SPE 83467
The Role of X-Ray Computed Tomography in Core Analysis
E. M. Withjack, SPE, C. Devier, SPE, PTS Labs, G. Michael, PTS Labs
Copyright 2003, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Western Regional/AAPG Pacific Section
Joint Meeting held in Long Beach, California, U.S.A., 19–24 May 2003.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300
words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836 U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
Over the past several decades, x-ray computed tomography
(CT) has gained acceptance as a routine core analysis tool. Its
use for in-situ saturation determination, for example, has made
it the method of choice for steady state relative permeability
testing. The main objective of this paper is to provide a
repository of information on CT scanning for core analysis,
and to group the many earlier studies into reservoir
engineering categories for convenient reference by others in
the future. The review is prefaced with the introduction of a
conceptual model (Cloud Model) for representing the
influences of major factors on reservoir NPV, and a discussion
of the value of CT for core analysis. The literature review is
followed by an update of emerging CT technology
(microscanning), and presentation of a new method for 3-
phase saturation determination using combined CT and NMR.
Introduction
With the diminishing number of discoveries of giant oil fields,
future reserves from smaller and lower quality reservoirs are
becoming increasingly significant.1 The larger, higher quality
reservoirs are often discovered and produced first, with less
significant finds left for later development. Whether targeting
lower quality onshore reservoirs or deeper offshore prospects,
an operator’s investment and risk are becoming much greater
than in the past. The application of newer technologies in core
analysis can reduce uncertainties in the determination of
reservoir rock properties and directly contribute to an
operator’s profitability (i.e., net present value, NPV).
Figure 1 is a conceptual illustration of the relationship
between NPV, reservoir rock properties and global influences.
In this “Cloud Model,” both the global influences and
reservoir properties are represented as clouds to suggest the
uncertainty in both scope and value of the factors within. The
clouds communicate to asset nodes through information loops,
whereby the nodes (NPV block) within the asset can extract
the relevant data and information for their particular need.
The communication links are 2-way, thus allowing for
revisions to data and conditions, which may evolve with time.
At the top are the global drivers and constraints (such as
political risk); at the bottom, the NPV node is linked to the
production forecast through several intermediate factors
(Infrastructure, Oil-In-Place and Recovery Factor) which
communication with the cloud of reservoir properties. The
reservoir property cloud contains all the reservoir
characteristics that can be measured by different technologies,
and includes the subset that can be derived from core analysis
(such as porosity, permeability, and relative permeability).
The Cloud Model can incorporate any number of assets (NPV
blocks) by including additional loops in communication with
the global cloud.
The impact of uncertainty in the determination of reservoir
properties is typically investigated using a reservoir simulator
or economic software. A systematic study of the impact of
one particular variable on NPV has been recently reported.2
The investigation illustrated how predicted NPV could vary
with different realizations of relative permeability data.
Within a suite of 3 cases, for example, 10-yr NPVs ranged
from $6.4 MM to $8.6 MM for a typical pattern (dual 80-Ac
inverted 5-Spots, with 25 m net pay).
Extending this earlier work as an example here, we may
assume that the entire net pay was cored (3 cores) and that 3
relative permeability samples were taken per core (9 total).
The cost of CT determined steady state relative permeabilities
can be estimated at approximately $1,500 above the cost of
conventional determinations (total incremental cost of
$13,500). With the assumption of 2 production wells cored,
the incremental cost of $27,000 for CT relative permeability
studies is small in comparison to the NPV ($6.4 MM to $8.6
MM). The advantage gained by using CT for relative
permeability measurement is reduced uncertainty and higher
probability of reaching the upper-end of the NPV range.
Rock Characteristics from CT Core Analysis
Many studies have been performed using CT for core analysis
and flow testing. These works have not been classified within
a framework that can be readily used by others considering CT
core analysis for the first time. The remainder of this section
2 SPE 83467
will draw from the literature to review and classify these
earlier CT studies within a framework based on reservoir
engineering applications.
CT Principles
The main principles of CT for core studies are expressed in
several early papers which span both core description and
coreflooding. Honarpour et al was very early to demonstrate
the benefits of CT scanning to the oil industry,3 and Wang et
al described the early use of CT for obtaining images of oil
and water saturations during corefloods.4 One of the concepts
reported was the use of an x-ray attenuating agent to enhance
the distinction of brine from oil during a 2-phase
displacement test.
Vinegar and Wellington provided the industry with a
comprehensive study on the methodology and application of
CT scanning for coreflood monitoring.5 Their work described
the underlying principals of x-ray and rock physics, and gave a
recommended protocol for the determination of 3-phase fluid
saturations using dopants and dual-energy CT scanning.
These authors further demonstrated CT scanning for use with
tertiary miscible flooding, and the coupling of CT
