SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2015, 43(8), 1243–1254

© Society for Personality Research

http://dx.doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2015.43.8.1243

SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN EXTRAVERSION AND SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING

YUAN LI, JIJUN LAN, AND CHENGTING JU

Shaanxi Normal University

We examined the moderating effects of self-esteem and gender on the relationship between
extraversion and subjective well-being in Chinese university students. Participants were 542
students (217 men, 325 women; age range = 17–24 years), who completed the Rosenberg
Self-Esteem Scale, the extraversion subscale of the NEO-Five Factor Inventory, and
the General Well-Being Schedule to evaluate self-esteem, extraversion, and subjective
well-being, respectively. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that self-esteem moderated
the association between extraversion and subjective well-being. Among students high
in self-esteem, those with high extraversion had higher subjective well-being than did
those with low extraversion. Across all participants (high- and low-extraversion groups),
subjective well-being was low when self-esteem was low. Gender moderated the link between
extraversion and subjective well-being, tending to be a more significant determinant of
subjective well-being in men than in women.

Keywords: self-esteem, extraversion, gender, subjective well-being, Chinese university

students.

Subjective well-being is an important feature of positive psychology; therefore,

as positive psychology develops, subjective well-being is receiving increased
attention. Researchers of subjective well-being are from varied but related fields.
Sociologists and life-quality researchers are primarily concerned with how
well-being is influenced by demographic variables, such as income and marital

Yuan Li, Jijun Lan, and Chengting Ju, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, and
Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Behavior and Cognitive Neuroscience.
The first and second authors contributed equally to this work.
This research was supported by the Humanities and Social Science Planning Foundation (11Y JA
880043) of the Chinese Ministry of Education.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Jijun Lan, School of Psychology,
Shaanxi Normal University, 199 South Chang’an Road, Xi’an 710062, People’s Republic of China.
Email: lanjijun@snnu.edu.cn

1243
1244 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION

status (Bierman, 2014; Caputo & Robin, 2013; Hajdu & Hajdu, 2014; Oshio &
Urakawa, 2014), and those specializing in psychological health emphasize the
importance of not only the absence of psychological stress and illness, but also
the presence of happiness and life satisfaction (Nordfjaern, 2013; Van Gelderen,
Gartrell, Bos, & Hermanns, 2013). Personality psychologists, who study the
personalities of happy and unhappy persons, and social psychologists, who focus
on the influence of adaptation and response to subjective well-being, have also
focused on self-esteem (Li & Zheng, 2014; Nakama, 2013; Odaci, 2013; Shim,
Wang, & Cassady, 2013).
To gain an accurate and in-depth understanding of well-being, psychologists
have empirically studied its composition and all the social and psychological
factors that exert influences on subjective well-being (Aldinger et al., 2014;
Ratcliffe, Stephan, & Varga, 2013). The psychological factors can be divided into
two basic categories: life satisfaction, which relates to personal cognition and
appraisal of overall quality of life (i.e., overall satisfaction with one’s personal
life), and emotional experience, which is the personal experience of emotion in
life, including positive effects, such as pleasure and easiness (Andrews & Withey,
1976; Lu et al., 2001), and negative effects, such as depression, anxiety, and
nervousness (Aldinger et al., 2014; Ratcliffe et al., 2013; Woodford, 2012). Life
satisfaction, experience of positive effects, and absence of negative effects all
increase well-being. Personal well-being is an important aggregative psychology
parameter in the measurement of quality of personal life, and is directly
proportional to overall satisfaction with life and positive effects experienced, and
inversely proportional to negative effects (Lu et al., 2001). Subjective well-being
is determined by personal criteria, such that the determination of well-being
can only be true and accurate with personal experience. Thus, well-being is
subjective, and has been evaluated using subjective reports in most studies
(e.g., Woodford, 2012). Subjective well-being as an aggregative psychology
parameter consists of the three aspects of life satisfaction, positive effects, and
negative effects, which reflect overall quality of life and are, thus, integral and
comprehensive (Diener, 1984; Lu et al., 2001).

