BRO Glossary Solar Energy 2014 de en LoRes

Solar energy –
Quick and simple explanation of

key terms
EN_Bro_Glossar_Solar_A-Z_A6_00.indd 1 21.05.14 15:02

Solar energy glossary
electrical energy from

photovoltaic systems makes a
major contribution toward
meeting ever-growing energy
requirements.
in order to achieve this,
reliable and efficient systems
are required. Phoenix Contact
has been an expert and reliable
partner in the energy and
photovoltaic industries for
decades.
This glossary on solar energy
provides you with key technical
terms and expressions in a
clearly arranged format. This
enables you to learn quickly
from a reliable source.
2 Phoenix ConTACT

Table of contents
Glossary
A–E
Pages 04 – 23
F–J
Pages 24 – 35
K–O
Pages 35 – 41
P–T
Pages 41 – 76
U–Z
Pages 76 – 77
Solutions for
photovoltaics
Pages 78 – 90
Phoenix ConTACT 3

Solar energy
A
Absorbance Measure of the effectiveness of a solar collector.
The absorbance is the proportion of the radiation which falls on
the absorber surface which is converted into heat energy and
electrical energy.
Absorber The absorber “collects” the light from the sun and, in the
case of a solar heat system, converts it into heat energy
and, in a photovoltaic system, into electrical energy. The
term “absorber” is predominantly used in reference to solar
heat.
In the solar thermal environment, the absorber is the part of the
solar collector which absorbs the incident solar radiation and
converts it into heat energy. The quality of the absorber is
conveyed by the absorption-emission ratio, which reaches values
of ten or more on very good models. In contrast, untreated
surfaces only reach values of one. In photovoltaics, the solar cells
within the solar module are the light-absorbing surfaces. They
convert the radiation energy into electrical energy. In
photovoltaics, the quality of this conversion is described by the
efficiency.
Absorption intake of short-wave sunlight by a body.

Absorption is the intake of materials or radiation (e.g., solar
radiation) by another material (e.g., solar collector).
4 Phoenix ConTACT

AC See alternating current
alternating
current
Accumulator Storage unit for electrical energy, reusable (rechargeable).

Also called a battery or solar battery. It is used for storing solar
power produced in stand-alone systems, in order to decouple
current generation times and consumption times. The direct
current generated by the solar modules is stored in the battery
(12-volt systems) using a charge controller and can supply the
DC consumers as required. If AC consumers need to be
operated, an additional inverter must be connected to the
battery.
Applications for accumulators include weekend houses, solar
vehicles or solar lamps.
Aging Decrease in the efficiency of a solar cell over time.

See degradation
Air mass Measurement for the path of sunlight through the

(AM) atmosphere to the ground.
The solar radiation is depleted on its way through the earth's
atmosphere due to reflection, absorption (by air molecules and
particles), and scattering. The longer the path the radiation
takes through the earth's atmosphere, the more it is depleted.
The air mass factor indicates how long the path that the solar
radiation takes through the earth's atmosphere is and is
specified relative to the thickness of the earth's atmosphere.
When the sun is in a perpendicular position to the earth, the
light takes the shortest path through the atmosphere and the air
mass (AM) is one. When the sun is at a slight angle, its path
through the atmosphere is longer and the AM increases.
Phoenix ConTACT 5

Albedo Measurement of the reflection of sunlight from the surface
of the earth.
It is specified as a percentage of the incident light and is
approximately 20% on the earth's surface or approximately 80%
on a reflecting surface (e.g., snow).
Alignment of optimum tilt of a solar system in a cardinal direction

a solar (ideally to the south).
system At the optimum orientation for a solar system, with the collector
or module surface pointing south, the tilt angle deviates from the
horizontal by between 30° and 45°. However, deviations in
alignment to the southwest/southeast of up to 50° cause hardly
any loss in yield for solar thermal systems. For photovoltaic
systems, an alignment to the southwest/southeast of just 5% or
an alignment directly to the east or west reduces the yield by
just 20% from the optimum value. Losses in yield caused by an
installation which does not point directly south can be
compensated for by raising the surface of the collector or
modules in either case. The angle at which the solar system is
installed on the roof or the facade is a more important factor
with respect to the yield. On average across the whole year, the
optimum tilt angle is 45° for thermal systems and 30° for
photovoltaic systems.
Alternating Current which changes its flow direction regularly.

current Alternating current is an electrical current that continually
changes its direction from positive to negative and from negative
to positive. The sinusoidal frequency curve passes through the
zero point once during a period. The number of periods per
second is the frequency (Hz = Hertz). Alternating current is
standard domestic current. It changes its direction 100 times
per second (50 Hz) and has a nominal voltage of 230 volts. It is
also called AC.
A solar or photovoltaic module generates direct current (DC)
which is converted into alternating current by an inverter.
6 Phoenix ConTACT

Amorphous especially thin solar cells with a non-crystalline structure.
solar cell See solar cell, silicon, amorphous
Amortization Return of invested funds from the revenues of the

investment made. An investment has amortized when the
amount of revenue collected from repayment has exceeded
the amount invested.
Angle of The tilt of solar systems on racks or roofs.

installation See tilt angle
Anti- Coating which prevents reflections on solar systems.

reflection The top of a solar cell is coated with a special, very thin
coating antireflection coating. This ensures that as much incident
radiation as possible is converted into electrical energy.
The typical film thickness of the antireflection film produces the
distinctive blue color of polycrystalline solar cells and the black
color on monocrystalline solar cells. Other film thicknesses
produce different colors (purple, green, gray, etc.) which may be
desired for architectural applications and which extend the field
of application for solar cells in this area. The colored solar cells
do however have a lower efficiency.
Azimuth The angle by which the solar system deviates from exact
angle alignment to the south.
The azimuth angle specifies the deviation of the solar collectors
or solar modules from exact alignment to the south. In addition
to the azimuth angle, the tilt angle and the position of the sun
over the course of the seasons also affects the energy yield of
the system. The tilt angle indicates the number of degrees by
which the installation of the roof components deviates from the
horizontal.
Phoenix ConTACT 7

B
Bankability evaluation of the financial feasibility of a photovoltaic
project taking into account the legal, technical, and
economic risks.
Battery Storage unit for electrical energy, reusable

(rechargeable).
See accumulator
Bidirectional A bidirectional meters measures both the energy fed into

meter the public grid and the internal consumption of self-
produced solar energy.
BIPV/GIPV Building-integrated photovoltaics.

Solar systems are regarded as building-integrated if the
photovoltaic modules serve a function in the building in addition
to purely providing energy. Examples are cold or warm facades
with integrated photovoltaic modules, solar roofing shingles,
shading elements, balcony balustrades, and similar applications.
BIPV systems must fulfil certain requirements regarding the
design and installation conditions. As well as pure functionality
as a photovoltaic generator, aesthetic aspects also play an
important role. The photovoltaic modules are design elements.
Buffer Water tank with a good heat storage capacity in a heating

storage unit system or solar thermal system.
8 Phoenix ConTACT

Building- Solar systems can be integrated into the roof or the building
integrated shell in a way which is both harmonious and architecturally
solar systems sophisticated.
In conventional installations, solar systems are only installed onto
the top or side of a building to convert solar energy and provide
heat or electrical energy. However, the term building integration
is applied as soon as the modules or collectors carry out an
additional function for the building. Examples are exterior
facades (insulated or rainscreen), overhead glazing, shading
elements, etc. Even if solar elements are incorporated into the
building structure for purely architectural reasons, this also
means that the solar system is considered to be a building-
integrated system.
Bypass diode Used to prevent low yields and protects photovoltaic

modules from damage through the use of hotspots, by
diverting the current past shaded areas of a solar power
system.
Semiconductor block, usually integrated into the module junction
box, connected antiparallel to the individual solar cells or solar
cell strings in the module. If the solar modules are partly in
shade, it ensures that the string current is diverted past the
affected area. A much lower voltage drop occurs on the diode
than on the shaded cells. This means that yield losses caused by
partial shading are minimized. The bypass diode also prevents
the “hotspot effect” and therefore protects the solar module
against damage and destruction. Bypass diodes can reach very
high temperatures under load. This means that the bypass diode
may be destroyed if it is incorrectly designed or is not sufficiently
thermally connected to cooling elements. This effect often goes
unnoticed and can lead to a permanent yield shortfall for the
photovoltaic system.
Phoenix ConTACT 9

C
Cables in solar systems, cables are used to transport electrical
current and transmit power and information.
Special cables are used when wiring solar systems for power
transmission. This is down to the particularly high requirements
for long-term stability under environmental outdoor conditions
and the high electrical voltage of up to 1500 V. Standards and
laws which differ from region to region significantly restrict the
types of cables which can be used for solar applications. When
designing conductor cross sections, the fact that heat losses also
occur in the cables during power transmission must also be
taken into consideration. These heat losses can cause large
financial losses and premature aging if they are not calculated
correctly.
Data cables must also be designed for use in photovoltaic
environments. This means that, as with power transmission
cables, the cross section must be calculated to ensure the signal
quality of the data transmission. The cables must also be
specifically protected against electromagnetic influences, which
are typically found in industrial solar systems. This is ensured
through suitable shielding and routing.
Carbon See CO2

dioxide (CO2)
CdTe Semiconductor which is used in certain thin-film solar

(cadmium modules.
telluride) Innovative materials (compound semiconductors) which are used
instead of silicon for manufacturing thin-film cells.
10 Phoenix ConTACT

Cell indicates how much of the solar energy that falls on a solar
efficiency cell is converted into electrical current.
The efficiency of an individual solar cell indicates how much of
the solar energy which is irradiated onto the cell is converted
into electrical energy. Crystalline silicon solar modules convert
13% to 18% of the irradiated solar energy into electrical energy.
Thin-film modules have an even lower efficiency of around 5% to
8%. These cheaper cells are used when the area used is not
restricted.
Central Main inverter in large solar power systems.

inverter Central inverters are inverters for high power, which are typically
used in large photovoltaic systems. Central inverters can be
designed as low-voltage inverters and medium-voltage inverters.
Central inverters typically operate in the range of several
hundred kW up to the megawatt range. The system is connected
on the DC side in such a way that the appropriate input power
is reached. The individual strings are pre-connected accordingly
to form string boxes.
Characteristic A characteristic curve is the graphical representation of two

curve interdependent physical quantities (e.g., a solar power
system), which is typical for a device.
Diagram which demonstrates the electrical behavior of a solar
cell or a solar module.
Charge Safety equipment for batteries.

controller The charge controller protects the accumulator in stand-alone
systems from overcharging and deep discharge.
Phoenix ConTACT 11

CIS cells CiS is a semiconductor material for thin-film technology.
(copper Thin-film cells which are produced by coating a carrier material
indium (e.g., glass or stainless steel foil) with the coating material
selenium) copper indium diselenide (CIS). The efficiency of these solar cells
is lower than that of monocrystalline or polycrystalline solar cells
but production is less expensive due to lower material use and
simpler manufacturing processes.
Citizen- An association of several citizens/private investors for the

funded purpose of installing and operating a solar power system.
solar power A variety of legal forms are available to individuals for investing
system in a large solar power system. The advantage of investing as a
group compared to a smaller, individual plant is the lower
investment costs that result when larger quantities are
purchased. This concept is also suitable for those who don't have
a suitable roof of their own available. Communities often provide
roofs for this type of photovoltaic system. There are various
forms of investment, e.g.,:
• Each investor has their own system within a larger system
• Via an investment fund
Climate All organizational and technical measures which counteract

protection man-made climate change.
CO2 Carbon dioxide, a gas which is produced during combustion,

and which is the main cause of climate change.
For a comprehensive view of CO2 emissions per kWh for various
energy sources, it is necessary to take into consideration not only
the actual process of power generation, but also the CO2 costs
expended during the manufacture and procurement of the raw
materials, installation of the system, transportation, and
deconstruction.
12 Phoenix ConTACT