coreflooding with numerical simulation.6,7 Withjack
demonstrated CT scanning for special core analysis (SCAL)
including CT porosity determination and relative permeability
measurement.8 Mobility ratio effects in first-contact miscible
displacements were investigated in full-diameter cores,8 and
3D physical models of a 5-Spot well pattern.9
Core Description
One of the applications of whole-core CT scanning is to
provide quantitative data for correlation with well logs.3 Hunt
et al demonstrated the imaging capabilities of CT to reveal
mud invasion, inspect core within core barrels, and determine
core heterogeneities.10 The paper also discussed the reduction
of unwanted image artifacts (beam hardening).11 Whole core
scanning of unconsolidated rock from the Alaskan North
Slope was performed by MacGregor et al to estimate core
retrieval rates for minimal core damage.12
Figure 2 illustrates a CT radiograph (left), and 2 axial scans,
of a whole core within its protective sleeve. The CT scans are
taken across a section of the core where the core has
separated. In an early paper, Bergosh et al demonstrated the
use of CT scanning for fracture analysis of the Monterey
Formation.13 The CT scans revealed mud invasion into open
fractures, and the trend of the dominant fracture system within
the core. Fracture analysis of whole-core dolomite was
demonstrated by Honarpour et al using closely spaced CT
scans.14 Sufficient data were acquired to map the 3D internal
features of a whole-core segment, including the partially-filled
and completely-filled fractures, and internal mineral
distribution. Moss et al described a method of dual-scan CT
for measurement of fracture and matrix porosity.15 The paper
illustrated applications of the method using core samples from
the Monterey and Bakken shales. Applications of CT
scanning for analysis of extremely heterogeneous carbonates
was reported by Sprunt.16 This work discussed procedures and
concerns regarding core analysis of heterogeneous rock, and
presented findings on solids invasion, whole core cleaning,
and compressibility.
Figure 3 illustrates the details observable in CT scans of a
heterogeneous core plug, and one from a damaged sample.
CT scans of a core plug from orthogonal viewpoints (Figure
4) reveal bedding planes and sample details that are valuable
qualifiers for core flow testing and geological description.
CT studies of fractures in crystalline rock (granite) were
reported by Johns et al using both a medical and an industrial
CT scanner.17 The paper provides an excellent discussion of
the basic quantitative methods for CT fracture analysis, and
demonstrates the use of tracer solution (sodium iodide) to
monitor fluid movement. Geothermal rock from the Geysers
field was characterized by Withjack and Durham using a
combination of CT and NMR.18
The transition from qualitative core inspection to quantitative
analysis was the focus of work by Kantzas et al, using field
core from Alberta.19 The paper discusses the CT calibrations
required to obtain bulk density, and the reliability of such
determinations compared to conventional core analysis.
Additional contributions on standardizing CT techniques for
quantitative analysis were suggested by Coles et al.20 Recent
work by Griffin and Shafer provides an excellent discussion
on maximizing the value of data obtained from routine core
analysis.21 The paper describes how bulk density calculated
from CT was able to reconcile a shift between the density log
and the CT derived bulk density.
Fundamental Mechanisms
The advantages of using CT for coreflood monitoring include
visualization of fluid movement, and elimination of tedious
monitoring of a volumetric material balance. Figure 5
illustrates the response of x-ray attenuation, as measured by
CT, to the injection of a doped brine into an oil saturated field
core. The CT slices above the plot show a cross-sectional
image at one location along the length of the core. This type
of test may be used to characterize sample heterogeneity, and
also illustrates an unsteady state displacement.
Early researchers focused on gaining a deeper understanding
of oil recovery mechanisms to help improve ultimate recovery.
Wellington and Vinegar presented a collection of experimental
studies demonstrating CT techniques for immiscible and
miscible carbon dioxide displacements,7 and the benefits of
carbon dioxide mobility through the use of surfactants.22 An
early demonstration of CT scanning using stacked cores
revealed the saturation discontinuity at core junctions and the
influence of rate effects.23 Using a unique concentric porous
media assembly, Sorbie et al performed CT monitored studies
to investigate fluid dispersion and crossflow.24 Tomatsa et al
performed fluid flow studies using integrated CT, thin sections
and a rock micromodels to study the effects of small-scale
variations in rock properties on fluid distribution.25
Displacement studies in heterogeneous carbonate cores were
SPE 83467
reported by Hicks et al, and included visualization of the non-
uniform flow field using 3D sectional views.26
An in-depth CT study of gas-water relative permeabilities
under different wetting conditions using carbonate cores was
reported by MacAllister et al.27 The work focused on
determining the influence of pressure gradient during relative
permeability testing, and featured 3D saturation images during
the different stages of a WAG process. Mohanty and Johnson
utilized CT to characterize heterogeneities and dispersion in
field core, and to provide data for gasflood simulations.28
CT monitored water imbibition into high-porosity, low-
permeability diatomite rock was carried out by Akin et al.29
Kamath et al used CT to monitor saturation distributions and
improve understanding of oil recovery for four different types
of carbonate rock.30 Oil recovery from high porosity, low
permeability Diatomites (Lost Hills) was investigated by Zhou
