7.
2 Glass Industry
Glass is a (usually) transparent, non-crystalline amorphous
solid that has many important applications worldwide in a
variety of industries. It is perhaps most widely known for its
extensive use in windows and bottles. The most common
types of glass are made primarily with soda ash and silica, as
well as other additives. Recycled glass is also often used in
the production of new glass. There are two main methods
of producing glass. The first is the float glass process that is
used to manufacture architectural glass. The second is the
glassblowing process that produces containers such as
bottles and jars.  a uniform mixture is known as the batch or frit and it is
The procedure adopted in the manufacture of glass may
broadly be divided into the following five stages:
1. Collection of Raw Materials
2. Preparation of Batch
3. Melting in Furnace
4. Fabrication
5. Annealing.
 
Glass Manufacturing Process # 1. Collection of Raw
Materials:
Depending upon the type of glass to be manufactured,
suitable raw materials are collected. Table 14-1 shows the
raw materials required for each type of glass.
 (Links to an external site.)
In addition to the raw materials, the cullet and decolourisers
are also added for each type of glass.
The cullet indicates waste glass or pieces of broken glass.
They increase the fusibility of glass and prevent loss of alkali
by volatisation during the reaction in forming new glass.
They also reduce the cost.
The raw materials generally contain traces of the iron
compounds. The ferrous oxide imparts a green colour to
glass and ferric oxide imparts a very light yellow tint. To
avoid such effects, the decolourisers are added. The usual
substances used as decolourisers are antimony oxide
(Sb2O3), arsenic oxide (AS2O3), cobalt oxide (CoO),
manganese dioxide (MnO2) and nickel oxide (NiO).
 
Glass Manufacturing Process # 2. Preparation of Batch:
The raw materials, cullet and decolouriser are finely
powdered in grinding machines. These materials are
accurately weighed in correct proportions before they are
mixed together. The mixing of these materials is carried out
in mixing machines until a uniform mixture is obtained. Such
taken for further process of melting in a furnace.
Glass Manufacturing Process # 3. Melting in Furnace:
The batch is melted either in a pot furnace or in a tank
furnace. The heating is continued until the evolution of
carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulphur dioxide and other gases
stops.
(i) Pot Furnace:
In this furnace, the pots are adopted as units. A typical glass
melting pot is shown in fig. 14-1.
A pot is a vessel made of fire-clay. This process resembles
the crucible steel process. These pots are placed in specially
prepared holes in the furnace. The charging and collecting
doors are kept projecting outside so that raw materials may
be added and molten glass may be taken out conveniently.
 
The pots are filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated
by means of producer gas. When the mass has melted
down, it is removed from the pot and it is taken for the next
operation of fabrication. The melting of glass by pot furnace
is an intermittent process. It is used to melt small quantities
of glass at a time or to prepare special types of glass.
(ii) Tank Furnace:
This furnace resembles the reverberatory furnace adopted
for puddling of the wrought-iron. Fig. 14-2 shows the
section of a tank furnace adopted for the melting of glass. It
is constructed with reinforced masonry. The roof is given
special shape to deflect the flames of heated gas.
 
The ports are provided for the entry of preheated producer
gas. The doors are provided for charging and for taking out
the molten glass. A bridge separates the tank into two
unequal compartments.
 (Links to an external site.)
The batch is heated in large compartment and it contains
somewhat impure glass. It flows through opening of bridge
into small compartment. The gall or floating impurities are
collected at the top of large compartment. The refractory
lining is provided to the interior surface of tank.
The tank is filled with raw materials. The furnace is heated
by allowing producer gas through ports. The charging of
raw materials and taking out of molten mass are
simultaneous. This is a continuous process and it is adopted
to melt large quantities of glass at a time.
 
Glass Manufacturing Process # 4. Fabrication:
The molten glass is given suitable shape or form in this
stage. It can either be done by hand or by machine. The
hand fabrication is adopted for small scale production and
machine fabrication is adopted for large scale production.
Following are the different ways of fabrication:
(i) Blowing
(ii) Casting
(iii) Drawing
(iv) Pressing
(v) Rolling
(vi) Spinning.
 