Collector is used to “collect” solar radiation energy. The term is used
primarily with reference to heat, the equivalent with respect
to photovoltaics is a solar module.
Solar modules convert solar energy into electrical energy. The
module absorbs the solar radiation and converts it into electrical
energy using two semiconductor layers. Multiple photovoltaic
modules are connected to what is known as a solar generator.
However, a photovoltaic system does contain more components.
An inverter, which converts direct current into alternating current
is required so that the direct current can be used or fed into the
public grid.
Solar collectors, on the other hand, convert solar energy into
heat. They are a component in solar thermal systems for heating
domestic water or supporting heating systems. The collector
absorbs the solar radiation and converts it into heat using the
absorber (usually a dark copper sheet). It is absorbed by the
heat transfer fluid (solar fluid), which flows through the absorber
in copper pipes. The heat is then transferred to the domestic
water using a heat exchanger.
Phoenix ConTACT 13

Colored solar Solar cells can be produced in colors other than the usual
cell dark blue and black by altering the antireflection coating.
Solar cells which are optimized for yield are generally dark blue,
which allows them to absorb as much sunlight as possible. Thin-
film cells have a black or a red/green-black appearance. Other
colors can be created by altering the antireflection coating on
crystalline cells. In general, with crystalline solar cells, the lighter
the color, the less powerful the solar cell. As well as colored cells,
transparent and semi-transparent cells are also available. These
offer the customer aesthetically pleasing options from a design
perspective.
The raw material silicon, from which the wafers for solar cells
are made, is silver-colored and metallic. The standard, familiar
blue color comes from applying an antireflection coating to the
top of the solar cell. Colors from dark blue to black ensure that
the largest possible quantity of light which the cell can use is
absorbed from the daylight spectrum. The antireflection coating
is often made of silicon nitrite, depending on the manufacturer.
Variation in the thickness of the antireflection layer changes its
color. All the colors of the rainbow can be produced in this way.
The resulting colors are known as interference colors. Colored
solar cells are not to be confused with dye-sensitized cells. These
are experimental cells which contain a dye mixture.
Connection Umbrella term for the components and systems required

technology for wiring solar systems.
The connection technology used in solar systems includes
components such as cables, plug-in connectors, and modular
terminal blocks for wiring solar systems. It is often
underestimated in areas such as system efficiency and reliability.
However, there is a growing recognition in professional circles
that a significant proportion of system failures are due to
inadequately designed and executed connection technology.
14 Phoenix ConTACT

Connection The point at which the photovoltaic system is connected to
to the power the grid of the relevant grid operator (also grid connection
grid point).
Depending on the installed power, the photovoltaic system is
either connected directly to the low-voltage power grid or is
connected to the medium-voltage power grid via a dedicated
transformer station. For very large systems, it is also possible to
supply the high-voltage power grid. Depending on the power and
grid, the protection and disconnection units must be installed in
accordance with the applicable national guidelines. Calculation of
energy procurement and supply and assessment of the overall
system in terms of allocation of real power and reactive power
and the resulting mains voltages and frequencies are always
relative to the grid connection point.
Control Continual tracking of measurable variables in a technical

process to desired setpoints while continually recording and
taking into consideration the actual values with the aim of
reaching a stable status with a minimal difference between
the setpoint and actual value.
Conversion Former industrial, military or commercial sites.

sites Former, partially derelict military, industrial, and commercial
sites, which are converted for a different use (e.g., reconstruction
with photovoltaic systems).
Phoenix ConTACT 15

Corrosion Chemical reaction of materials, especially metals, with their
environment and the resulting changes in properties.
The corrosion of contact materials also plays an important role
in solar systems. If different metal contact surfaces are used in
plug-in connectors, electrochemical reactions can occur during
operation. This often results in a higher contact resistance. The
resulting heating of the contact area results in financial losses for
the system operator. Progressive corrosion effects may cause
contacts to overheat and may even cause their destruction or
cause fires. An indiscriminate corrosion effect is the distinctive
dark tarnishing of silver surfaces. The silver sulfide layer which
this produces is electrically conductive and therefore does not
cause increased contact resistances. Corrosion can be avoided by
using components which are coordinated with each other. This
can usually only be guaranteed if the components, e.g., plug-in
connectors, come from the same manufacturer. Caution should
be exercised with the term “compatibility”. In most cases, it
refers purely to mechanical similarity of the components, i.e., the
plug-in capability in the case of plug-in connectors. Coordination
of the materials and surfaces cannot usually be expected.
Cost- The cost-effectiveness measures the yield of, for example, a

effectiveness project or an entire company in relation to the expense.
Cost-effectiveness therefore shows how efficient a photovoltaic
system is. The cost-effectiveness increases when the yields or
revenues increase or the expense or costs decrease. If the
duration and intensity of the sunlight increases, then the
revenues of a photovoltaic system also increase due to increased
power. The percentage of the revenue is thus higher than the
costs, and the photovoltaic system is therefore more cost
effective.
16 Phoenix ConTACT

Current The directed movement of charge carriers such as
electrons.
Symbol [I], unit [A] ampere
If electrical current is flowing, electrical energy is transmitted.
The amperage specifies the charge flowing per unit of time.
Current is generated in central (e.g., coal power stations) or
decentralized power stations (e.g., solar power systems) and is
transmitted to consumers via the public grid. It can also be
generated locally and stored in accumulators if a power grid is
not available (for example, in weekend houses in Germany).
D
Data logger A data logger records data in a certain pattern via an
interface.
The data acquired is stored on a storage medium and can then
be processed further. For example, a data logger can acquire
performance data or weather data generated by a photovoltaic
system.
DC direct See direct current

current
Phoenix ConTACT 17

Degradation Decrease in the efficiency of a solar cell over time.
Degradation or aging is the decrease in the efficiency of a solar
cell over time. Solar cells made of polycrystalline silicon are less
affected than thin-film cells made of amorphous silicon. For
amorphous solar cells, this effect occurs mainly during the first
1000 operating hours and then declines; for polycrystalline cells,
the effect is constant over its entire operating life. For CIS and
CdTe thin-film cells, hardly any degradation is caused by light,
though minor degradation from other causes can affect these
types of cells.
This decrease in efficiency is calculated by the manufacturers;
they usually provide a warranty of at least 80% of the cell
performance of the initial value over 20 years.
Diffuse Radiation where properties (e.g., wavelength) can be

radiation altered, for example by absorption, refraction or reflection.
See radiation types
18 Phoenix ConTACT

Direct electrical current which always flows in the same direction.
current Electrical current which always flows in the same direction is
called direct current or DC. The current flows from the positive
to the negative pole. Photovoltaic systems also produce direct
current, which is converted into grid-compliant alternating
current so that it can be fed into the grid. DC cables have a
larger cross section than AC cables. They are therefore harder to
lay and also more expensive when installed in photovoltaic
systems. This means that DC cables are kept as short as
possible and the inverter is installed close to the modules. Direct
current is mainly used for devices with low power, e.g., flashlights
or car batteries.
Direct Radiation which comes directly from the radiation source.

radiation See radiation types
Disconnection equipment for disconnecting a solar power system from the

device power grid.
See grid monitoring equipment with switching element
Disposal Refers to the removal and reutilization of waste.

See recycling
Doping Allows the current to flow in a solar power system.

The pure material is deliberately contaminated so that silicon
can be used to generate power. This is done by doping. In this
process, boron and phosphorous atoms are incorporated into the
crystal lattice of the silicon. Each of these atoms has one
electron more or less in its outer shell than the silicon atom.
This causes a movement of electrons within the material and
therefore permits current to flow.
Phoenix ConTACT 19

E
Efficiency Ratio of output power to input power.
The efficiency indicates the ratio of usable energy to available
energy. For example, conventional lightbulbs convert only around
5% of the energy used into light; the rest is lost as heat.
Photovoltaics
Monocrystalline solar cells made of silicon achieve efficiency
ratings of between 14% and 17% in practice, polycrystalline
solar cells achieve around 13% to 15%. Solar cells made of
amorphous silicon achieve 5% to 7%. Thin-film cells made of CIS
(copper indium diselenide) achieve 7.5% to 9.5%, those made of
CdTe (cadmium telluride) achieve 6% to 9% The efficiency of
the solar modules is a few percentage points below this in each
case.
Solar heat
The efficiency also indicates the ratio between irradiated and
usable solar energy. The absorber absorbs the majority of the
irradiated energy and releases it to the heat transfer fluid in the
form of heat. Efficiency losses are incurred on the glass cover of
the collector due to reflection. Heat losses reduce the solar yield
if the collector is poorly insulated. System efficiency, which
indicates how much of the incident energy is ultimately available
as usable energy, is also of interest. Losses in the pipes and the
storage unit are also taken into consideration for this. System
efficiencies are between 25% and 50%.
20 Phoenix ConTACT

Electrical The electrical voltage specifies the difference between the
voltage electrical potentials between the two poles and the drive
strength of the electrical current.
The unit for electrical voltage is the volt (V), the symbol is U.
There are two different types of electrical voltage: DC voltage
and AC voltage. Voltage sources always have two poles with
different electrical potentials. The pole with the higher electrical
potential lacks electrons, the pole with the lower electrical
potential has a corresponding excess of electrons. The difference
between the electrical potentials is called electrical voltage. If an
electrical connection occurs between the poles, the system
attempts to compensate for the different electron concentrations
and therefore for the potentials. An electrical current flows
during this process. The electrical voltage is therefore the specific
energy capacity of the electrical charge.
Electricity Costs required to generate electrical current from a

production different form of energy.
costs Costs for producing one kilowatt hour of electrical current.
Electricity Company that provides electrical energy.

provider
Emission The output of destructive substances into the environment,

e.g., carbon dioxide.
See CO2
Phoenix ConTACT 21

Energy energy is defined as the amount of work which a physical
system can perform. According to this definition, energy
cannot be created, used up or destroyed.
The capability of a body to cause an external effect which may
occur in different forms: as electrical energy, mechanical energy
or heat energy. Energy can be specified in various units, e.g., as
kilowatt hours (kWh), joules (J) or kilocalories (kcal). All units
which relate to a time (here: an hour, h) are units of work or
energy consumption.
1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 3600 kJ
This is not to be confused with the power in watts (W) or
kilowatts (kW). The peak power (e.g., of a solar power system)
is specified in watt peak (Wp) or kilowatt peak (kWp).
Energy The time required for the energy generated to cover the
payback time energy required for constructing the energy generator.
See amortization
Energy price is established by energy trading and refers to the price of

electricity, oil, and gas.
The electricity production cost is the cost required to produce
1 kWh of electrical power. It is made up of both the internal
and external costs. The internal costs reflect the costs applied
purely to the generation of electrical current. The external costs
are generally borne by the general public and they include, for
example, the follow-up costs from tanker accidents. The
production costs are often much higher for electricity from
renewable energy sources than for electricity from conventional
energy sources. Part of the reason for this is the fact that a large
proportion of the external costs for generating electricity from
conventional energy sources is not reflected in the final price, but
is borne by the general public. In addition to this, conventional
energy sources continue to benefit from substantial government
subsidies that keep the price artificially low. The lower energy
density from renewable energy sources and the lower number of
production plants also play a major role.
22 Phoenix ConTACT