et al, using CT for monitoring spontaneous imbibition and
coreflood displacements.31 Their work concluded that water
invades into the matrix at a slow diffusive rate, and low
porosity, high permeability channels may dominate
field behavior.
Desaturation Studies
The main assumption underlying the use of Archie’s
relationship for determining water saturation by electric log
analysis is uniformity of fluid distribution during a
desaturation process. A early CT investigation into the effect
of non-uniform saturation distribution on electrical properties
measurement was performed by Sprunt et al.32 These
investigators used CT to verify saturation profiles, and showed
that using preset equilibrium times can lead to nonuniform
profiles and result in anomalous resistivity index plots.
Chardaire-Riviere et al reported on the use of CT for
verification of saturation profiles after different rotation steps
during capillary pressure measurements by the centrifuge
technique.33 Trewin and Morrison recommended the use of
CT for resistivity sample screening, relative permeability
testing and heterogeneity analysis.34 Using core samples from
the Gulf Coast as a Caspian Sea analog, Withjack et al used
CT to investigated resistivity behavior of thinly laminated
shaley sands.35 The use of CT for saturation measurement has
also been incorporated into the Society of Core
Analysts Guidelines.36
Improved Recovery
Early studies on the use of CT for monitoring enhanced
recovery by Xanthan polymer flooding were reported by Hove
et al.37 Their work illustrated the beneficial effects of polymer
flooding for improved sweepout in stratified cores. Coreflood
experiments investigating the details of the dynamic processes
governing surfactant systems for improved oil recovery have
been reported by Alvestad et al.38 These experiments were
also modeled using a phase behavior package and fluid flow
simulator. Chen et al applied CT for monitoring surfactant
imbibition as an improved recovery method for fractured
carbonates from west Texas.39 The investigation confirmed
3
more rapid imbibition of surfactant solution compared to
brine, and identified the transition of the recovery process
from imbibition to gravity-segregation domination. Enhanced
oil recovery in Diatomites (Lost Hills, South Belridge) using
carbon dioxide and flue gas injection was studied by
Fong et al.40
Hydrate Studies
Gas (methane) hydrates represent an immense resource
conservatively estimated at twice the amount of global energy
in stored fossil fuels, but can also pose significant production
problems and plugging of natural-gas pipelines. A CT study
of hydrate dissociation was reported by Tomutsa et al, which
confirmed the CT method to track the progression of a
dissociation front in a hydrate/sand mixture.41
Recovery of Viscous Oil
The large difference in x-ray attenuation between vaporized
water (steam) and liquids encouraged the early use of CT
scanning for observations of steam corefloods. Closeman and
Vinegar presented a study on the use of CT for investigating
relative permeability characteristics of steam and non-
condensable gas.42 CT monitored steamfloods and numerical
simulations were carried out by Cuthiell et al to derive
capillary pressure models.43 CT investigation of steam-water
capillary pressure was also conducted by Kewen and Horn;
their work resulted in a mathematical model for steam-water
capillary pressure suitable for reservoir engineering use.44 A
unique recovery method (cold production) for viscous oil
deposits in uncemented formations was investigated by
Tremblay et al.45 CT was used to visualize the growth of
wormholes caused by sand and oil production transported by
the influence of solution-gas drive.
Formation Damage Studies
One of the most commonly occurring formation damage
mechanisms is the formation of scale caused by mineral
precipitation in reservoir rock pores. Heavier elements, such
as barium, can be readily traced within porous media because
of their strong x-ray absorbency. Allaga et al performed early
CT studies to visualize the formation and movement of barium
sulfate precipitate within uniform sandpacks.46 Some packs
were constructed with scale inducing compounds to provide
data for modeling transport mechanisms. Permeability
reduction due to filter cake formation and barite solids
penetration was studied by Krilov et al, using CT to measure
invasion depths.47 A investigation of filter cake removal by
wash circulation was performed by Miranda et al using a
microfocus x-ray source.48 These investigators suggested that,
although their technique had advantages in precision, a fourth
generation commercial scanner would provide the valued
advantage of more rapid scan time. Lomba et al presented a
methodology for evaluating drilling fluid invasion using CT
for visualization of polymeric fluids in unconsolidated
porous media.49
4 SPE 83467
Acid Treatment, Stimulation and Hydraulic Fractures
In reservoir rock, acid treatments are typically used for scale
removal, but may also result in deep damage through the
precipitation of acid-treatment byproducts. The application of
CT for acid treatment design was recognized early by Bartko
et al, and resulted in optimization of an acid treatment for an
Alaskan sandstone.50 Bazin et al utilized CT to visualize the
limestone dissolution and acid wormhole growth; their work
confirmed the industry accepted relationship between applied
pressure differential and wormhole length.51 Further studies
investigated the advantages of using both conventional and
emulsified acid treatments in carbonate formations. At low
rates, acid-in-diesel emulsions provided deeper penetration,
while at high flow rates, plain acid yielded lower penetration
but more effective stimulation.52 Krilov et al presented a CT
methodology for hydraulically induced fracture identification
and azimuth determination.53
Perforator Analysis
Investigation of perforator effectiveness has been studied