(i) Blowing:
For this purpose, a blow-pipe is used. Its diameter is about
12 mm and its length is about 1.80 m. One end of the blow-
pipe is dipped in the molten mass of glass and a lump of
about 50 N weight is taken out. This lump of glass will then
lengthen to some extent by its own weight.
The operator then blows vigorously from other end of blow
pipe. It can also be done with the help of an air compressor.
This blowing causes the molten mass to assume the shape
of a cylinder. It is then heated for few seconds and is blown
again.
The blowing and heating are continued till the cylinder of
required size is formed. It is then placed on an iron plate
and it is disconnected from blow pipe. The cylinder is then
cut vertically by a diamond. It falls into a thin plate by
gravity.
(ii) Casting:
The molten glass is poured in moulds and it is allowed to
cool down slowly. The large pieces of glass of simple design
can be prepared by this method. It is also adopted to
prepare mirrors, lenses, etc.
 
(iii) Drawing:
This process consists in simply pulling the molten glass
either by hand or by mechanical equipment. An iron bar is
dipped sideways in the molten mass of glass. It is lifted up
horizontally and in doing so, it catches up a sheet of molten
glass. This sheet is then allowed to pass over a large rotating
roller. The roller helps the molten glass to spread in the
form of a thin sheet.
 
(iv) Pressing:
In this process, the molten glass is pressed into moulds. The
pressure may either be applied by hand or by mechanical
means. This process is adopted for ornamental articles,
hollow glass articles etc.
 
(v) Rolling:
There are two methods of rolling. In one method, the
molten mass of glass is passed between heavy iron rollers
and flat glass plate of uniform thickness is obtained. In
another method, the molten mass of glass is poured on a
flat iron casting table and it is then turned flat with the aid of
a heavy iron roller.
(vi) Spinning:
In this process, the molten glass is spun at high speed by a
machine to form very fine glass fibres. This glass has tensile
strength equal to that of mild steel. It does not fade, decay
or shrink. It is not attacked by acids, fire and vermins. It is
very soft and flexible. It is used for providing insulation
against heat, electricity and sound.
 
Glass Manufacturing Process # 5. Annealing:
The glass articles, after being manufactured, are to be
cooled down slowly and gradually. This process of slow and
homogeneous cooling of glass articles is known as the
annealing of glass.
The annealing of glass is a very important process. If glass
articles are allowed to cool down rapidly, the superficial
layer of glass cools down first as glass is a bad conductor of
heat. The interior portion remains comparatively hot and it
is therefore in a state of strain. Hence, such glass articles
break to pieces under very slight shocks or disturbances.
Following are the two methods of annealing:
(i) Flue treatment
(ii) Oven treatment.
(i) Flue Treatment:
In this method, a long flue is provided and it is constructed
in such a way that there is gradual decrease in temperature
from one end of flue to the other. The red-hot articles of
glass are allowed to enter at the hot end of flue and they
are slowly moved on travelling bands. They become cool
when they reach the cool end of flue. This method is useful
for large scale production.
 