Energy The common name for fossil energy sources (coal, oil,
sources, natural gas) and uranium.
conventional
Energy yield indicates the energy generated during a specified time

period.
The average energy yield of photovoltaic systems in Germany is
800 kWh/kWp a year. Solar thermal systems with flat-plate
collectors have an average annual yield of at least 350 kWh/m²;
for systems with evacuated tube collectors it is at least
450 kWh/m².
Engineering, ePC refers to companies that deal with the planning,

procurement, construction, and installation of solar systems.
and
construction,
EPC
Euro efficiency, including climatic fluctuations in light of further

efficiency technical details.
A dynamic efficiency rating weighted for the European climate
makes it possible to compare different inverters.
Phoenix ConTACT 23

F
Facade Refers to the integration of solar systems into the exterior
integration facade of a building as a functional element.
A distinction is drawn between cold and warm facades when
integrating solar systems into building facades. On cold facades,
all of the solar modules or collectors are installed in front of the
thermal insulation on the building facade. They are used to
provide protection against the weather and to decorate the
facade as well as to produce energy. The solar modules or
collectors are ventilated from behind and thus kept cool. On
warm facades, the solar system also functions as thermal
installation for the building shell. For photovoltaics, special
insulating glass modules with suitable properties are available
for this purpose. Solar and air collector systems are also offered
as facade-integrated solutions. Facade integration of solar
systems is particularly suitable for office buildings, industrial
buildings, and apartment buildings with large surfaces (“energy
facades”). Some manufacturers of solar modules offer custom-
made, transparent solar modules for this purpose. The initial
outlay is usually higher than for comparable solar modules with
a conventional glass/film structure. However, the aesthetic
demands placed on these elements are much higher. For
example, special connection elements are used which can be
integrated into the facade structures and therefore remain
invisible to the observer.
Feed-in Compensation paid for solar power fed into the power grid.
compensation In Germany, feed-in compensation is paid for electrical current
from renewable energy sources which is fed into the public power
grid. In accordance with the German Renewable Energy Sources
Act (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz, EEG), the operators of the
power grids are obligated to accept all of the electrical current
and to pay for it at the rates stipulated in the EEG.
24 Phoenix ConTACT

Feed-in Contract between the grid operator and the system
contract operator for the acceptance and compensation of the
electrical current fed into the grid.
According to the German Renewable Energy Sources Act
(Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz, EEG) currently in force, grid
operators must not make fulfillment of their obligations to accept
and pay for electrical current from a photovoltaic system
dependent on the conclusion of a contract. A contract can clarify
other questions in some cases, but should never be designed to
be disadvantageous for the operator of the system.
Feed-in The real power and reactive power fed into the public
control power grid by a photovoltaic system is regulated and
contributes to grid stability.
Final energy The energy which reaches the consumer, i.e., the primary
energy (e.g., crude oil) after the conversion and
transportation processes. in this case it is heating oil.
This is what the energy the consumer receives and uses is called.
The final energy can be a secondary or a primary energy.
Flat-plate Flat-plate collectors are the most commonly used collectors

collector in solar heating systems because they are cheaper (but also
less efficient) than evacuated tube collectors.
Phoenix ConTACT 25

Flat-roof With flat-roof mounting, solar systems are installed on
mounting special stands so they can achieve the optimum tilt angle.
Flat-plate collectors and solar power modules are installed at an
angle on flat roofs using a mounting system. For installation on a
flat roof, it must first be determined whether the statics of the
roof will permit mounting, i.e., whether there are load-bearing
areas, roof points or walls for the additional load. This cannot be
assumed because flat roofs generally only have to hold their own
weight and the loads exerted by wind and snow. A structural
engineer must not only test the additional load capacity of the
roof but also incorporate the additional loads caused by wind
and snow on the collectors or modules into the calculations. In
addition to this, the area of the roof must be sufficiently large
and not too broken up (by chimneys, roof structures, etc.) for
the required collector or module area to be accommodated in
fields that are as large as possible and without the elements
being in the shade. Because renovation work cannot be carried
out once the solar field has been installed without a lot of extra
work or even disassembly of the solar field, the waterproofing of
the roof should be new or should be cleaned during mounting so
that renovation work can be avoided as much as possible during
the long service life of the collectors or modules (upwards of 20
years). This does not apply to the mounting of evacuated tube
collectors. They can also be installed horizontally on flat roofs.
The absorber strips can be rotated so that they are at the
optimum angle to the sun.
Free-standing Refers to the installation of solar systems on the ground.

installation It is sometimes easier to mount a solar module or collector on
the ground than on a roof – mounting is completed faster,
maintenance and cleaning are easier. The module or collector is
screwed onto a foundation. It is important to ensure that the
distance from the module or collector to the ground is
sufficiently large to ensure that no plants cast shadows over the
lower row of modules.
There are various legal issues which must be taken into
consideration for free-standing photovoltaic systems in
accordance with the German Renewable Energy Sources Act.
26 Phoenix ConTACT

Funding Funding programs increase the cost-effectiveness of
programs renewable energy sources and promote energy saving.
Funding is in the form of tax benefits, subsidies for construction
costs for renewable energy generation systems or special feed-in
compensation.
G
Gallium Raw material for the production of thin-film solar cells with
arsenide a cadmium telluride base.
Innovative materials (compound semiconductors) which are used
instead of silicon for manufacturing thin-film solar modules.
Generator A generator generates electrical energy.

A coil wound around a magnetic iron core which generates
current through induction. The mechanical driving forces of a
turbine generated by burning fossil fuels or wind energy in a wind
power plant are used for this purpose. In photovoltaics, a
generator is a number of solar modules connected together to
form a power station for generating electrical current.
German Law in Germany for promoting the generation of power

Renewable from renewable energy sources through special financial
Energy incentives such as special feed-in tariffs or tax benefits.
Sources Act The German Renewable Energy Sources Act (Erneuerbare-
(Erneuer- Energien-Gesetz EEG) provides, among other things, guaranteed
bare-Ener- feed-in compensation for the installation of renewable distributed
gien-Gesetz, energy generation systems. The strong growth of photovoltaics in
EEG) Germany has been predominantly driven by this law. Major
revisions are currently under discussion due to the resulting
increasing overhead costs. In other countries, there are similar
market incentive programs based on established feed-in
compensation, tax benefits or so-called net-metering models. In
the latter, the operator of a generation system, which usually
also collects the current, pays the difference between the volume
of electrical current purchased and fed in. Surpluses are not
generally compensated.
Phoenix ConTACT 27

Global Global radiation refers to the total solar radiation to fall on
radiation a surface. it measures the radiation per square meter on
horizontal surfaces.
Global radiation consists of both direct and diffuse radiation. The
earth's atmosphere reduces the global radiation through
absorption, reflection, and scattering; the intensity of the
radiation on the surface of the earth is lower. When the sky is
clear, global radiation is almost entirely direct radiation; when
the sky is cloudy, it is almost entirely diffuse radiation. Over the
course of a year, both occur in equally high proportions. The
average total annual global radiation on a horizontal reception
surface in the Berlin/Brandenburg region is approx. 1000 kWh/m²,
while for Sauerland, in North Rhine-Westphalia, it is approx.
900 kWh/m², and for the region around Freiburg it is approx.
1160 kWh/m².
Greenhouse effect whereby certain gases or dust in the earth's

effect atmosphere prevent long-wave heat radiation which is
reflected from the earth's surface from escaping into space,
leading to an increase in the temperature in the earth's
atmosphere.
See CO2
Greenhouse Gas which absorbs or reflects radiation reflected from the

gas earth's surface and contributes to the process of increasing
the temperature of the atmosphere.
See CO2
28 Phoenix ConTACT

Grid network of all power lines that serve the public power
supply.
Public power grid, integrated network: all power stations and
consumers are connected to each other (networked) in the
power grid. There is the low-voltage grid, with 230 or 400 volts,
to which private households are usually connected. There is also
the medium-voltage grid (10 to 30 kV), the high-voltage grid (50
to 150 kV), and the extra high-voltage grid (220 or 380 kV). If
current is generated in central power stations, it has a voltage of
110 kV, for example. This is conveyed to distribution stations via
overhead power lines, where it is converted to medium voltage.
Once the current has been transformed to medium voltage, it is
then transported to transformer stations via overhead lines,
where it is transformed to low voltage. Individual transformer
stations may supply a plant or a district of a town or city. The
low-voltage cables generally run underground. A high voltage has
the advantage that it can transmit a lot of power. Photovoltaic
systems feed current into the low-voltage grid. The inverters
convert the direct current produced by the solar system into
alternating current. They have a cut-off device in case the
voltage exceeds the acceptable values; however, this only
happens very occasionally (in accordance with IEC standard
60038, the upper limit for voltage is 230 volts plus 6%).
Phoenix ConTACT 29

Grid- Solar power system which is connected to the power grid
connected and is not used exclusively for private power supply.
system A photovoltaic system which feeds the electrical current
generated into the public power grid is grid connected. In
contrast to stand-alone systems, this system does not require
storage batteries (accumulators).
An inverter is used to convert the direct current generated by a
photovoltaic system with a grid connection into grid-compliant
alternating current, which is then fed into the public grid, and is
compensated according to local feed-in legislation. The current
required for the household continues to be obtained from a
utility grid operator. The utility grid operator is not necessarily
the same as the operator of the public power grid who pays the
feed-in compensation for the solar power. This means that
electrical current from renewable energy sources (green
electricity) may be purchased by an alternative supplier.
Grid Point connecting the solar power system to the public

connection power grid.
point The point connecting the photovoltaic system to the electrical
installation of the house or the public power grid.
Grid equipment for disconnecting a solar power system from the

monitoring power grid.
equipment If fluctuations occur in the power grid or if specified tolerances
with are exceeded when electricity is supplied by the photovoltaic
switching system, it must be possible for the grid operator to disconnect
element the photovoltaic system from the grid. This should ensure the
safety of people working/present at the power grid side. This
function is generally carried out by the automatic disconnection
device, which is often integrated into the inverter, and which fully
disconnects the system from the grid.
30 Phoenix ConTACT

Grid Provider of supply cables for the transmission of electrical
operator current.
According to the German Renewable Energy Sources Act
(Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz, EEG), the operators of the public
power grid are obligated to accept all electrical current from
photovoltaic systems. The grid operators are usually the large
utility grid operators from the time prior to the deregulation of
the electricity market.
Grounding Grounding means establishing an electrically conductive

connection to the electrical potential of the ground.
Different types of grounding are used in electrical engineering
depending on the task and the design:
• Protective earth ground
• Lightning protection earth ground
• Functional earth ground
• Operational earth ground
With the protective earth ground, a safe connection is
established to the ground to protect people and animals from
dangerously high contact voltages in the event of an fault
occurring in the electrical systems or devices. The protective
earth ground can also be used as the functional earth ground,
but not the other way round.
The lightning protection earth ground should convey the lightning
current safely to the ground to protect buildings.
The functional earth ground is used to operate electrical
equipment safely. The functional earth ground safely discharges
interference currents and prevents electrical interference
couplings.
The operational earth ground is primarily used in power stations
and switchgears and should ensure failure-free operation of the
system or the devices.
Phoenix ConTACT 31

H
Hotspot This effect arises when solar power systems are in the
effect shade. Parts of the solar module can be destroyed by the
subsequent generation of heat.
Bypass diodes prevent the hotspot effect.
Hybrid hybrid systems are power stations which can generate heat
systems or electricity from various energy sources.
For example, hybrid photovoltaic-diesel generators. Although it is
particularly environmentally damaging and expensive to convert
diesel into electricity, this type of power supply is the only option
for ensuring reliable supply in many parts of the world. The
combination of photovoltaic and conventional diesel generators
helps significantly reduce fuel consumption and therefore also
the high operating costs.
32 Phoenix ConTACT

