperature measurement is not working properly), therefore, the reading might be
off from the real value.

10.0 Conclusion
To conclude, for experiment A, the experimental thermal conductivity
coefficient of the brass sample is 93.75425 W/m.K, For experiment B, the experimental
thermal conductivity coefficient of stainless steel is 16.6385 W/m.K. With this K brass
and K stainless steel value, the theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient value (U) is
409.33 W/m2oC. Next, for experiment C, the experimental thermal conductivity
coefficient of the brass sample is 95.67275 W/m.K.
The error occurs in the experiment might be caused due to some limitation such
as the data recorded were not at stable condition or might be caused by the error during
the calculation. In conclusion, this experiment was conducted successfully and all the
objectives mentioned above are achieved, and the experiment result obtained above able
proof the proposed hypothesis.

11.0 References
• Bradley, E. (2022, May 25). WASTEWATER COAGULATION. Retrieved from
Dober.com: https://www.dober.com/water-treatment/resources/wastewater-
coagulation#:~:text=Coagulation%20is%20the%20chemical%20water,or%20
oily%20materials%20in%20suspension.
• Gujarati, D. P. (2021, December 18). Factors leading to variation of thermal
conductivity of different materials. Retrieved from
www.indiastudychannel.com:
https://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/156454-Factors-leading-
variation-thermal-conductivity-different-materials.aspx
• Holzner, S. (2016, March 27). Understanding Heat Conduction and the
Factors that Affect It. Retrieved from Physics I For Dummies:
https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-
arts/science/physics/understanding-heat-conduction-and-the-factors-that-
affect-it-174294/

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• Murray, R., & Holbert, K. E. (2019). Nuclear Energy: An Introduction to the
Concepts, Systems, and Applications of Nuclear Processes (8th ed.).
Butterworth-Heinemann

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12.0 Appendix

14
15
16
13.0 Rubric

17
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