(ii) Oven Treatment:
In this method, the red-hot glass articles are placed in ovens
in which arrangement is made to control the temperature.
After articles are placed in the ovens, the temperature is
slowly brought down. This method is useful for small scale
production.
7.2.1 Methods of Glass Manufacturing
There are two main methods of producing glass. The first is
the float glass process that is used to manufacture
architectural glass. The second is the glassblowing process
that produces containers such as bottles and jars.
What is Float Glass?
Float glass is extremely smooth, distortion-free glass used in
many window applications. It also provides the material for
many other forms of glass, including tinted glass (heat
absorbing) and laminated glass.
Float glass is made by pouring the molten glass from a
furnace into a chamber that contains a bed of molten tin.
The process is sometimes call the Pilkington Process. The
atmosphere inside the chamber is carefully controlled. The
glass floats on the tin and forms itself in the shape of the
container. It spreads 90 to 140 inches wide at a thickness
determined at the time of manufacture.
The upper surface of the glass is called the air side or score
side. It is polished with fire. The lower surface is called the
tin side. It is not fire-polished. From the chamber, the glass
enters an oven, called a lehr. There it is slowly cooled at a
specific rate. This process, called annealing, relieves the
glass of internal stresses. The rate of cooling is crucial to the
success of the final product. The glass emerges from the
lehr at room temperature as a continuous ribbon. It is flat,
fire-finished on the top, and has smooth, parallel surfaces.
Automatic cutters trim the edges and cut the glass to
length.
Types of Glass From the Float Process
There are two types of glass made by the float process,
clear glass and tinted glass. Most of the flat glass made by
the float process is clear glass. As its name implies, clear
glass is transparent and colorless. Depending upon its
thickness, clear glass allows about 75 to 92 percent of the
visible light to pass through.
Tinted glass (also called heat absorbing glass) is made by
adding coloring agents to the batch mix. These agents
include bronze, gray, green and blue. As the glass gets
thicker, the density of the color also increases. This causes
the glass to transmit less visible light. The light transmittance
of tinted glass varies from 14 to 83 percent depending upon
its color and thickness.
The Glass Blowing Process
Glass blowing is a glass forming technique that humans
have used to shape glass since the 1st century B.C. The
technique consists of inflating molten glass with a blowpipe
to form a sort of glass bubble, that can be molded into
glassware for practical or artistic purposes.
Thanks to the glass blowing process, glass has been one of
the most useful materials in human society for centuries.
We’ve laid the exact process, step by step, to give you a
better understanding of how exactly we’ve made the best
use of this wonderful material.
Before starting the glass blowing process, the glass is placed
in a furnace that heats it to a temperature of 2000 degrees,
making it malleable. Next, the glass is gathered by inserting
one end of the blowpipe into the furnace, and rolling it over
the molten glass until a “gob” of glass attaches to it.
 
Rolling the glass on the marver
The next step is to roll the molten glass on a flat metal slab
called a marver. The marver acts as a means to control the
shape and temperature of the glass.
The glass is taken back and forth from the marver to the
glory hole, a hot chamber used to reheat the glass in order
to make it malleable again.
Adding color (then re-rolling on the marvel)
To give the glass color and design, it’s dipped in crushed
colored glass, which fuses to the main glass piece almost
immediately due to the hot temperature.
Once the main glass piece has been fused with crushed
colored glass, it is taken back to the marvel where it is rolled
again.
Blowing the glass
To give the glass its final shape and size, it is blown into with
a blowpipe, creating a sort of bubble of glass. To carry out
this process, the blowpipe holding the glass must be placed
on a steel stand. Then, the glass artist has to blow into the
blowpipe while rotating it at the same time.
Throughout this process, the glass needs to be continuously
taken to the glory hole to be reheated because blowing it
cools it very quickly.
Removing the glass
The final step is to remove the glass from the glass pipe. To
do this, steel tweezers called jacks are used to separate the
bottom part of the blown glass while rotating the blowpipe.
Thanks to the separation with the jacks, the glass can be
removed from the blowpipe with one solid tap.
Cooling the glass
The last step is to take the blown glass to an annealing oven
using heat resistant gloves. This allows the glass to cool
slowly over several hours, as it is highly perceptive to
breaking when exposed to rapid temperature changes.
Look for upcoming events at DMG’s exhibition calendar to
experience the colorful and fascinating works of seasoned
glass blowers.
7.3 Cement Industries
The industrial uses of limestone and cements have provided
important undertakings for chemists and engineers since the
early years when lime mortars and natural cements were
introduced.  In modern times one need only mention
reinforced-concrete walls and girders, tunnels, dams and
roads to realize the dependence of present-day civilization
upon these products.  The convenience, cheapness ,
adaptability , strength and durability of cement products
have been a foundation of theses applications.
 