using conventional x-ray analysis (radiographs) for several
decades. In an early paper, Aseltine showed that perforation
mechanics in rock are very complex, and expressed a critical
need for test data to advance design.54 Today, with the
availability of CT, data can be obtained to measure both the
axial and radial growth of a perforation, as well as track its
path (Figure 6). Karacan et al recently reported on the
application of CT for perforator analysis with underbalanced
conditions.55 Their paper reports very different results for gas
and liquid saturated cores, with less perforation damage in
liquid-saturated cores. In a study of perforations in tight,
naturally fractured reservoir rock, Halleck and Dogulu used
CT to investigate jet penetrations across fractures.56 They
reported that stresses from shaped charges caused
deformations that sealed fractures where they
intersected perforations.
The above discussion provides an overview of the applications
of CT technology for core analysis, some of which are
fundamental, and many of which have become commercial.
Table 1 organizes these applications into major categories and
characteristics/processes, along with the associated references.
References spanning several technologies appear in multiple
categories. The studies listed leave few areas of reservoir
rock characterization untouched; however, it is of interest to
note that the fundamental interests (sample characterization
and displacement mechanisms) have received the most effort.
Solutions to more practical problems, such as core-log
reconciliation, formation damage and treatment, have
relatively few reported studies.
ADVANCED AND EMERGING CT TECHNOLOGY
For applications such as whole core analysis and saturation
monitoring, the capabilities of modified medical scanners can
meet most requirements. The petroleum industry’s need for
improved process understanding and advanced mathematical
modeling is transitioning CT requirements from the macro
scale (0.25 – 0.30 millimeters) to the micro scale (5 – 10
microns). Applications include those fundamental to
improving reservoir evaluation and recovery processes, such
as resistivity and fluid flow modeling, and
wettability evaluation.57.58,59
Microtomography
The main factors that limit the resolution of conventional CT
include x-ray tube beam size, the detector array, and the broad
energy spectrum of the x-ray beam. An early discussion of the
principles of microtomography was presented by Flannery et
al,60 and a demonstration of the use of microtomography for
core analysis was reported by Coles et al,61 both employing
the synchrotron source at Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Microtomograms of sandstone samples were obtained with a
resolution of 10 microns, and a 3D pore level model was
reconstructed. In an extension of this work, water-oil
displacement studies were carried out in a sandstone sample,
and the endpoint saturations were visualized at 30-micron
resolution.62 Further work demonstrated the use of network
modeling to provide flow simulations based on pore structure
determined from microtomography.63
These early studies clearly demonstrated the benefits of
microtomography, but were also hindered from
commercialization by the source, small sample size (3 to 10-
millimeters), and long scan times (up to 90 min.). High
resolution CT scanning has been used outside the oil and gas
industry for non-destructive testing. The use of an x-ray
source with a microfocus spot (5 – 10 microns), coupled with
an image intensifier and a CCD camera, forms the basis of the
bench-top technology. One such commercial system is
capable of providing pore size resolution (5 microns) for small
core plugs, and also accommodates samples up to 15 cm in
diameter and height. Figure 7 shows microtomography
images of sandstone and carbonate samples, obtained with a
commercially available bench-top scanner. The spatial
volume element is approximately a 50-micron cube. Sand
grains and larger pores are clearly distinguishable.
Advantages of bench-top systems include faster data
acquisition time (approximately 1 min.), and ease of
integration within a laboratory environment. With access to
these systems, the oil and gas industry has the advanced
technology available to meet the imaging and data
requirements for improvement in oil and gas recovery that can
only be gained by microscopic insight.
Hybrid CT-NMR
Three-phase saturation determination with x-ray CT usually
relies on the use of dopants and dual-energy scanning.5 The
addition of dopants to reservoir fluids can alter densities,
viscosities, phase behavior, and possibly alter wettability.64 A
hybrid CT-NMR approach is proposed here for determining
saturations of three fluid phases without the need for dopants.
This approach is particularly useful for native state and other
corefloods at reservoir conditions. The method is based on
using NMR for an independent determination of brine
SPE 83467
saturation, and CT scanning for oil and gas saturations. The
main relationship of the method is as follows:
So = (Ar+w+o+g – Ar+w+g)/(Ar+w+o –Ar+w+g) (1)
where:
Ar+w+g = Ar+g + Sw(Ar+w – Ag+r) (2)
and:
Ar+w+o = Ar+w+g + (1-Sw)(Ar+o – Ag+r) (3)
In these equations, “A” refers to the attenuation associated
with x-ray CT scans under different saturation conditions, with
the subscripts, w, o, g, and r, referring to water, oil, gas and
rock, respectively. The gas saturation can be computed by
material balance:
Sg = 1 - So – Sw (4)
A preliminary trial of the approach was performed using a
Berea core plug (porosity 22.9%, permeability 937 mD), a lab
oil with a viscosity of about 10 cp, and a 3% KCl brine. An
NMR coreholder (Figure 8) is manufactured using different
materials than the standard CT composite coreholder, and its
x-ray transparency was evaluated. Figure 9 shows that the
coreholder’s transparency is greater than a commonly used