I
In-roof The solar system is integrated into the roof as part of the
mounting building shell.
In-roof mounting of solar systems involves integrating the solar
collector or solar module into the roof covering so that it forms a
functional element of the building shell. In-roof mounting of solar
modules is possible on both sloping and flat roofs. In-roof
mounting is often the more attractive option when compared to
on-roof mounting for aesthetic reasons. One disadvantage of
integrating solar modules into the roof for generating electrical
current is the poor rear ventilation it offers. As a result, the solar
modules can heat up more when exposed to sunlight, which can
lead to a reduction in efficiency and thus a lower yield (see
temperature coefficient). When retrofitting a solar system into
existing buildings with sloping roofs, on-roof mounting is cheaper
than in-roof mounting as the existing tile covering is only
penetrated at a few points and the water-tightness of the roof is
not compromised. Some manufacturers offer collectors and
modules which – fitted into special frames or trays – can be
mechanically and visually integrated into the surrounding roof
area. Solar roof tiles – flexible solar modules and solar roof
systems, which are processed like foil sheets – provide additional
options for roof integration. This option involves covering the
entire surface of the roof with large collectors or modules
(“energy roofs”). This type of system can easily be pre-assembled
away from the building site for new buildings.
Phoenix ConTACT 33

Insurance institution which provides cover against risks.
Solar systems are essentially an investment and are therefore
generally insured so that any damage can be remedied as soon
as possible. Insurance can take the form of damage insurance
(exclusively covering damage to the system) and contingency
insurance (designed to cover the financial losses incurred in the
event of operational failure). With respect to large-scale systems,
insurance companies are generally interested in whether the
system has been constructed to a high level of quality and
whether operation of the system is monitored. The performance
ratio of the system is often used to assess the quality of the
system.
Internal Solar power which is used by the system operator or by

consumption third parties in the immediate vicinity of the system
operator, without first passing through the public grid.
Inverter Device for converting direct current into alternating

current.
Photovoltaic modules generate direct current from sunlight. This
direct current must be converted into alternating current in the
inverter so that the electrical energy can be used in the
household or fed into the public grid. There are various types of
inverters which are defined by their power range and internal
connection method. There are three classic types of inverters:
microinverters, which are designed for outputs from one or two
photovoltaic modules. String inverters, which usually have one to
three maximum power point trackers (MPPT) for connecting
multiple strings to supply power of up to several kilowatts.
Central inverters providing power up to the megawatt range.
Generally, a distinction is drawn between inverters with
transformers and inverters without transformers.
Investor Financial backer of a solar system or a photovoltaic plant.
34 Phoenix ConTACT

Irradiation The power of the solar radiation on a certain area.
intensity The irradiation intensity specifies the power which the sun
radiates on an area of 1m². On the ground, it is about
1000 W/m².
K
Kilowatt Unit of power, 1 kW = 1000 W.
See power, energy, watt peak
kWh, Unit of measurement of work

kilowatt hour 1 kWh = 1000 Wh
Unit for energy (in contrast to power: unit of energy/time = kW)
kWp, Peak power of a solar power system.

kilowatt peak The size of a photovoltaic system is specified in kW peak (kWp,
peak power) according to the power of the solar generator. This
value refers to the optimum power of the solar modules under
standardized test conditions (1000 W/m2 radiation, 25 C
module temperature, 1.5 air mass). The power of the solar
generator decreases accordingly if it is cloudy, the module has
heated up or the air mass factor is higher (the system is working
under partial load). At our latitudes, a 1 kWp photovoltaic
system (corresponds to an area of 8-10 m²) can generate
around 700 to 900 kWh of electrical current a year. The
average annual current consumption of a four-person household
in Germany is around 4000 kWh.
Kyoto international treaty on climate protection which is now

Protocol being supplemented by a follow-up agreement which is
currently under negotiation.
A treaty on climate protection was agreed in the Japanese city
of Kyoto in 1997. 180 countries committed to reducing
greenhouse gases by 5.2% compared against the values from
1990.
Phoenix ConTACT 35

L
Laminate Frameless photovoltaic system modules.

Welded composite consisting of solar cells and plastic films
laminated on a glass plate. Transparent photovoltaic system
modules or semi-transparent photovoltaic system modules are
ideal for aesthetic architecture.
See mounting systems
Light- Solar power systems which have a transparent rear side and
permeable are therefore permeable to light.
modules Transparent photovoltaic system modules are see-through
modules and semitransparent photovoltaic system modules are
partially see-through modules. These types are particularly
suitable for aesthetic architecture, where they can be used to
create an impressive play of light and shadows.
Lightning Lightning protection means taking measures against the

protection damaging effects of lightning strikes on structural systems.
Lightning protection can be divided into external and internal
lightning protection. External lightning protection consists of
lightning rods, arresters, and the grounding system. Internal
lightning protection is achieved using lightning and surge
arresters. The lightning arresters are usually constructed based
on spark gaps. Surge arresters are usually made using varistors.
To ensure a coordinated concept, all protective components must
be coordinated with each other.
36 Phoenix ConTACT

M
Mains Frequency of the mains voltage in the electrical AC voltage
frequency transmission network.
The mains frequency is a specific characteristic of AV voltage
networks. It is country-specific and is typically 50 Hz (e.g., the
European integrated network) or 60 Hz (e.g., USA). The mains
frequency varies due to different load situations within the
distribution network. It is used as a control parameter for grid
stabilization.
Mains voltage electrical voltage in the low-voltage power grid, i.e., at the
lowest level of the distribution network.
The voltage in the low-voltage power grid is country specific.
In Germany, for example, it is 230 volts or 400 volts in single-
phase or three-phase operation; in the USA it is 120 volts or
208 volts. In addition to the mains voltage, the mains frequency
(see mains frequency) is also an important characteristic for the
transmission network.
Maintenance Part of the servicing of a system.

Efficient operational management substantially increases the
cost-effectiveness of a photovoltaic system. There are a variety
of connection and safety points in photovoltaic systems, which
are stressed to varying degrees during operation. The result of
this is the need for constant maintenance of photovoltaic
systems. An essential foundation for maintaining a photovoltaic
system is production data acquisition, which allows errors and
yield losses to be tracked. Targeted local assignment of the error
situation is an important factor in carrying out maintenance
work effectively and inexpensively, particularly in large
photovoltaic power stations.
Meter Technical device for acquiring a cumulative technical variable

such as heat quantity or electrical energy.
Phoenix ConTACT 37

Microinverter Special type of inverter with low nominal power and low
input voltage so that it can be connected to individual
modules.
Microinverters are inverters which work in the power range of
several hundred watts and with a very low input voltage way
below 100 V. They are assigned to individual modules, i.e., one or
two modules are linked to an inverter. This means that the
individual modules of a photovoltaic generator can be operated
independently of each other at their respective optimal operating
points without affecting each other. This is not possible with
photovoltaic generators using a classic string-type connection. A
typical application for microinverters is a photovoltaic generator
which is partially shaded over the course of the day. In this case,
the use of microinverters means that only the shaded modules
experience a reduction in power, while the rest of the modules
can supply their maximum yield at all times.
Module A solar module converts solar energy directly into electrical

current using the photovoltaic effect.
See solar module
Monitoring Monitoring the operating data of a photovoltaic system.

The operating and performance data of a photovoltaic system
are an important indicator of effectiveness and cost-
effectiveness. AC and DC power, currents, and voltages are
usually measured. Variables such as radiation and temperature
can also be recorded. The data is then available for calculating
the performance ratio, for example.
In smaller systems with microinverters and string inverters,
production data acquisition is usually integrated into the inverter.
Large photovoltaic power stations are also monitored on the DC
side by separate measuring units because the central inverters
are unable to measure to a sufficient level of detail due to the
way the system is connected. Monitoring on the DC side is
required for effective operational management and targeted
maintenance of the system.
38 Phoenix ConTACT

Motor starter The motor starter switches and reverses 3-phase rotary
current asynchronous motors and protects the motor. This
enables the solar modules to be optimally aligned toward
the sun on one or two axes if tracking systems are in use.
Mounting The method used to mount solar systems on building

system for facades varies depending on how the system functions. They
building can be added in front of an existing facade and are used for
facades energy production, facade decoration, and weather
protection. Rail and clamp mounting systems are available
for this purpose. if the solar modules or collectors are
integrated directly into the facade, they also take on the
function of the building shell.
Mounting With flat-roof mounting, the modules and collectors are

system for fastened at an angle above the roof cladding with a metal
flat-roof structure, concrete bases or plastic or fiber-cement trays
mounting which can be filled.
The statics of the flat roof must be taken into consideration
during installation. Rail systems are either anchored to the roof
to counteract the force of the wind or are weighted down with
concrete slabs (in the case of metal frames) or gravel (in the
case of trays) without penetrating the roof cladding. The roof
must have a sufficient load capacity.
Mounting Special roof sheeting is available for in-roof mounting on flat

system for roofs, which allows the photovoltaic modules to be rolled
in-roof out with the roofing material.
mounting on
flat roofs
Mounting There are various profile systems or special roof tiles for
system for in-roof mounting on sloping roofs, into which small solar
in-roof modules can be clamped. For in-roof mounting, one of the
mounting on most important considerations is that the system must not
sloping roofs compromise the water-tightness of the roof.
Phoenix ConTACT 39

Mounting There are a variety of fastening systems for on-roof
system for mounting on sloping roofs where the solar system is to be
on-roof elevated above the roof, some of which are available
mounting on coordinated specially to the solar collectors or modules.
sloping roofs For example, these include rail systems made of aluminum
or stainless steel.
Mounting Systems for mounting solar systems, for example on roofs.

systems There are various fastening structures for the numerous ways of
installing solar systems on buildings or in open areas. The type of
collectors or modules (e.g., framed or unframed) used plays an
important role when selecting a fastening system.
You must first decide whether the solar system is to be fastened
onto the roof or facade or integrated into the roof or facade.
MPP – Point at which the solar power system provides the greatest
maximum power.
power point A point in the characteristic curve of the module at which the
solar generator generates its maximum power subject to the
amount of radiation and the temperature, The maximum power
point (MPP) is the product of the solar cell voltage (UMPP)
multiplied by the solar cell current (IMPP) and has the unit watt
peak (Wp). It is primarily determined by the solar cell current
(IMPP).
MPP tracker Device which enables the solar power system to always run
at its maximum power point.
The MPP tracker is a device in the inverter which sets the
current and voltage of the photovoltaic generator so that it is
operated at its maximum power point. This means that the solar
system achieves its maximum power.
40 Phoenix ConTACT

N
Nominal The maximum power of a solar power system reported by
power the manufacturer.
See kWp
O
Off-load Level of voltage between the positive and negative poles of
voltage a current source (e.g., solar module) if no consumer is
connected.
Operating Costs of equipment, maintenance, insurance, etc.

costs The operating costs of a solar system are relatively low. They
generally concern the power requirement for pumps and
inverters, maintenance, and any insurance.
Panel See solar module
Parabolic Solar heating system which is used for the large-scale

trough power generation of steam. The second step is for turbines to
station convert the steam into electrical current.
Parabolic trough power stations are solar systems which generate
steam from water using solar heating, which is then used to
drive turbines and generate electrical current. These processes
are used in warmer regions, such as southern Europe, the USA,
and Africa. They save energy compared to conventional power
stations.
Phoenix ConTACT 41

Parallel individual solar modules are connected to each other in a
connection photovoltaic system. Systems with a wide range of power
ratings can be created by connecting multiple modules in
series or in parallel.
Individual solar cells are combined to form a module. This can
take the form of either series connection or parallel connection.
Parallel connection increases the amperage while the voltage of
the individual cell remains the same. For series connection, the
situation is reversed; interconnection increases the voltage while
the amperage remains the same. Series connection is usual for
solar modules.
Partial-load A solar system is working in the partial-load operational

operational range if the optimum conditions for operation have not
range been reached.
The components of a solar power system work in the partial-
load operational range most of the time, meaning they only
generate part of their maximum power (nominal power). The
peak load (kWp) is only achieved under optimum radiation and
alignment conditions.
Peak power Power of a solar power system under optimum conditions.