PORTLAND CEMENTS
In spite of the modern concrete roads and buildings
everywhere around us,  it is difficult to realize the
tremendous growth of the cement industry during the past
century.  Humans had early discovered certain natural rocks
which, through simple calcination , gave a product that
hardened on the addition of water.  Yet the real advance
did not take place until physiochemical studies and chemical
engineering laid the basis for the  modern efficient plants
working under closely controlled conditions with a variety of
raw materials.
Types of Portland Cements
Portland cement has been defined as" the product obtained
by pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of hydraulic
calcium silicates, usually containing one or more forms of
calcium sulfate as an interground addition."Hydraulic
calcium silicates possess the ability to harden without drying
or by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, thus
differentiating them from other inorganic binders such as
plaster of paris.  The reactions involved in the hardening of
cement are hydration and hydrolysis.  Five types of portland
cement are recognized in the United States.
      Type I.  Regular portland cements are the usual
products for general construction.  The are other types of
this cement,such as white, which contain less ferric oxide,
oil-well cement, quick-setting cement, and others for special
uses.
     Type II. Moderate-heat-of-hardening and sulfate-
resisting portland cements are for use where moderate heat
of hydration is required or for general concrete construction
exposed to moderate sulfate action.  The heat evolved from
these cements should not exceed 295 and 335 J/g after 7
and 28 days respectively.
     Type III.  High-early-strength (HES) cements are made
from raw materials with a lime-to-silica ratio higher than
that of Type I cement and are ground finer than Type I
cements.They contain a higher proportion of tricalcium
silicate (C3S)than regular portland cements.  This, with the
finer grading, causes quicker hardening and a faster
evolution of heat.  Roads constructed from HES cement can
be put  into service  sooner than roads constructed from
regular cement. 
     Type IV. Low-heat portland cements contain a lower
percentage of C3S and tricalcium aluminate (C3A ), thus
lowering the heat evolution .  Consequently, the percentage
of tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF)is increased because of
the addition of Fe2O3 to reduce the amount of C3A. 
Actually the heat evolved should not exceed 250 and 295
J/g after 7 and 28 days respectively, and is 15 to 35 percent
less than the heat of hydration of regular or HES cements.
     Type V.  Sulfate-resisting portland cements are tose
which, by their composition or processing, resist sulfates
better than other four types.  Type V  is used when high
sulfate resistance is required.These cements are lower in
C3A than regular cements.  In consequence of this, the
C4AF content is higher.
Air Entrainment
The use of air-entraining agents (minute quantities of
resinous materials, tallows , and greases ) is important. 
These agents increase the resistance of the hardened
concrete to scaling from alternate freezing and thawing and
the use of de-icers (such as CaCl2). Federal specifications
permit the addition of an air-entraining materials to each of
the three types, which are then designated as I*A, IIA and
IIIA.
 
MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES
Two types of materials are necessary for the production of
portland cement one rich in calcium (calcerous) such as
limestone, chalk, etc. and one rich in silica (argillaceous)
such as clay.  Formerly a large amount of cement was made
from argillaceous limestone,  known as cement rock.
In addition to natural materials, some plants use blast
furnace slag and precipitated calcium carbonate obtained as
a by-product in the alkali and synthetic ammonium sulfate
industry.  Sand, waste bauxite , and iron ore are sometimes
used in small amounts to adjust the composition of the mix. 
Gypsum ( 4 to 5%) is added to regulate the setting time  of
the cement.   
These raw materials are finely ground, mixed and heated
(burned) in a rotary kiln to form cement clinker.  The
predominant compounds that are formed during calcining.  burned in a large rotary kiln at 2,550 degrees
The cement industry uses the following abbreviations for
these clinker compounds:
                       CaO= C                                MgO=
M                                    CO2 =C
                       SiO2 = S                               SO3 =
S                                      H2O=H
                       Al2O3 = A                            Na2O=N
                       Fe2O3 = F                            K2O=K
Thus Ca3SiO5(3CaO.SiO2) = C3S
Various reactions, such as evaporation of water, evolution of
carbon dioxide , and reaction between lime and clay, take
place during the burning .  Most of these reactions proceed
in the solid phase, but, toward the end of the process, the
important fusion occurs.  Liquid formation begins at 1250
degC and probably no appreciable formation of C3S occurs
below this temperature.  C3S is the chief strength-producing
constituent of cement and during its formation the free lime
present is reduced to a small amount.  Between 20 to 30
percent of the reactions take place in thew final fluid phase.
Cement clinker is produced by both wet and dry processes.  paste and to blend the other ingredients uniformly.
In both processes  closed circuit grinding  is preferred to
open- circuit grinding in preparing the raw materials
because in the former the the fines are passed on and the
coarse material returned, whereas in the latter the raw
material is ground continuously until its mean fineness has
reached the desired value. The wet process , though the
original one is being displaced by the dry process ,
especially for new plants, because of the saving in heat
,accurate control, and mixing of the raw mixture it affords. 
In the wet process, the solid material, after dry crushing is
reduced to a fine state of division in wet tube or ball mills
and passes as a slurry through bowl classifiers or screens. 
The slurry is pumped to correcting tanks, where rotating
arms makes the mixture homogeneous and  and allow the
final adjustment to the composition to be made. 
Preparing Portland cement
 1 The limestone, silica, and alumina that make up
Portland cement are dry ground into a very fine
powder, mixed together in predetermined
proportions, preheated, and calcined (heated to a
high temperature that will burn off impurities
without fusing the ingredients). Next the material is
Fahrenheit (1,400 degrees Celsius). At this
temperature, the material partially fuses into a
substance known as clinker. A modern kiln can
produce as much as 6,200 tons of clinker a day.
 2 The clinker is then cooled and ground to a fine
powder in a tube or ball mill. A ball mill is a rotating
drum filled with steel balls of different sizes
(depending on the desired fineness of the cement)
that crush and grind the clinker. Gypsum is added
during the grinding process. The final composition
consists of several compounds: tricalcium silicate,
dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and
tetracalcium aluminoferrite.
Mixing
 3 The cement is then mixed with the other
ingredients: aggregates (sand, gravel, or crushed
stone), admixtures, fibers, and water. Aggregates
are pre-blended or added at the ready-mix
concrete plant under normal operating conditions.
The mixing operation uses rotation or stirring to
coat the surface of the aggregate with cement
A variety of batch or continuous mixers are used.
 4 Fibers, if desired, can be added by a variety of
methods including direct spraying, premixing,
impregnating, or hand laying-up. Silica fume is
often used as a dispersing or densifying agent.
Transport to work site
 5 Once the concrete mixture is ready, it is
transported to the work site. There are many
methods of transporting concrete, including
wheelbarrows, buckets, belt conveyors,