Extraversion and Subjective Well-Being

Personality, especially extraversion, is one of the most powerful and stable
indices of well-being (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999; Otonari et al., 2012).
Western scholars have provided evidence of the relationship between subjective
well-being and personality, with comprehensive studies (Gomez, Allemand, &
Grob, 2012; McCrae & Costa, 1991) and quantitative analyses having been made;
however, more evidence is required from non-Western cultures as to whether or
not personality works as an important predictive index of subjective well-being
(Diener & Diener, 1996; Wismeijer & Van Assen, 2008). Nevertheless, there is
 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION 1245
a significant difference across countries in terms of the impact of personality
on subjective well-being, especially between Eastern (i.e., Asian) and Western
(i.e., European and North American) countries (Diener, Oishi, & Lucas, 2003;
Helliwell, 2003). Diener et al. (2003) compared countries with individualistic
cultures, such as the US and Germany, and countries with collectivistic cultures,
such as Japan, Mexico, and Ghana, and reported that extraversion is directly
proportional to subjective well-being in both cultures. However, subjective
well-being has been more effectively predicted by extraversion in individualistic
than in collectivistic cultures (Vittersø, 2001). Extraversion, as an essential
component of personality, is considered to represent the social relationship
between an individual and society, because it means that an individual is
easygoing, active, optimistic, sociable, adventurous, enthusiastic, and cheerful
(Vittersø, 2001). Therefore, we concluded that the influence of the social
relationship between individuals and others on individual subjective well-being
is greater in collectivistic than in individualistic cultures.

Self-Esteem and Subjective Well-Being

Numerous researchers have indicated that there is a strong relationship
between personal psychological quality (e.g., self-esteem) and subjective
well-being (Diener & Diener, 1995; Li & Zheng, 2014). Self-esteem is a positive
emotional experience gained through social practice that reflects the difference
between perceived and expected ego states, and it consists of two components:
self-efficacy and self-liking. As an essential psychological need and source of
well-being, self-esteem permits the individual an elastic space to ease anxiety,
facilitate personal decision making, and attain increased social support, making
a happy life possible for the individual (Odaci, 2013; Pyszczynski, Greenberg,
Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004). Individuals with strong, compared to weak,
self-esteem often view themselves more positively, believing that they are better
than others in many ways and acting more confidently when experiencing failure.
They also tend to try to change unfavorable situations, which allows them to
cope with problems better, and, hence, have greater subjective well-being than
individuals with a low level of self-esteem do (Diener & Diener, 1995; Li &
Zheng, 2014). Cross-cultural research results show that self-esteem plays a more
important role in predicting subjective well-being in individualistic cultures than
it does in collectivistic cultures (Diener & Diener, 1995; Kong, Zhao, & You,
2013).

Extraversion and Self-Esteem

Researchers such as Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, and Finkel (2008) have
reported the existence of a relationship between extraversion and self-esteem.
Extraversion is in middle-level direct proportion to self-esteem, in that extraverted
1246 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION

individuals have higher self-esteem than do introverted individuals, and this is

consistent across age groups (adolescent and adult) and across cultures (Pullmann
& Allik, 2000). Extraversion is also closely related to positive emotions, with
Fredrickson and colleagues (2008) proposing in their broaden-and-build theory
that positive emotions can broaden an individual’s momentary thinking and
sequence of activities, and can encourage individuals to produce innovative and
extensive thoughts and actions. Further, the accumulation of such innovative
thoughts and actions can be converted into significant personal resources, that
is, an individual’s perception of the self and others, as well as his or her view of
the competence of his/her own life. Competence and a positive attitude towards
oneself are important aspects of self-esteem (Fredrickson et al., 2008); therefore,
to a certain extent, an individual’s extraversion determines the level of his or her
self-esteem. However, research results on the interaction between extraversion
and self-esteem in the context of subjective well-being remain inconsistent across
different cultures.

Gender and Subjective Well-Being

Gender influences subjective well-being, and it is an important factor to
consider in modern Western personality and social psychology research. Bem
(1974) compiled the Bem Sex Role Inventory and put forward the androgyny
model, which yielded many studies on gender (e.g., Cook, 1985). However, most
of these were conducted in Western countries or individualistic cultures, which
leaves space for gender to be studied in different countries and cultural contexts.

Study Purpose
China has a typical collectivism-oriented culture and, therefore, we propose
that results from studies conducted in China can provide powerful evidence of
well-being in this cultural context. Furthermore, research on gender conducted in
China can fill the gap in the literature on gender differences across Eastern and
Western cultures. Above all, research conducted with Chinese university students
may verify the findings in previous research on well-being across the world.
Therefore, based on previous studies of the relationships among extraversion,
self-esteem, gender, and subjective well-being, we hypothesized that self-esteem
and gender would moderate the relationship between extraversion and subjective
well-being of Chinese university students.

Method

Participants
Participants were 542 university students (217 men and 325 women) at three
universities in Xi’an, a midsized city in central China. Their age range was 17–24
 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION 1247
years (Mage = 20.21 years, SD of age = 1.23 years). All participants took part on a
voluntary basis and were briefly instructed as to the purpose of this study before
signing a consent form.