See kWp
Specifies the maximum or nominal power of a solar module
under standard test conditions (STC). Measures the power of the
solar module per m² when the solar radiation falls perpendicular
to the module. The sunlight corresponds to that of a summer's
day.
Performance The ratio of the actual yield to the target yield.

ratio (PR) Characteristic which allows photovoltaic systems at different
locations to be compared with one another. Powerful systems
have a PR of 0.7 to 0.85.
Photovoltaic Component of a solar power system.

module See solar module
42 Phoenix ConTACT

Photovoltaic A large number of solar modules mounted in an open area
plant and then combined into individual strings are known as a
photovoltaic plant.
Photovoltaic Plug-in connector for wiring photovoltaic systems.

plug The term photovoltaic plug is often used in conjunction with the
wiring of solar systems for DC voltage. Plug-in connectors are
usually used both on the inverter and in field cabling, while a
clamp-based solution is used for wiring for alternating current.
However, a trend can be seen for using plug-in connection
technology in this area, too. The fundamental rule for plug-in
connectors is that only components from the same manufacturer
should be combined. In an increasing number of markets (e.g.,
France, Australia), this rule is now a binding requirement for
funding/compensation and supplying power to the grid. The
reason for this is that combining plug-in connectors from
different manufacturers, even if they are incorrectly declared to
be “compatible”, is one of the most common causes of failures
and damage in solar systems.
Photovoltaic A photovoltaic or PV system, also known as a solar power

system system, is a power station which converts part of the solar
radiation into electrical energy using solar cells.
The solar cells in the solar generator generate electrical energy
directly from the light that falls on them. They generate direct
current. This is converted into grid-compliant alternating current
so that the energy can be used in the house itself or fed into the
public grid. This task is performed by the grid feed-in device or
inverter. In principle, it is possible to use the direct current as it
is. However, apart from devices for camping, there are hardly
any consumer devices on the market which have a DC
connection. In grid-connected systems, the solar power is not
stored, but is instead used immediately in the same household,
by neighbors or by another consumer in the power grid. In stand-
alone systems, the electrical current is stored in accumulators.
See structure of a solar system
Phoenix ConTACT 43

Photovoltaics Technology for using solar radiation to generate electrical
(PV) current.
In photovoltaics, sunlight is converted into electrical current using
solar cells. In the majority of cases, this is then fed into the
public power grid and compensated according to the German
Renewable Energy Sources Act (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz,
EEG). If there is no connection to the public power grid, the
solar power is stored in an accumulator, from which it is later
taken for use (stand-alone system). Because the solar cells
produce direct current, this must be converted into alternating
current before it is supplied or used. This function is performed
by an inverter. If the direct current is to be used as it is, the
consumer devices must be designed accordingly. DC devices are
only currently in widespread use in camping. Stand-alone systems
are useful in remote areas where a power supply connection
would be more costly than the construction of a photovoltaic
system, for example.
Poly- Crystalline solid made up of many small crystals.

crystalline See silicon
Power Refers to the electrical energy supplied during a specified

time period.
Power is defined as the energy converted per unit of time. It also
covers the work performed, the amount of electricity consumed
or the quantity of heat supplied per unit of time.
Power grid network of all power lines that serve the public power
supply.
See grid
44 Phoenix ConTACT

Power meter Measures the electrical current fed into the power grid.
See meter
Power supply Privately generated electrical current is usually fed into the
public power grid.
An inverter is used to convert the direct current generated by a
photovoltaic system with a grid connection into grid-compliant
alternating current, which is then fed into the public grid. This is
compensated for accordingly (see EEG). Depending on the
power, the current from photovoltaic systems can be fed in either
as single-phase or as three-phase current. Systems which are not
connected to the grid are known as stand-alone systems.
Primary energy that occurs naturally, e.g., wind or crude oil.

energy Energy as it occurs naturally in the form of crude oil, coal,
natural gas or solar radiation. Sometimes, primary energy
sources can be used directly by the end consumer. However, for
the most part, primary energy must first be converted into
secondary energy.
Process heat heat used in a technical process (e.g., in breweries, chemical

plants).
Traditionally generated from fossil fuels. For environmental and
financial reasons, the use of solar heat or photovoltaic current is
growing in this area.
See reheating
Public grid Power grid from which the public obtain their electricity.
See grid
Pyranometer Measuring instrument for measuring sunlight.
Phoenix ConTACT 45

R
Radiation intensity of the radiation.
intensity In Germany, the radiation energy is between 900 and 1200
kWh/m² a year. The amount of usable energy for solar systems
is similar across the country. The intensity of the radiation from
the sun is reduced on its way to earth due to a number of
factors. When the sky is cloudy and there are particles in the
air, the radiation is usually lower. Solar modules convert this
diffuse light into electrical current almost as effectively as they
convert direct sunlight. Solar collectors, on the other hand,
produce significantly less heat when the sky is cloudy than when
direct sunlight is available.
Almost all solar cells are more effective the cooler they are.
Although the system does achieve a higher yield from direct
sunlight, the output (efficiency) declines because the
temperature of the cells is higher.
46 Phoenix ConTACT

Radiation The sunlight or solar radiation consists of both direct and
types indirect radiation.
The proportion of solar radiation which passes directly through
the earth's atmosphere without scattering is known as direct
radiation. This is the case when the sky is clear. In contrast to
diffuse radiation, direct light casts shadows. Direct radiation
makes up around 50% of global radiation on average over the
course of a year. It can be used to generate heat as well as to
generate solar power.
Indirect radiation is diffuse radiation and reflected radiation.
Diffuse radiation reaches the earth's surface through a hazy
atmosphere. The sunlight is scattered by clouds, mist or fog and
does not hit the earth in a straight line, as direct radiation does.
Diffuse light is characterized by the fact that there is no clear
boundary to the shadows cast depending on lighting conditions.
Indirect radiation makes up around 50% of global radiation on
average over the course of a year.
The direct and diffuse solar radiation which falls onto a reception
surface from the environment is called reflected solar radiation.
Global radiation is the total amount of direct, diffuse, and
reflected solar radiation. The proportion of direct solar radiation
in the global radiation can be worked out very accurately from
the shadows cast by objects:
Only the reflected and diffuse radiation falls on the areas under
shadow.
Rear The term rear ventilation usually refers to a ventilated cavity

ventilation behind or between two blocks or layers.
On solar and photovoltaic systems, this is particularly important
with regard to efficiency. For solar cells, this is heavily dependent
on their temperature, as the cooler the cells can work, the more
efficient they will be. When designing and planning a solar
system, care must be taken to ensure the best possible rear
ventilation of the solar modules. For this reason, it is advisable to
maintain a distance of at least ten to fifteen centimeters
between the solar modules and the surface of the roof or
facade.
Phoenix ConTACT 47

Reflection The way radiation is “bounced back”.
The sunlight which is reflected by a surface.
Reflection from the earth's surface is called albedo and is 20%.
Reheating Use of solar power for reheating domestic water.

To increase the proportion of power from solar systems
consumed internally, the solar power can be used to heat
domestic water. This only requires an electric heating element in
the domestic water tank and an associated controller. This
procedure is recommended if expensive mains power or fossil
fuels are used for heating domestic water. Heating domestic
water using a solar-power-operated heat pump requires a higher
level of investment, but is a much more effective and higher
performance solution. These types of systems are available as
complete packages from various manufacturers.
Renewable Refers to energy from sources which either renew

sources of themselves over the short term or which are not depleted
energy through use.
Energy sources which do not use up any finite resources, but
instead tap into natural, self-renewing cycles are described as
renewable (solar, wind, hydraulic power, bio-energy). The tides,
ocean current, and geothermal energy are usually included too.
Repowering Replacing an energy generation system with a new one is

known as repowering.
For a photovoltaic system, this means that individual defective
modules in a system are replaced with new, functional modules.
An advantage of this method is that the entire system does not
need to be replaced as just individual parts are replaced instead.
48 Phoenix ConTACT

Roof The alignment of a roof to the cardinal directions is a key
alignment factor with respect to the yield of a solar system.
A south-facing roof is best for generating solar power or solar
heat. However, a deviation in alignment to the west or east is
not as disadvantageous as you might assume. If the roof is
rotated 45° to the east or west, it may still be possible to exploit
up to 95% of the potential, depending on the roof tilt. And even
if the roof is aligned exactly to the west or east, it is still possible
to exploit up to 85%.
Roof indicates how a solar system is integrated into the roof.

integration Solar systems can be attached to the roof in a variety of ways.
On flat roofs, they are elevated, on sloping roofs, the collectors
and modules can also be mounted elevated above the roof
cladding or integrated into the roof cladding, which is the more
elegant option in terms of appearance.
Some companies now offer modules which are fitted into frames,
which can be mechanically and visually integrated into the
surrounding roof area. The latest technology is solar roof tiles
and solar roof systems, which involve covering the entire surface
of the roof with large collectors (“energy roofs”).
With roof-integrated photovoltaic systems, it is important to
ensure adequate rear ventilation of the modules so as not to
restrict the yield.
See in-roof mounting
Phoenix ConTACT 49

Roof The installation of a solar system on the roof.
mounting When solar systems are roof-mounted, the solar collector or solar
module is installed around 5 to 15 centimeters above the roofing
using special assembly kits made of galvanized steel, aluminum
or stainless steel. The DIN rails are attached to the rafters using
roof hooks. Systems in which the collectors or modules are
connected to a rail system are particularly easy to mount as
there is no need for further work to screw them onto the roof.
When retrofitting a solar system into existing buildings with
sloping roofs, on-roof mounting is cheaper than roof integration
as the existing tile covering is only penetrated at a few points
and the water-tightness of the roof is not compromised.
However, in-roof mounting is often the most attractive option
from an aesthetic point of view.
Roof tilt The angle at which a roof tilts, a key factor with respect to
the yield of a solar system.
The setting angle of the roof toward the sun directly influences
the yield of the solar system and affects the power and heat
energy recovered accordingly. The seasonal movement of the sun
means that the system benefits from a steeper setting angle in
winter than in summer because the sun is lower in the sky. On
average across the whole year, the optimum angle of installation
is 45° for thermal systems and 30° for photovoltaic systems.
However, in the case of solar thermal systems, it is important to
take into consideration whether they are used exclusively for
heating domestic water or are also used for supporting a heating
system. If they are used for supporting a heating system, more
energy will be required in winter. This means that, under some
circumstances, a steeper angle of installation may be a better
option for these systems. Flat roofs are always suitable for solar
systems as both the alignment and the installation angle can be
selected freely.
50 Phoenix ConTACT

S
Secondary Converted primary energy.
energy Is produced by converting primary energy, e.g., coke, coal
briquettes, and gasoline, diesel or heating oil from crude oil.
Semi- Material which has been turned into a conductor of

conductor electrical current through targeted contamination.
A material which does not conduct electrical current in its
physically pure state and which can be turned into a conductor
through targeted contamination. Semiconductors become
electrically conductive through light and heat. Solar cells consist
mainly of a silicon semiconductor. If light is radiated onto a
barrier layer, electrical voltage arises due to the positive and
negative charge carriers in the material being separated. This
means that an electrical voltage is produced between the front
and rear of the cell. If a consumer is connected, the free charge
flows from the positive layer to the negative one.
Series individual solar modules are connected to each other in a

connection photovoltaic system. Systems with a wide range of power
ratings can be created by connecting multiple modules in
series or in parallel.
Individual solar cells are combined to form a solar module. This
can take the form of either series connection or parallel
connection. Parallel connection increases the amperage while the
voltage of the individual cell remains the same. For series
connection, the situation is reversed; interconnection increases
the voltage while the amperage remains the same. Series
connection is usual for solar modules.
Phoenix ConTACT 51