The first step in making concrete is to prepare the cement.
One type of cement, Pordand cement, is considered
superior to natural cement because it is stronger, more
durable, and of a more consistent quality.
To make it, the raw materials are crushed and ground into a
fine powder and mixed together. Next, the material
undergoes two heating steps—calcining and burning. In
calcining, the materials are heated to a high temperature
but do not fuse together. In burning, however, the materials
partially fuse together, forming a substance known as
"clinker." The clinker is then ground in a ball mill—a rotating
steel drum filled with steel balls that pulverize the material.
After the Portland cement is prepared, it is mixed with
aggregates such as sand or gravel, admixtures, fibers, and
water. Next, it is transfered to the work site and placed.
During placing, segregation of the various ingredients must
be avoided so that full compaction—elimination of air
bubbles—can be achieved.
special trucks, and pumping. Pumping transports large
quantities of concrete over large distances through pipelines
using a system consisting of a hopper, a pump, and the
pipes. Pumps come in several types—the horizontal piston
pump with semi-rotary valves and small portable pumps
called squeeze pumps. A vacuum provides a continuous
flow of concrete, with two rotating rollers squeezing a
flexible pipe to move the concrete into the delivery pipe.
Placing and compacting
 6 Once at the site, the concrete must be placed
and compacted. These two operations are
performed almost simultaneously. Placing must be
done so that segregation of the various ingredients
is avoided and full compaction—with all air bubbles
eliminated—can be achieved. Whether chutes or
buggies are used, position is important in achieving
these goals. The rates of placing and of compaction
should be equal; the latter is usually accomplished
using internal or external vibrators. An internal
vibrator uses a poker housing a motor-driven shaft.
When the poker is inserted into the concrete,
controlled vibration occurs to compact the
concrete. External vibrators are used for precast or
thin in situ sections having a shape or thickness
unsuitable for internal vibrators. These type of
vibrators are rigidly clamped to the formwork,
which rests on an elastic support. Both the form
and the concrete are vibrated. Vibrating tables are
also used, where a table produces vertical vibration
by using two shafts rotating in opposite directions.
Curing
 7 Once it is placed and compacted, the concrete
must cured before it is finished to make sure that it
doesn't dry too quickly. Concrete's strength is
influenced by its moisture level during the
hardening process: as the cement solidifies, the
concrete shrinks. If site constraints prevent the
concrete from contracting, tensile stresses will
develop, weakening the concrete. To minimize this
problem, concrete must be kept damp during the
several days it requires to set and harden.