Procedure
The participants completed the three measures in a classroom environment
and it took approximately 20 minutes to complete them. All procedures were
executed in compliance with the relevant laws and institutional guidelines, and
were approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology at Shaanxi
Normal University.

Instruments
Extraversion. The extraversion subscale of the NEO-Five Factor Inventory
(NEO-FFI; Egan, Deary, & Austin, 2000) was used to evaluate dispositional
extraversion. It consists of 12 items, each rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The total score is the sum of all
12 items, and higher scores indicate higher levels of extraversion. The NEO-FFI
has good reliability and validity (Egan et al., 2000; Holden & Fekken, 1994). In
this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .81.
Self-esteem. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965)
was used to evaluate global self-esteem. This scale consists of 10 items, each
rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree). The total score is the sum of all 10 items, and higher scores indicate
higher self-esteem. Example items include: “I am able to do things as well as
most other people” and “I take a positive attitude toward myself.” The RSES has
good reliability and validity (Corwyn, 2000). In the present study, the Cronbach’s
alpha coefficient was .80.
Subjective well-being. The 18-item General Well-Being Schedule (Taylor
et al., 2003) was used to evaluate respondents’ subjective well-being over
the previous month. Items 1–14 are rated on a 6-point Likert scale and items
15–18 are rated on an 11-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 10, with adjective
endpoints that vary for each item, for example, 1 = felt sad every day to 6 =
did not feel sad at all. The total score is the sum of all 18 items and higher
scores represent greater well-being. The reliability and validity of the General
Well-Being Schedule has been established in prior psychometric studies (Taylor
et al., 2003). In the current study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .85.

Data Analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 19.0. In accordance
with Baron and Kenny (1986), bivariate analysis was used to test the relationships
among extraversion, self-esteem, and subjective well-being, and hierarchical
1248 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION

regression was used to test the moderating effects of self-esteem and gender on
the relationship between extraversion and subjective well-being. Before testing
the moderating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between extraversion
and subjective well-being, NEO-FFI and RSES scores were standardized with
z scores to reduce problems related to multicollinearity between the interaction
term and the main effects (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). In the hierarchical
regression model, the order of entry was as follows: Step 1, the predictor variable
(extraversion) was entered into the regression equation; Step 2, the moderator
variable (self-esteem) was entered; Step 3, the interaction of extraversion ×
self-esteem was added. The moderating effect of gender on the relationship
between extraversion and subjective well-being was tested using the same
procedure. The order of entry was as follows: Step 1, the predictor variable
(extraversion) was entered into the regression equation; Step 2, the moderator
variable (gender) was entered; Step 3, the interaction of extraversion × gender
was added. A significant change in the coefficient of determination (R2) for the
interaction term indicated a significant moderator effect.

Results

Bivariate Analysis
The results of the bivariate analysis indicated that extraversion was positively
correlated with self-esteem (r = .352, p < .001) and subjective well-being (r =
.561, p < .001). Further, self-esteem was positively correlated with subjective
well-being (r = .289, p < .001).

Test of the Moderation Model of Self-Esteem

Table 1 shows the results of the hierarchical regression analysis to test the
moderating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between extraversion
and subjective well-being. Extraversion significantly predicted subjective
well-being in Step 1 of the model. In Step 2, self-esteem was significantly
related to subjective well-being after controlling for the other variables. In this
model, higher self-esteem and higher extraversion were associated with greater
subjective well-being. As predicted, there was a significant interaction between
extraversion and self-esteem. These findings suggest that self-esteem moderated
the impact of extraversion on subjective well-being. Figure 1 illustrates the
interaction between extraversion and self-esteem for subjective well-being.
Consistent with the procedures outlined by Aiken and West (1991), we applied
simple slopes regression to subjective well-being on self-esteem by using the high
(one standard deviation above the mean) and low (one standard deviation below
the mean) values for self-esteem. There was a significant positive relationship
between extraversion and subjective well-being in participants with both high
 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION 1249
and low self-esteem. However, extraversion tended to be a more significant
determinant of subjective well-being in participants with high, compared to
low, self-esteem, indicating that self-esteem moderated the relationship between
extraversion and subjective well-being.

Table 1. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Predicting Subjective Well-Being from

Self-Esteem and Extraversion

B  R2 ΔR2 F t

Step 1: Extraversion 0.527 .529 .314 .298 115.735 11.857***

Step 2: Self-esteem 0.118 .121 .323 .011 91.579 2.674**
Step 3: Extraversion × self-esteem 0.092 .108 .335 .010 64.071 2.531*

Note. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.