composite coreholder because of its thinner wall thickness.
The NMR overburden fluid was also noted to contain a
halogen compound with x-ray attenuating properties. The
fluid-filled annular gap, however, is only a few millimeters
wide, and it was verified (during set-up of the preliminary
trial) to have a negligible effect on the x-ray measurements.
The NMR measurements were performed using a Maran Ultra
core analyzer. Figure 10 shows the NMR signature of data
sets corresponding to conditions of 100% brine, irreducible
water saturation, and post gasflood conditions. In this test,
both short (TE = 320) and long (TE = 600) inter-echo times
were used; the data illustrated correspond with TE = 600. The
CT scanning was performed on a 4th generation CT scanner
using 130kVp, 170 mA, 4-sec. scans, and 5-mm slices.
Table 2 summarizes the results from the test, with the main
objective of determining the initial water saturation, and the
residual oil saturation after gasflooding. The table lists the
quantities determinable by NMR and CT alone, and the
residuals to gas flooding which can only be determined by the
combined CT-NMR analysis. The NMR porosity and initial
water saturations are within expectations, while the CT
determined initial water saturation is anomalous (6.5%); it
remains uncertain as to the cause, but it reflects only on a
result from this specific test and not on the general
methodology. The NMR water saturations reveal that
gasflooding resulted in a loss of water from the core (29.2% to
9.9%), possibly from evaporation (even though humidified
nitrogen was used). Selecting the NMR characterizations at
the TE = 600, the residual oil saturation to gasflooding
determined by combined CT-NMR is a reasonable 22.4%.
5
The hybrid CT-NMR method provides a new technique to
determine 3-phase saturations while eliminating dual dopants
and dual-energy CT scanning. One limitation (compared to
CT) is a “slice-averaged” brine saturation from NMR.
Perhaps in the future this limitation may be overcome with
imaging NMR. Another practical consideration is the
repositioning of the coreholder when exchanged between the
NMR instrument and the CT scanner. Suitable reference
means need to be incorporated into the coreholder design
(such as stops or pins).
Acknowledgements
We thank Schlumberger Completions Technology for the
perforation sample and images of the perforation shot. Also
acknowledged is Universal Systems, and Dr. Grader (Penn
State), for the microtomography CT scans.
Nomenclature
S = Saturation (fraction)
A = X-ray Attenuation (Houndsfield Units)
NPV = Net Present Value
Subscripts
g = gas
i = irreducible
o = oil
r = rock
w = water
Conclusions
1. The cost of utilizing CT for rock characterization is small
in comparison to overall project value, and can improve
the probability of reaching the upper-end of an NPV
range.
2. A review of the core-analysis CT literature indicates that
most reservoir characterization topics have been studied
to some degree, with the majority focusing on
fundamental studies and recovery mechanisms.
3. Efforts in support of more widespread use of CT for
investigating field related problems, such as formation
damage solutions and improved perforations, may offer
improvements in recovery for some problematic wells.
4. Microtomography is a viable technology that can provide
new data for improved pore-level modeling and
mechanistic understanding.
5. Combined CT-NMR technology can provide in-situ
saturation monitoring for 3-phase fluid systems, at
reservoir conditions, without the modification of fluids by
dopants. Additional work is required to provide
experience and practical development of the method.
6 SPE 83467
References
1. Caldwell, R. H. and Heather, D. I.: “How Technology
Transforms Resources into Reserves,” paper 37933 presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
16 – 18 March, 1997.
2. Aikman, M., Pooladi-Darvish, M, Mirotchnik, K and Kantzas,
A.: “Core Analysis: Is It Really Worth It?” paper 9830 presented
at the International Symposium of the SCA, The Hague (Oct.
1998).
3. Honarpour, M. M., Cromwell, V., Hatton, D. and Satchwell, R.:
“Reservoir Rock Descriptions Using Computed Tomography,”
paper 14272 presented at the 60th Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition of the SPE, Las Vegas, 22 – 25 Sept., 1985.
4. Wang, S. Y., Ayral, S. and Gryte, C. C.: “Computer-Assisted
Tomography for the Observation of Oil Displacement in Porous
Media,” SPEJ (Feb. 1984) 53.
5. Vinegar, H. J. and Wellington, S. L.: “Tomographic Imaging of
Three-Phase Flow Experiments,” Rev. Sci. Instrum. No. 58, 1,
(Jan. 1987) 96.
6. Vinegar, H. J.: “X-Ray CT and NMR Imaging of Rocks,” JPT
(March 1986) 257.
7. Wellington, S. L. and Vinegar, H. J.: “X-Ray Computerized
Tomography,” JPT (August 1987) 885.
8. Withjack, E. M.: “Computed Tomography for Rock-Property
Determination and Fluid-Flow Visualization,” SPEFE (Dec.
1988) 696.
9. Withjack, E. M. and Akervoll, I.: “Computed Tomography
Studies of 3-D Miscible Displacement Behavior in a Laboratory
Five-Spot Model,” paper SPE 18096 presented at the 63rd
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the SPE,
Houston, 2 – 5 Oct., 1988.
10. Hunt, P. K., Engler, P. and Bajsarowicz, C.: “Computed
Tomography as a Core Analysis Tool: Applications, Instrument
Evaluation, and Image Improvement Techniques,” JPT (Sept.
1988) 1203.
11. Morgan, C. L.and Phil, M.: Basic Principals of Computed
Tomography, University Park Press, Baltimore (1983).
12. MacGregor, K. W., Park, E. I. and Sincock, K. J.: “Effective
Unconsolidated Core Preservation in the Arctic Environment:
An Aid to Accurate Reservoir Evaluation,” paper SPE 22128
presented at the International Arctic Technology Conference,
Anchorage, 29 – 31 May, 1991.
13. Bergosh, J. L., Marks, T. R. and Mitkus, A. F.: “New Core
Analysis Techniques for Naturally Fractured Reservoirs,” paper
13653 presented at the SPE California Regional Meeting,