Service life of operating lifetime of a solar system, within which the
solar systems maximum power does not fall below a value of 80% to 85%
of the nominal power.
Solar systems age due to weathering and corrosion effects,
mechanical stress, and degradation of electronic components.
Most component manufacturers offer various types of warranty
which go beyond the statutory warranty. For example, solar
modules typically have a performance warranty which covers a
period between 20 and 30 years. Within this time period, the
power of the solar modules may not fall below a certain
percentage of the nominal power (e.g., 80%). Special attention
should be paid to the warranty conditions in any voluntary
warranty supplied by the manufacturer. The “small print” often
contains strict restrictions, which can be difficult and expensive
to overcome.
Setpoint Target values in a technical control process.

values See control/monitoring
52 Phoenix ConTACT

Shading if a shadow is cast on a solar power system, it can cause the
yield to be reduced.
There are various types of shading which affect solar systems.
Temporary shading caused by leaves, snow, bird droppings, dust,
and the like are usually eliminated by the self-cleaning process of
modules or panels (using runoff rainwater). The steeper the tilt
angle of the system, the better this self-cleaning process
functions. Shading plays a particularly important role for solar
power systems as the weakest solar cell (one which is dirty or in
shade) determines the total power of a module. In solar thermal
systems, the effect of partial shading of the collector is less
serious but still reduces the yield.
Shading caused by factors related to location are more
problematic than partial shading caused by dirt. Shadows cast
on roofs by chimneys, neighboring buildings, trees or antennas
are particularly problematic. It is therefore generally necessary to
ensure that no direct shadows are cast over the solar power
system. Even the smallest shadows can cause significant power
losses as the weakest solar cell determines the amperage. If it is
in shade, the total power of the system will drastically decrease.
This means that even an antenna shadow can reduce the
performance of a photovoltaic system by between 10% and
50%. Yield losses can be avoided by ensuring the optimum
arrangement of the module and connecting them in a suitable
way. It is a good idea to investigate the level of shading before
installation.
For elevated systems, ensure that the modules are a sufficient
distance apart so that they do not cast shade on each other.
Phoenix ConTACT 53

Short-circuit The level of amperage of the positive and negative poles of
current a solar generator are connected (short-circuited).
Silicon The most important semiconductor for manufacturing solar

cells.
Silicon (Si) is the second most common element on earth, after
oxygen. It is extracted from quartz sand through chemical
processing and purified. It is used in the electronics industry and
for manufacturing solar cells. In solar technology, the majority of
solar cells are manufactured based on mono or polycrystalline
silicon. The solar industry uses waste from production in the
electronics industry for this purpose. The material used in the
electronics industry is highly purified, but lower quality silicon is
sufficient for manufacturing solar cells. The solar industry is
currently working to develop its own silicon production so that it
can free itself from any shortages of material and associated
price increases.
Silicon, Silicon which does not have a crystal structure.

amorphous Amorphous silicon does not have a crystal structure. The raw
material silane (SiH4) is coated onto a suitable carrier material
(e.g., glass or metal foils). The resulting film is about 2 μm thick
and is therefore thinner than crystalline silicon cells by a factor
of 100. This is why the cells are also referred to as thin-film
solar cells. No cutting residue is produced during the
manufacture of amorphous cells, as is the case when cutting
crystalline silicon blocks. Because of this and a higher level of
automation in production, amorphous silicon cells are cheaper to
produce than crystalline silicon cells. However, their efficiency is
only 6% to 8% and is therefore around half that of the efficiency
of crystalline solar cells. On the other hand, amorphous solar
cells use diffuse light more effectively and their energy yield is
also better at increasing cell temperatures.
54 Phoenix ConTACT

Silicon, Silicon which consists of a single crystal. Solar power
mono- systems made of monocrystalline silicon can be identified by
crystalline their black color.
Monocrystalline (single-crystal) silicon is grown in round rods
from molten silicon in a relatively expensive process. The rods
are reshaped into quadratic or semi-quadratic form or left in
their round shape. They are then cut up into thin slices (wafers)
around 250 to 350 μm thick. The efficiency of solar cells made
of monocrystalline silicon is 15% to 18% of the maximum
efficiency. They are, however, expensive to produce due to high
material losses and relatively costly processes. If an antireflection
coating has not been applied, silicon cells can be identified by
their black color.
Silicon, Silicon which consists of multiple crystals. it can be

poly- identified by its blue, structured color.
crystalline Polycrystalline or multicrystalline silicon is cast in blocks which
are already quadratic in shape. The blocks are cooled and then
cut up into rods and then thin slices (wafers) around 250 to
350 μm thick. Polycrystalline silicon is somewhat rougher than
monocrystalline/single-crystal silicon. It has clearer crystal grain
boundaries which are a characteristic feature for identification.
Solar cells can be identified by their blue color even after an
antireflection coating is applied. The cells are less efficient than
monocrystalline cells (approx. 13% to 16%). They are therefore
cheaper to produce than monocrystalline cells.
Phoenix ConTACT 55

Simulation A simulation program can be used to calculate the expected
program yields of solar systems.
These days, solar systems are often designed using simulation
programs. These computer programs provide information on the
size of the system and the individual components, the yields
which can be achieved, and the cost-effectiveness of the system.
The impact of yield losses caused by temporary shading of the
roof components can also be calculated. Most manufacturers of
solar system components offer a computer program as part of
their product range, which contains the performance data for
their products. There are also manufacturer-independent
programs.
Snow load The weight of snow lying on a solar system, for example.
See statics
Solar Type of construction which allows for the optimum use of

architecture solar energy.
Takes into account the active and passive use of solar energy
when constructing and modifying buildings.
Solar cell The solar cell is an electrical component which converts

sunlight directly into electrical energy.
56 Phoenix ConTACT

Solar cell, Silicon which does not have a crystal structure.
amorphous The amorphous solar cells, which vary in color from red-brown to
black, are manufactured from gaseous silane. This means that
they do not have a crystalline structure like monocrystalline or
multicrystalline cells, but instead have a disordered structure.
Their efficiency is lower than that of crystalline cells, but they
can use diffuse light more effectively. Amorphous solar cells are
often used in the leisure sector.
Solar cell, Silicon which consists of a single crystal. Solar power

mono- systems made of monocrystalline silicon can be identified by
crystalline their black color.
In monocrystalline solar cells, the material (silicon) is arranged in
a completely regular crystal at the atomic level. Monocrystalline
solar cells are often used for grid-connected solar systems; their
efficiency is higher than that of polycrystalline solar cells, but so
is their price.
Solar cell, Silicon which consists of multiple crystals. it can be

poly- identified by its blue, structured color.
crystalline Also known as multicrystalline.
During production, the material (silicon) forms lots of individual
crystals and can be identified by its distinctive frost-like structure
on the surface. Multicrystalline or polycrystalline solar cells are
also often used in grid-connected solar systems; their efficiency is
lower than that of monocrystalline solar cells.
Solar Component in a solar heating system which collects

collector sunlight.
See collector
Phoenix ConTACT 57

Solar Measure of the intensity of the solar irradiation.
constant Indicates the irradiation intensity of the solar radiation on a
surface which is perpendicular to the radiation and is outside the
earth's atmosphere. Because it depends on the distance between
the sun and the earth and this varies due to the earth's elliptical
movement, the solar constant is an annual average of
1367 W/m².
The intensity on the earth is reduced in the earth's atmosphere
due to reflection, absorption, and scattering caused by particles
and clouds. In clear conditions and at our latitude, it is a
maximum of 1000 W/m².
Solar integration of solar technology when building houses.

construction There is enormous potential for energy saving in solar housing
construction. Up to 90% of heating costs can be saved through
the passive use of solar energy (south-facing windows, etc.) and
good thermal insulation; the remaining heat can be supplied by
solar collectors or reheating. Collectors and photovoltaic systems
can be built onto existing buildings or integrated into the plans
for new buildings. Low-energy or zero-energy houses combine
heat insulation, demand-oriented ventilation, and intelligent solar
systems and, where possible, are built so that they are south-
facing.
Solar Controls the variables in a solar thermal system, typically

controller with the goal of maximizing the heat energy recovered.
58 Phoenix ConTACT

Solar Use of solar energy for cooling.
cooling Solar thermal technology is usually used in the form of collectors
for generating useful heat (industrial water, heating water, and
process heat). Because more energy is required globally for
cooling (e.g., rooms) than for heating and producing water,
cooling is a logical use for solar collectors. In warm climates, the
requirement for indoor cooling coincides with high levels of solar
radiation, so using the sun for cooling is an obvious solution.
Previously, cooling systems were generally powered electrically.
Solar cooling systems are environmentally friendly and can
complement or completely replace conventional air conditioning
systems. Up to now, the only disadvantage has been that the
system technology for solar air conditioning is more expensive
than for conventional systems. Solar cooling systems are cheaper
to run because solar energy is available for free.
Solar Solar energy as a proportion of the total energy required.

coverage The solar coverage indicates what percentage of the energy
required for heating domestic water can be covered by the solar
system, as an annual average. It corresponds to the ratio
between the annual solar heat yield and the total energy need
(solar heat yield and amount of heat for reheating) for domestic
water heating (and, if applicable, supporting heating systems).
Achieving a compromise between solar consumption coverage
(100 percent supply from the solar system) and the system costs
makes sense from a cost perspective. Based on current system
costs and energy prices, solar systems for detached houses
should be designed with a solar coverage of approx. 50% to
60% for domestic water heating.
Phoenix ConTACT 59

Solar energy energy gained from solar energy.
gain Solar energy gain or solar yield is the energy which is delivered
to the domestic water by the solar fluid in the solar energy
storage unit.
Solar energy insulated storage vessel for fluid heated with solar energy
storage unit, (thermal) or photovoltaic system combined with, for
thermal example, a lithium battery system (electrical).
Batteries are mainly used for storing electrical current which has
already been generated so that it can be used later. For
example, electrical current generated by the solar module is
stored in a lithium-ion battery.
Solar energy Use of solar energy by solar systems.

use, active Use of photovoltaic systems to generate electrical current and of
thermal systems to heat water.
Solar energy Use of solar energy through heating the exterior wall of a
use, passive building and the resulting heating of the house.
The function of a greenhouse, drying washing outside, and
building a house with an open south-facing facade and a
closed north-facing one are all examples of passive solar
energy use.
60 Phoenix ConTACT

Solar heat heat which is generated by converting solar energy.
Solar heat refers to the use of sunlight for heating water or
supporting heating systems.
Water is heated by converting solar energy using solar collectors.
The collector collects the sunlight and heats the heat transfer
fluid in the absorber. The solar fluid in the system circuit
transports the heat to the storage unit, where the domestic
water is heated using a heat exchanger.
The storage unit ensures that the heat is available even when
the sun is not shining. A pump is used to circulate the heat
transfer fluid in the solar circuit and is always actuated
automatically when the temperature in the collector is higher
than the temperature in the storage unit.
Solar Generating heat from solar energy.

heating In the first instance, solar heating refers to heating the water in
a buffer storage unit, whereby the water is heated directly by
solar collectors (direct heating). In photovoltaics, the current
generated by the solar modules passes through an inverter into
the private mains network where it can be used by a heating
element in a buffer storage unit to reheat the water (indirect
heating).
Solar home Solar power systems which are optimized using additional
systems technical measures to offer the highest possible internal
(SHS) consumption of the electricity generated. This means that,
during high current yields, consumers are either switched
on deliberately or the current is stored.
Phoenix ConTACT 61