100

95 High self-esteem
Low self-esteem
90

85

80

75

70

65

60
Low extraversion High extraversion

Figure 1. Effects of self-esteem and extraversion on subjective well-being.

Test of the Moderation Model of Gender

Table 2 shows the results of the hierarchical regression to test the moderating
effect of gender on the relationship between extraversion and subjective
well-being. In Step 2, gender did not significantly predict subjective well-being;
however, as predicted, there was a significant interaction between extraversion
and gender. These findings suggest that gender moderated the impact of
extraversion on subjective well-being. Figure 2 illustrates the interaction between
extraversion and gender for subjective well-being. There was a significant positive
relationship between extraversion and subjective well-being in both female
and male participants. However, extraversion tended to be a more significant
1250 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION

determinant of subjective well-being in male than in female participants,

indicating that gender moderated the relationship between extraversion and
subjective well-being.

Table 2. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Predicting Subjective Well-Being from

Gender and Extraversion

B  R2 ΔR2 F t

Step 1: Extraversion 0.527 .529 .314 .298 115.735 11.857***

Step 2: Gender 0.048 .047 .225 .002 74.715 0.085
Step 3: Extraversion × gender 0.233 .241 .137 .095 84.521 5.442***

Note. *** p < .001.

100

95 High self-esteem
Low self-esteem
90

85

80

75

70

65

60
Low extraversion High extraversion
Figure 2. Effects of gender and extraversion on subjective well-being.

Discussion

We examined the moderating effect of self-esteem and gender on the

relationship between extraversion and subjective well-being of Chinese university
students. As expected, correlation analysis showed that subjective well-being
was significantly related to both extraversion and self-esteem. These results
are consistent with those of previous researchers who reported a relationship
between subjective well-being and extraversion (DeNeve & Cooper, 1998;
Diener et al., 1999), and between subjective well-being and self-esteem (Diener
& Diener, 1995; Kong & You, 2013; Pyszczynski et al., 2004).
In line with our hypothesis, our results revealed that self-esteem moderated
the link between extraversion and subjective well-being. Whether they reported
 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION 1251
a high or low level of self-esteem, participants with high extraversion reported
greater subjective well-being than did those with low extraversion. In addition,
whether they reported a high or low level of extraversion, participants with
high self-esteem reported greater subjective well-being than did those with low
self-esteem, suggesting that satisfaction with social relationships is crucial for
subjective well-being. The interaction of self-esteem and extraversion supports
our research hypothesis that personality and the social relationship between the
individual and other people jointly determine subjective well-being. Certainly, in
China, where a collectivistic culture dominates, individuals pay a great deal of
attention to their social relationships (Li, Zhang, Yang, & Li, 2015). However,
social relationships are not the sole influence on personal subjective-well-being
and this relationship is also subject to the regulation of personal self-esteem.
Another important finding in this study is that gender also moderated the
relationship between extraversion and subjective well-being, with this relationship
tending to be weaker in women than in men. We are not aware of any researchers
who have arrived at a similar conclusion, and we believe that this may be because
the social culture in China differs from that in Western countries. Therefore, the
fact that extraversion exerted a stronger effect on subjective well-being in men
than it did in women may primarily be because of cultural factors. Traditionally
in Chinese culture importance is placed on the distinction between men and
women, whereby men are endowed with more social responsibility and women
with more familial responsibility. Thus, men pay more attention to personal
careers and household finances, whereas women pay more attention to childcare,
education, and daily family life (Law, 2013). As such, in China, men generally
have more complex social relationships than do women; hence, good social
relationships (i.e., high extraversion) are more important for the well-being of
men than they are for the well-being of women.
Several important limitations in the present study must be considered. First, the
study was cross-sectional in design; thus, the findings reflect associations but not
causal relationships among the variables. Longitudinal and experimental studies
would provide additional insights into the relationships among extraversion,
self-esteem, gender, and subjective well-being. Second, data were collected using
self-report scales. In future studies, the use of multiple methods of evaluation
may reduce the impact of subjectivity.
In conclusion, we have provided substantial insight into the complicated
interplay among extraversion, self-esteem, gender, and subjective well-being in
Chinese university students. These findings highlight a previously unidentified
mechanism to explain the relationship between extraversion and subjective
well-being according to gender groups in a Chinese cultural context. The results
provide valuable guidance in how to implement psychological interventions
aimed at enhancing subjective well-being.
1252 SELF-ESTEEM, GENDER, AND EXTRAVERSION

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