Bakersfield, 27 – 29 March, 1985.
14. Honarpour, M. M., McGee, K. R., Crocker, M. E., Maerefat, N.
L. and Sharma, B.: “ Detailed Core Description of a Dolomite
Sample from the Upper Madison Limestone Group,” paper
15174 presented at the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting,
Billings, MT, 19 - 21 May, 1986.
15. Moss, R. M., Pepin, G. P. and Davis, L. A.: “Direct
Measurement of the Constituent Porosities in a Dual Porosity
Matrix,” paper 9003 presented at the Fourth Annual Technical
Conference of the Society of Core Analysts, Dallas, 15 - 16
August, 15-16, 1990).
16. Sprunt, E. S.: “Arun Core Analysis: Special Procedures for
Vuggy Carbonates,” The Log Analyst, (Sept. – Oct. 1989) 353.
17. Johns, R. A., Steude, J. S., Castanier, L. M. and Roberts, P. V.:
“Nondestructive Measurements of Fracture Aperture in
Crystalline Rock Using X Ray Computed Tomography,” JGR,
v. 98, No. B2 (Feb. 1993) 1889.
18. Withjack, E. M. and Durham, J. R.: “Characterization and
Saturation Determination of Geothermal Rock by CT and
NMR,” paper 9515 presented at the International Symposium of
the SCA, San Francisco, 12 – 14 Sept., 1995.
19. Kantzas, A., Marentette, D. F. and Jha, K. N.: “Computer-
Assisted Tomography: from Qualitative Visualization to
Quantitative Core Analysis,” JCPT, 31, No. 9 (Nov. 1992) 48.
20. Coles, M.E., Muegge, E. L., Auzerais, F. M., Frulla, P. and
Kantzas, A.: “The use of Attenuation Standards for CT
Scanning,” paper SCA 9513 presented at the 1995 International
Symposium of the SCA, San Francisco, 12 – 14 Sept., 1995.
21. Griffin, T. and Shafer, J.: “Maximizing the Impact of Routine
Core Analysis on Special Core and Log Analysis:
Unconsolidated Sandstones,” paper SCA 2001-07 presented at
the 2001 International Symposium of the SCA, Edinburgh (Sept.
2001).
22. Wellington, S. L. and Vinegar, H. J.: “CT Studies of Surfactant-
Induced Mobility Control,” paper 14393 presented at the 60th
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the SPE, Las
Vegas, 22 – 25 Sept. 1985.
23. Hove, A. O., Ringen, J. K. and Read, P. A.: “Visualization of
Laboratory Corefloods with the Aid of Computed Tomography
of X-Rays,” SPERE (May 1987) 148.
24. Sorbie, K. S., Wat, R. M. S., Hove, A. O., Nilsen V. and Leknes,
J.: Miscible Displacement Experiments in Heterogeneous Core
Systems: Tomographic Confirmation of Flow Mechanisms,”
paper 18493 presented at the SPE International Symposium on
Oilfield Chemistry, Houston, 8 – 10 February, 1989.
25. Tomutsa, L., Mahmood, S. M., Brinkmeyer, A. and Honarpour,
M.: “Application of Integrated Pore-to-Core Image Analysis to
Study Fluid Distribution in Reservoir Rocks,” paper 20478
presented at the 65th Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition of the SPE, New Orleans, 23 – 26 Sept., 1990.
26. Hicks, P. J., Jr., Narayanan, R., and Deans, H. A.: “An
Experimental Study of Miscible Displacements in
Heterogeneous Carbonate Cores Using X-Ray CT,” paper 20492
presented at the 65th Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition of the SPE, New Orleans, 23-27 Sept., 1990.
27. MacAllister, D. J., Miller, K. C., Graham, S. K. and Yang, C-T.:
“Application of X-Ray CT Scanning to the Determination of
Gas-Water Relative Permabilities,” SPEFE, 8, No. 3 (Sept.
1993) 184.
28. Mohanty, K. K. and Johnson, S. W.: Interpretation of
Laboratory Gasfloods with Multidimensional Compositional
Modeling,” paper SPE 21204 presented at the SPE Symposium
on Reservoir Simulation, Anaheim, Feb. 17 – 20, 1991.
29. Akin, S. and Kovscek, A. R.: “Imbibition Studies of Low-
Permeability Porous Media,” paper 54590 presented at the SPE
Western Regional Meeting, Anchorage, 26 – 27 May, 1999.
30. Kamath, J., Meyer, R. F. and Nakagawa, F. M.: “Understanding
Waterflood Residual Oil Saturation of Four Carbonate Rock
Types,” paper 71505 presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Sept. 30 - Oct. 3,
2001.
31. Zhou, D. Kamath, J. Friedmann, F. and Morea, M.: “
Understanding the Lost Hills Waterflood,” paper SCA 2002-15
presented at the 2002 International Symposium of the SCA,
Monterey, 22 – 25 Sept., 2002.
32. Sprunt, E. S., Desal, K. P., Coles, M. E., Davis, R. M. and
Muegge, E. L.: “CT-Scan-Monitored Electrical-Resistivity
Measurements Show Problems Achieving Homogeneous
Saturation,” SPEFE (June 1991) 134.
33. Chardaire-Riviere, C., Forbes, P., Zhang, J. F., Chavent, G. and
Lenormand, R.: “Improving the Centrifuge Technique by
Measuring Local Saturations,” paper SPE presented at the 67th
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the SPE, 4 – 7
Oct., 1992.
34. Trewin, B. and Morrison, S.: “Reconciliation of Core and Log
Residual Oil Saturation Through Application of In-Situ
SPE 83467
Saturation Monitoring,” Advances in Core Evaluation III,
Reservoir Management, Proceedings of the SCA Third
European Core Analysis Symposium, Paris, 14 – 16 Sept., 1992,
197.
35. Withjack, E. M., Durham, J. R., Mirzajanzade, A. Kh.,
Cheidaev, T., Saruyev, S. and Suleimanov, A.: “Desaturating
Shaley Sands: Physical and Resistivity Modeling,” paper SCA
9818 presented at the Symposium of the SCA, The Hague (Oct.
1998).
36. Maerefat, N. L., Baldwin, B. A., Chaves, A. A., LaTorraca, G.
A. and Swanson, B.F.: “SCA Guidelines for Sample Preparation
and Porosity Measurement of Electrical Resistivity Samples,”
The Log Analyst, March – April, 1990, 68.
37. Hove, A. O., Nilsen, V. and Leknes, J.: “Visualization of
Xanthan Flood Behavior in Core Samples by Means of X-Ray
Tomography,” paper SPE/DOE 17342 presented at the
SPE/DOE Enhanced Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, 17 – 20
April, 1988.
38. Alvestad, J., Gilje, E., Hove, A. O., Langeland, O., Maldal, T.
and Schilling, B. E. R.: “Coreflood Experiments with Surfactant
Systems for IOR: Computer Tomography Studies and
Numerical Simulation,” J. Pet. Science and Eng., Elsevier
Science Publishers B. V., Amsterdam, 7 (1992) 155.
39. Chen, H. L., Lucas, L. R., Nogaret, L. A. D., Yang, H. D. and