Solar module Component of a solar power system.
Because individual solar cells only provide low power (approx.
1.5 W), they are connected to a solar module. This consists of
a glass cover and, in most cases, an aluminum frame, which
provides stability and is used for fastening. The cover on the top
lets light through, while simultaneously protecting the solar cells
from the wind and weather. It is fastened to the roof or the
facade in this form. An individual solar cell is approx. 12.5 x
12.5 cm large; modules are available in various sizes. A module
can have a power of between 50 and 300 watts, depending on
the number of cells.
Solar modules can be silicon-based, polycrystalline with a
glittering crystal structure or monocrystalline with a uniform cell
surface. Thin-film modules are not constructed from cells, but
are instead made by coating a carrier layer (e.g., glass or copper
rails) with a photoactive semiconductor material. The low
consumption of materials and energy during manufacture and
the possibility of a high degree of automation offer significant
potential for savings when compared to crystalline silicon
technology. The carrier material for thin-film cells can, in theory,
be cut to meet any requirements. This means that even freer
customizations with respect to size can be offered. However,
thin-film modules have a lower efficiency overall and require
more space to achieve the same amount of power. The
maximum cell efficiency of monocrystalline cells is 18%, for
polycrystalline cells it is 15%. Thin-film cells have cell efficiency
ratings of up to 14%.
The solar modules are fastened to the roof or the facade with a
variety of systems.
62 Phoenix ConTACT

Solar module important information contained on the data sheets and
characteristic rating plates of solar modules.
data The data sheet of a solar module contains the most important
electrical and mechanical characteristic data. This includes the
maximum power, the off-load voltage, and the short-circuit
current under standard test conditions (STC, 1000 W/m²,
25 ± 2°C, AM 1.5, according to EN 60904-3) and under
average operating conditions (800 W/m², NOCT, AM 1.5).
Additional characteristics are:
• Temperature behavior: the NOCT (normal operation cell
temperature, temperature of the solar cells used under normal
operating conditions) temperature coefficients of voltage,
current and power
• Low-light behavior, i.e., the reduction in efficiency for radiation
of just 200 W/m²
• Mechanical dimensions (length, width, height) and weight.
Another specification describes the approvals for the module,
e.g., EN 61215 and EN 61646 for crystalline and thin-film
modules in Europe and UL 1703 for the North American region.
Some manufacturers specify the outlet boxes, cables, and plug-in
connectors used. European standard EN 50380 specifies which
information must be included on the data sheet.
Solar module When solar power systems heat up, their power decreases
heating to some extent.
Solar cells made of crystalline silicon lose a small part of their
power when they heat up. The power decreases by up to 0.5%
of the peak power for every degree by which the temperature
increases. Care should therefore be taken when installing solar
modules on the roof to ensure that they are well ventilated from
behind. Under the standard test conditions applied to the
modules, the temperature is 25 C. The effect is less marked for
thin-film modules.
Phoenix ConTACT 63

Solar panel Also solar module, component of a solar power system.
The same as a solar module. Several solar panels together form
a photovoltaic system or a generator.
Solar power electrical energy which is generated by converting solar

energy.
Direct current generated in solar cells from sunlight. This is then
converted into alternating current in the inverter.
Solar The radiation emitted by the sun.

radiation See solar radiation supply
Solar The available solar radiation.

radiation The amount of irradiated solar energy on the surface of the
supply collector or module is heavily dependent on the tilt angle and the
orientation of the reception surface. The radiation intensity is at
its highest when the sunlight hits the surface at a perpendicular
angle. With this in mind, solar collectors should face south and
be tilted in such a way that the sunlight hits the surface at a
perpendicular angle as often as possible. At an irradiation
intensity of 1000 W/m² (clear, sunny day), the irradiated solar
energy over the course of one hour is 1000 watt hours (Wh).
The average amount of solar energy (global radiation) irradiated
on a horizontal surface is approximately 2800 Wh per square
meter per day in Germany. In July, values can reach around
5000 Wh/m² a day, whereas in December they are often only
500 Wh/m² a day.
Over the year, approximately 1000 kWh of solar energy hits
each square meter. The amount of solar energy irradiated varies
by region. The values south of Freiburg, for example, are
1150 to 1200 kWh/m² and in Hamburg they are 900 to
950 kWh/m². Some regions close to the equator achieve values
of 2300 kWh/m² a year.
64 Phoenix ConTACT

Solar roof Roof tile into which solar cells are integrated.
tile Solar roof tiles are a visually attractive solution for installing a
solar system on the roof. Different types of solar roof tile are
available for solar power systems (photovoltaics) and solar
heating systems (solar heat). In photovoltaic systems, solar
modules can be incorporated into specially formed tiles. This
means that solar modules can be fastened to the roof tiles
without the need for further mounting systems and can be
connected together using special plug-in connections to create a
weatherproof surface. The system can then easily be expanded
at a later date. Another option – which also applies to solar
heating systems – is specially produced roof coverings with
integrated solar collectors or modules which blend into
conventional roofs both visually and technically. Several tile
manufacturers currently offer this type of product. The
advantage of this mounting type is how easy the tiles are to
handle. The price, however, is higher than for conventional
systems. Solar roof tiles are currently preferred in landmarked
buildings.
Solar system, See structure of a solar system

structure
Solar systems Convert sunlight into usable energy (heat and electrical
energy/current).
Convert sunlight into usable energy and therefore make a
substantial contribution to protecting the climate. Solar systems
can generate electrical current and heat. Photovoltaic systems
consist of solar modules which generate direct current. An
inverter converts this into grid-compliant alternating current,
which is then fed into the public power grid via a grid feed-in
device. Stand-alone systems store the generated solar power in
accumulators. Solar thermal systems convert the solar energy in
the collector into heat, which is transported by solar fluid
through the circuit to the heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger,
the domestic water is heated and either stored in the solar
energy storage unit or fed directly to the consumers in the flow
system.
Phoenix ConTACT 65

Solar The word is made up of “solar” = sun and “thermic” = heat.
thermal Solar thermal systems in a residential building heat domestic
system water for the shower, sink, etc. The washing machine and
dishwasher can also be supplied directly with hot water from the
solar system using an adapter. This means that electrical
current, which would otherwise be required for heating the
water, can be saved.
Solar systems for supporting heating systems produce a larger
quantity of hot water than systems for heating domestic water
by increasing the collector surface on the roof. These systems
can then also support the heating system during the transitional
months (spring and autumn), saving energy on heating. Other
options for solar energy use: passive solar energy use increases
energy yield, for example if thermal insulation is used or the
house is constructed in a south-facing direction. Drying washing
in the sun is also a passive use of solar energy.
In photovoltaics, sunlight is used to generate electrical current
using solar modules.
Solar vehicle Vehicle which is fueled by solar power.

A vehicle which is fueled with solar power, e.g., a solar car, solar
scooter or solar boat.
Solar- Pump which is operated with solar power.

powered Direct current pump which obtains its electrical current from a
pump solar module, e.g., pond pumps or circulating pumps in a solar
system.
66 Phoenix ConTACT

Solar-roof Solar systems which completely replace the roof cladding.
systems Solar systems consisting of collectors and/or photovoltaic modules
which completely replace the roof cladding. This saves the
additional costs of roof cladding and is visually attractive. There
are many architectural options for designing solar roofs. When
light-permeable modules are mounted, this increases the amount
of light available and therefore also enables lighting costs to be
reduced.
See BIPV
Sorption Long-term storage unit for (heat) energy.

heat storage Long-term storage unit developed by the company UFE Solar
unit GmbH in collaboration with the Fraunhofer-Institut für Solare
Energiesysteme (ISE), which stores solar energy on the basis of
solid sorption (silica gel) from summer until winter
(thermochemical process). There are now more demonstration
plants.
Stand-alone Solar power systems which are used exclusively to supply

systems the individual building/installation with electrical current and
are not connected to the power grid.
Stand-alone systems are used particularly in inaccessible regions
where connection to the public power grid is not possible. They
are generally combined with a ground storage unit.
Phoenix ConTACT 67

Statics A branch of mechanics concerned with forces in stationary
systems.
Static properties of solar modules
Solar modules are extremely robust and resistant thanks to the
following properties:
• Break-proof (thanks to hardened glass)
• Resistant to hail with a diameter of up to 25 mm
• Loadable: static load on the front and back at 2400 Pa and
front loading (e.g., snow) at 5400 Pa
Almost all standard modules are certified according to the
European standard IEC 61215. Customized modules cannot be
put through the expensive tests individually but they do generally
meet the same requirements.
Solar modules can vary greatly in weight; the weight must be
taken into consideration for the statics of the roof.
How the frames are fastened to the roofs is a key factor. The
generators provide a wind attack surface and are usually used
on tall buildings. This means that in some cases considerable
wind forces must be taken into account.
The choice of fastening depends on the statics of the roof. Is the
roof also loadable or not? If construction plans are available, the
answer can be found in the statics calculation for the building;
otherwise it must be obtained from a structural engineer. The
corresponding standards serve as the calculation basis.
STC Used to provide an independent and uniform evaluation of

(standard solar power modules.
test The electrical parameters of a solar module are measured under
conditions) standard conditions so that the products of various
manufacturers can be compared with one another. The standard
test conditions for solar modules are: radiation of 1000 W/m², a
solar cell temperature of 25 C, and an air mass of 1.5.
68 Phoenix ConTACT

Storage unit, Unit for storing electrical energy.
electrical See accumulator
String interconnected solar cells within a module for solar power

systems.
If multiple solar power modules are interconnected in series with
a generator, this series is known as a string.
String in medium-sized and large photovoltaic systems, the

combiner individual strings are combined using string combiner boxes.
box (SCB) String combiner boxes are mounted between the solar modules
and the inverter. They combine strings from the field and convey
them to the inverter. Other functions such as protection and
monitoring systems can also be integrated into them.
Depending on their type, the boxes contain modular terminal
blocks, surge protection, fuses, and load interrupter switches,
right up to a system providing permanent current monitoring of
individual strings.
Phoenix ConTACT 69

Structure A photovoltaic system connected to the grid essentially
of a solar consists of the following elements: a generator (one or
system more interconnected photovoltaic modules), connection
elements, protective elements, switching elements,
inverters, a grid feed-in point, meters, and measuring and
monitoring units. Depending on the type and size of the
system, other devices may be required for operational
management (e.g., network technology, controllers, etc.).
The inverter is used to convert the direct current generated in
the modules into grid-compliant alternating current and thereby
makes it suitable for feeding into the public grid or for internal
consumption. The number of photovoltaic modules used, the way
they are connected, and the design of the inverters varies
depending on the system.
For example, free-standing systems are generally connected in a
way which means that the central inverter can be used at a high
power (up to 1 MW). String inverters or even microinverters are
usually used in residential buildings. All components used have
an impact on the effectiveness of the solar system.
For stand-alone systems, the direct current generated is stored in
batteries either directly or after being converted into alternating
current and is then withdrawn by the relevant consumer devices.
Solar thermal systems for producing hot water from solar
radiation generally consist of a solar collector, a control unit with
pumps, and a well-insulated hot water tank.
Sun Star at the center of our solar system.