Kenyon, D. E.: “Laboratory Monitoring of Surfactant Imbibition
with Computerized Tomography,” SPERE & E (February 2001)
16.
40. Fong, W. S., Tang, R. W., Emanuel, A. S., Sabat, P. J. and
Lambertz, D. A.: “EOR for California Diatomites: CO2, Flue
Gas and Water Corefloods, and Computer Simulation,” paper
SPE 24039 presented at the SPE Western Regional Meeting,
Bakersfield, March 30 – April 1, 1992.
41. Tomutsa, L., Freifeld, B., Kneafsey, T. J. and Stern, L. A.: “X-
Ray Computed Tomography Observation of Methane Hydrate
Dissociation,” paper SPE 75533 presented at the SPE Gas
Technology Symposium, Calgary, 30 April – 2 May, 2002.
42. Closeman, P. J. and Vinegar, H. J.: “Relative Permeabilities to
Steam and Water at Residual Oil in Natural Cores: CT Scan
Saturations,” paper SPE 17449 presented at the SPE Western
Regional Meeting, Long Beach, March, 1988.
43. Cuthiell, D., Sedgwick, G., Kissel, G. and Woolley, J.: “Steam
Corefloods with Concurrent X-Ray CT Imaging,” JCPT, 32, No.
3 (March 1993) 37.
44. Kewen, Li and Horne, R. N.: “An Experimental and Analytical
Study of Steam-Water Capillary Pressure,” paper SPE 63224
prepared for presentation at the Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, Dallas, 1 – 4 Oct. , 2000.
45. Tremblay, B., Sedgwick, G. and Vu, D.: “CT Imaging of
Wormhole Growth Under Solution-Gas Drive,” SPERE & E, 2.
No. 1 (Feb. 1999) 37.
46. Allaga, D. A., Wu, G., Sharma, M. M. and Lake, L. W.:
“Barium and Calcium Sulfate Precipitation and Migration Inside
Sandpacks,” SPEFE (March 1992) 79.
47. Krilov, Z., Steiner, I., Goricnik. B., Wojtanowicz, A. J. and
Cabrajac, S.: “Quantitative Determination of Solids Invasion
and Formation Damage Using CAT Scan and Barite
Suspensions,” paper SPE 23102 presented at the Offshore
Europe Conference, Aberdeen, 3 – 6 Sept., 1991.
48. Miranda, C. R., Leite, J. C., Lopes, R. T. and Oliveira, L. F.: “A
New Method of Evaluating the Filter-Cake Removal
Efficiency,” paper IADC/SPE 74502 presented at the IACD/SPE
Drilling Conference, Dallas, 26 – 28 Feb., 2002.
49. Lomba, R. F. T., Martins, A. L., Soares, C. M., Brandao, E. M.,
Magalhaes, J. V. M. and Ferreira, M. V. D.: “Drill-In Fluids:
Identifying Invasion Mechanisms,” paper SPE 73714 presented
at the SPE International Symposium and Exhibition on
7
Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, 20 – 21 Feb., 2002.
50. Bartko, K. M., Newhouse, D. P., Andersen, C. A. and Treinen,
R. J.: “The Use of CT Scanning in the Investigation of Acid
Damage to Sandstone Core,” paper SPE 30457 presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Dallas, 22 –
25 Oct., 1995.
51. Bazin, B., Bieber, M. T., Roque, C. and Bouteca, M.:
“Improvement in the Characterization of Acid Wormholing by
“In Situ” X-Ray CT Visualizations,” paper SPE 31073 presented
at the SPE International Symposium on Formation Damage,
Lafayette, 14 – 15 Feb., 1995.
52. Bazin, B. and Abdulahad, G.: “Experimental Investigation of
Some Properties of Emulsified Acid Systems for Stimulation of
Carbonate Formations,” paper SPE 53237 presented at the SPE
Middle East Oil Show, Bahrain, 20 – 23 Feb., 1999.
53. Krilov, Z. and Goricnik, B.: “A study of Hydraulic Fracture
Orientation by X-Ray Computed Tomography (CT),” paper SPE
36879 presented at the 1996 SPE European Conference, Milan,
22 – 24 Oct., 1996.
54. Aseltine, C. L.: “Flash X-Ray Analysis of the Interaction of
Perforators with Different Target Materials,” paper SPE 14322
presented at the 60th Annual SPE Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Las Vegas, 22 – 25 Sept., 1985.
55. Karacan, C. O., Grader, A. S., Halleck, P. M.: “Effect of Pore
Fluid Type on Perforation Damage and Flow Characteristics,”
paper SPE 67290 presented at the SPE Production and
Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, 24 – 27 March, 2001.
56. Halleck, P. M. and Dogulu, Y. S.: “Experiments and Computer
Analysis Show How Perforators Damage Natural Fractures,”
paper SPE 37330 presented at the 1996 SPE Eastern Regional
Meeting, Columbus, 23 – 25 Oct., 1998.
57. Grattoni, C. A. and Dawe, R. A.: “ Electrical Resistivity
Anisotropy Due to Pore Scale Structure,” paper SCA 9416
presented at the 1994 International Symposium of the SCA,
Stavanger, 12 – 14 Sept., 1994.
58. Ioannidis, M. A. and Chatzis, I.: “A Dual-Network Model of
Pore Structure for Vuggy Carbonates,” paper SCA 2000-09-(1)
presented at the 2000 International Symposium of the SCA, Abu
Dhabi, 18 – 22 Oct. 2000.
59. Buckley, J. S., Bousseau, C. and Liu, Y.: “Wetting Alteration by
Brine and Crude Oil: From Contact Angles to Cores,” paper
SPE 30765 presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, Dallas, 22 – 25 Oct., 1995.
60. Flannery, B. P., Deckman, H. W., Roberge, W. G. and
D’Amico, K. L.: “Three-Dimensional X-Ray
Microtomography,” Science, 237, 18 Sept. 1987, 1439.
61. Coles, M. E., Spanne, P. Muegge, E. L. and Jones, K. W.:
“Computed Microtomography of Reservoir Core Samples,”
paper SCA 9401 presented at the 1994 International Symposium
of the SCA, Stavanger, 12 – 14 Sept., 1994.
62. Coles, M. E., Hazlett, R. D., Spanne, Soll, W. E., P. Muegge, E.
L. and Jones, K. W.: “Pore Level Imaging of Fluid Transport
Using Synchrotron X-Ray Microtomography,” paper SCA 9628
presented at the 1996 International Symposium of the SCA,
Montpellier, 8 – 10, Sept., 1996.
63. Hazlett, R. D., Coles, M. E., Jones, K. W., Andrews, B., Dowd,
B. Siddons, P. and Peskin, A.: “Developments in Synchrotron
X-Ray Microtomography for Application in Porous Media,”
paper SCA 9630 presented at the 1996 International Symposium
of the SCA, Montpellier, 8 – 10 Sept., 1996.
64. Yu, S. Y., Akervoll, I., Torsaeter, O., Stensen, J. A., Kleppe, J.
and Midtlyng, S. H.: “History Matching Gas Injection Processes
with In-Situ Saturation Measurements and Process Hysteresis,”
paper SPE 48842 presented at the 1998 SPE International
Conference and Exhibition, Beijing, 2 – 6 Nov., 1998.
8 SPE 83467

TABLE 1 – Classification of Previous CT Core Analysis Studies.

Category Characteristic/Process References

CT Methodology Data Acquisition & Processing 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 17, 19, 20, 22
Core-Log Reconciliation 21, 34
Whole Core Fracture Analysis 13, 14, 15, 16,17
Inspection Sample Characterization 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 30, 31
Relative Permeability 8, 27, 28, 29, 42
SCAL Capillary Pressure 29, 33, 43, 44
Resistivity Determination 32, 34, 35, 36, 57
Displacement Mechanisms 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 58, 59
Waterflooding 4, 8, 9, 19, 23, 31, 40, 43
Recovery Studies
Chemical Flooding 5, 6, 22, 37, 38, 39
CO2 Flooding 5, 6, 7, 22, 40
Gas Displacement 27, 28, 40, 63
Heavy Oil Recovery Processes 43, 44, 45
Relative Permeability 42
Hydrates Mechanisms 41
Geothermal Sample Characterization 17, 18
Recovery Processes 18
Formation Damage Scale 46
Invasion 7, 10, 16, 47, 48, 49
Stimulation Acid Treatment 50, 51, 52
Hydraulic Fracturing 53
Perforators Penetration 54, 55
Damage 56
Microtomography Sample Characterization 60, 61
Recovery Processes 48, 62, 63

TABLE 2 – Results from NMR, CT, and CT- NMR Analyses.

Description NMR (TE 320) NMR (TE 600) CT Only CT-NMR

Porosity, % 21.3 23.0 N/A N/A
(Ref: 22.9%)
Initial Water 27.1 26.2 6.5* 29.2
Saturation, Swi, %
Final Water 10.6 9.7 6.5* (=Swi by 9.7
Saturation, % assumption)
(After Gasflood)
Final Oil N/A N/A 26.9 (assumes 22.4
Saturation, % Swi constant)
(After Gasflood)
Final Gas N/A N/A N/A 68.0
Saturation, %
(After Gasflood)

* CT initial water saturation anomalous (see text).

SPE 83467 9

“CLOUD” OF GLOBAL
DRIVERS AND CONSTRAINTS

NPV

PRODUCTION
FORECAST

FIELD HOW MUCH ? HOW SOON ?

INFRASTRUCTURE Oil-In-Place Recovery Factors

“CLOUD” OF RESERVOIR PROPERTIES

(Depth, dip, pressure, temp., perm., krel, kv/kh, thick., etc.)

Figure 1 – Conceptual illustration of the relationship between NPV, reservoir rock properties and global influences.

Figure 2 – CT radiograph scan (left) and axial scans (right) showing damaged core within core tube.
10 SPE 83467

cm
2

2 o o
0 90
Figure 3 – CT scans of a heterogeneous (left) and damaged plug (right). Figure 4 – Core plug scans in orthogonal
planes (0 and 90 degrees).

DOPED
BRINE

1840

1820

1800
CT Number

1780

1760

1740

1720
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Time, sec

Figure 5 – CT number increase in response to doped brine injection into core.

SPE 83467 11

Figure 6 – CT inspection of perforation shot penetration (Sample dia. approx. 6-in.).

10 mm X 10 mm

(b)
50 mm X 50 mm (a)

Figure 7 – Microtomography image of: (a) fractured sandstone and (b) carbonate sample.
12 SPE 83467

GAP

1 2 3 4

Figure 8 – CT radiograph of NMR coreholder containing a core sample.

1550

1500

1450
CT Number

1400

1350
Berea Core in Air
1300 Berea in NMR Coreholder
Berea in AL Coreholder
Berea in Com p. Coreholder
1250
1 2 3 4

Slice Number
Figure 9 – X-ray attenuation of core sample within different core holders.

8 40

Saturated Incremental Porosity

7 35
Sw i w / Oil Incremental Porosity
6 30
Incremental Porosity, %

Post Gas Flood Incremental Porosity

Cumulative Porosity, %

5 Saturated Cumulative Porosity 25

Sw i w / Oil Cumulative Porosity

4 20
Post Gas Flood Cumulative Porosity
3 15

2 10

1 5

0 0
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0 10000.0

Figure 10 – NMR response of Berea core under different saturation conditions.