Astrophysicists estimate the age of the sun to be 5 billion years.
Energy is released as hydrogen nuclei fuse together to form
helium nuclei inside the sun. This energy released by the fusion
process radiates into space in the form of electromagnetic
radiation, and a small fraction of this reaches the earth. The sun
provides the earth with more energy in a quarter of an hour
than humanity uses in an entire year.
70 Phoenix ConTACT

Surge Surge protection is the protection of electrical and
protection electronic devices against electrical voltages which are too
high.
Surge voltages, which are caused by switching operations in
electrical systems or from lightning discharges, destroy or
damage electronic equipment. Electrical systems and devices are
protected from destruction by surge voltages using surge
protection devices.
System Measure of the efficiency of the system and its components.

efficiency In solar heating technology, the system efficiency is the ratio of
the heat which is brought into the storage unit by the solar
heating fluid to the amount of solar energy which irradiates onto
the collector surface. The system efficiency indicates the
performance of a solar system over an extended period of time,
e.g., a year. The total system efficiency indicates the efficiency of
the entire solar system (consisting of the collector, pipework,
heat exchanger, and storage unit), including the path to the
consumer points. The heat losses through the pipework system
(pipework losses) on the way to the consumers are also counted
as part of this. The total system efficiency specifies how much of
the solar energy irradiated onto the collector is available to the
consumers as hot water at the point of withdrawal.
See total system efficiency, photovoltaics
System operator of a solar system, not necessarily the owner of

operator the system.
The system operator ensures that the system operates safely
and without errors and takes care of maintenance and servicing
for the solar system.
Phoenix ConTACT 71

T
Temperature The change in voltage, current, and power in solar modules
coefficient as a function of the ambient temperature.
The temperature coefficients TK(Pmpp), TK(UOC), and TK(ISC)
are usually specified in %/K for photovoltaic modules. The
current from photovoltaic modules generally decreases as the
temperature increases, while the voltage increases. The power of
photovoltaic modules is proportional to the product of current
and voltage. The temperature coefficient of the current is
generally weighted more heavily than that of the voltage, which
means that the power of solar modules usually decreases as the
temperature increases.
Temperature Sensor for recording the temperature.

sensor Temperature sensors are used to identify the actual values for a
solar thermal system. The sensors measure the temperature of
the solar fluid as it leaves the collector field and the temperature
of the domestic water from the heat exchanger. The difference is
calculated from these temperatures and is used to control the
system.
The recorded temperature difference is compared with the
setpoint. For reheating, the temperature of the domestic water is
also measured at the point the water is withdrawn from the
solar storage unit.
72 Phoenix ConTACT

Thin-film cell Solar cell with very thin semiconductor materials.
Amorphous silicon cells and cells such as CIS and CdTe are
examples of thin-film cells. The difference between the
monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon cells is in how they are
manufactured. In the production of thin-film cells, photoactive
semiconductors are applied in thin layers to a carrier material.
The layers are no thicker than around 0.001 mm. The thin-film
cells are connected together internally so that the connections
are barely visible to the naked eye. The cells therefore appear
very homogeneous. The thin-film cells vary in color from reddish-
brown to black or dark green.
The advantages of thin-film cells are their reduced manufacturing
costs, low vulnerability to shadows, and increased flexibility in
terms of shape. A disadvantage is decreased efficiency compared
to silicon cells.
Thin-film in this case, the photoactive semiconductor is amorphous

cell, (non-crystalline) silicon, which is applied in a thin layer to
amorphous the carrier material, usually glass. The reduced consumption
silicon cells of materials and energy and the possibility of a high degree
of automation in production offer significant potential for
savings when compared to crystalline silicon technology.
The disadvantage of amorphous cells is their low efficiency
of 5% to 8% (stabilized condition). Flexible solar modules
on metal or plastic films are possible. The structure is
homogenous, the color varies from reddish-brown to black.
Phoenix ConTACT 73

Thin-film The active semiconductor material on CiS solar cells is
cell, CIS solar copper indium diselenide and it is black in color. The
cells efficiency is 7.5% to 9.5%.
Thin-film, The photoactive material on these solar cells is made of

CdTe solar cadmium telluride. CdTe is a non-toxic and very stable
cells compound. The cells are glossy dark green to black in color.
The efficiency of the CdTe modules is 6% to 9%.
Tilt angle The tilt of solar systems on racks or roofs.

The angle at which the roof components of a solar system are
installed is an important factor with respect to the yield. Due to
the seasonal differences in the movement of the sun through the
sky, the tilt angle is flatter in summer and and steeper in winter.
It is preferable for the sunlight to hit the modules from a
position which is as close to perpendicular as possible. On
average across the whole year, the optimum tilt angle is 45° for
solar thermal systems and 30° for photovoltaic systems. In the
case of solar thermal systems, it is important to take into
consideration whether they are used exclusively for heating
domestic water or are also used for supporting a heating system.
If the system is used for supporting a heating system, more
energy will be required in winter. A steeper installation angle of
50° or 60° should therefore be selected.
74 Phoenix ConTACT

Total system Measure of the efficiency of a solar system.
efficiency Photovoltaics:
The total system efficiency of a photovoltaic system is influenced
by a number of factors. If the resulting direct current is
converted to alternating current, conversion losses are incurred
at the inverter. If the electrical current is stored in an
accumulator in stand-alone systems, energy is lost during storage.
The length of the power lines can also cause losses.
Heat:
The total system efficiency indicates the efficiency of the entire
solar system (consisting of the collector, pipework, heat
exchanger, and storage unit), including the path to the consumer
points. The heat losses through the pipework system (pipework
losses) on the way to the consumers are also counted as part of
this. The total system efficiency specifies how much of the solar
energy irradiated on the collector is available to the consumers
as hot water at the point of withdrawal.
Tracking Units with one or two axles which align the solar systems
optimally toward the sun.
Transformer The primary application for transformers is to increase or

decrease AC voltages. The circuits are electrically isolated
at the same time.
Transformers are essential for the cost-effective
transmission of electrical energy over long distances by
means of high-voltage lines.
Phoenix ConTACT 75

Transmittance Variable for the permeability of a medium to waves.
A portion of the incident radiation does not reach the absorber
under the glass cover of a solar collector due to reflection and
absorption as it passes through the glass. The transmittance
specifies the permeability of the glass panel after deducting the
loses caused by reflection and absorption.
U
Useful The useful energy is the energy which is available directly to
energy the consumer.
Energy that is used by consumers in the form of heat,
mechanical energy or light. The precursors are heating oil or
wood pellets, for example, which are converted into heat.
Utility grid energy suppliers and grid operators.

operator Utility grid operators generate energy in the form of electrical
current and heat and/or supply gas to customers. The larger
utility grid operators own the majority of the power grids (in
Germany, these are RWE, E.On, Vattenfall, and EnBW). The grid
operators are obligated, as per the German Renewable Energy
Sources Act (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz, EEG) to pay feed-in
compensation for electrical current generated by photovoltaic
systems, for example. When you receive electrical current from
another supplier (e.g., a green electricity provider) which does
not belong to the power grids, this supplier pays a utilization fee
(transmission fee) to the grid operator.
V
Voltage Physical variable which specifies how much work or energy
is required to move an object with a specific electrical load
within an electrical field.
See electrical voltage, mains voltage
76 Phoenix ConTACT

W
Wafer A slice of silicon cut from a block which is turned into a
solar cell as a result of special further processing.
Wafers are thin slices of semiconductor material, which, in
photovoltaics, is usually silicon. Wafers are used in the chip
industry and in photovoltaics. The solar industry used to work
with waste from the chip industry, but now wafers are
manufactured specifically for photovoltaics. The silicon is supplied
in single-crystal, multicrystalline or polycrystalline blocks (ingots)
and is cut into thin slices. The wafers undergo multiple
processing steps to be turned into solar cells, which are then
combined to form modules.
Watt peak Unit for the maximum power of a solar power system.
Unit for the peak power of photovoltaic modules under standard
test conditions (STC).
See kWp
Weather A weather station is a system for acquiring all weather data.

station Various sensors take the temperature, humidity, air pressure,
quantity of sunlight, and wind speed. The weather data acquired
in this way is recorded, processed, and can be used to calculate
the yield.
in collaboration with
the German Solar industry Association
(Bundesverband Solarwirtschaft e.V., BSW-Solar)
Quartier 207
Friedrichstraße 78
10117 Berlin, Germany
www.solarwirtschaft.de
Phoenix ConTACT 77

Solutions for photovoltaics
Whether small rooftop systems on detached houses, tracking systems or
ground-mounted systems in the megawatt range: for reliable and, above all,
efficient operation, the market requires easy connection technology
solutions featuring long-term stability, complete monitoring and
management systems, and comprehensive protection against surge voltages.
The development of intelligent power supply systems also shapes the
electrotechnical equipment for all aspects of photovoltaics: network and
system operators must communicate on a consistent
and uniform basis and reliable remote control
concepts are indispensable.
“With the power of the sun and technology from
Phoenix Contact, you can design inspirational
solutions for a sustainable power supply.”
78 Phoenix ConTACT

Ground-mounted systems Tracking systems
Rooftop systems Building integration
Phoenix ConTACT 79

Solutions for ground-mounted systems
Photovoltaics make a major contribution toward meeting the continually
rising energy requirements. interest in building increasingly larger and more
powerful ground-mounted PV systems is on the increase worldwide.
networking, monitoring, and communication are indispensable in this
regard, particularly in relation to constant network quality and maintenance
in line with requirements. At the same time, in the case of larger systems,
the aim is easy and fast connection technology. Discover the advantages of
Phoenix Contact solutions for yourself.
“Intelligent technology is impressive if it is simple

to use – irrespective of whether it's connection
technology or remote control software.”
80 Phoenix ConTACT

Park management String combiner technology
Sensor/actuator cabling String combiner technology for collecting, forwarding, and
for extreme weather monitoring currents. in addition: protection against surge
conditions, park voltages.
networking, energy data
acquisition and diagnosis,
and visualization.
String
combiner box
PV field
Control room
inverter
station
Connection
technology
With connector and
cables featuring long-term
stability, a PV park can be
cabled and connected
quickly and easily.
Protection for the

alternating current
Surge protection
for inverters and
supply. Power supply
Phoenix ConTACT 81

Solutions for tracking systems
Taking the sunflower as an example, photovoltaic tracking systems likewise
track the course of the sun. in comparison with permanently installed PV
systems, tracking systems therefore generate far higher yields.
With compact hybrid motor starters from Phoenix Contact, you can switch
and reverse tracking systems safely and reliably. in addition, Phoenix
Contact offers a comprehensive range of automation components for
controlling a tracking park.
“Tracking systems generate a large amount

of energy in a small amount of space –
with the right technology , they function
even more efficiently”.
82 Phoenix ConTACT

Mobile device PV tracker
String
combiner box
Tracking systems
always in focus
Control room
Tracking systems track the
sun with technology from
inverter Phoenix Contact. Reliable
station on-site and remote control
and maintenance of a
tracking park is possible.
Power supply
Phoenix ConTACT 83

Solutions for rooftop systems
Large, slightly slanted roof surface areas provide ideal conditions for the
profitable deployment of photovoltaics. As a result of declining module
prices and increasing energy costs, PV systems on private, commercial, and
public buildings are becoming increasingly attractive, even without state
subsidies. For the purpose of providing comprehensive and permanent
protection against all manner of lightning currents and surge voltages,
Phoenix Contact offers a wide range of surge protection products.
“PV rooftop systems use available spaces –

why shouldn't the technology for these
systems be equally as space saving?”
84 Phoenix ConTACT

industrial Agricultural Public
company building production building building
inverter station
Surge protection
Reliably protect all types of
PV rooftop systems against
surge voltages.
Power supply
Phoenix ConTACT 85

Solutions for building integration
An increasing number of building contractors, architects, engineers, and
specialist planners are opting for building-integrated photovoltaics (BiPV ).
it is the combination of aesthetics, Co-free power generation, and weather
protection that renders solar modules on facades and roofs such an
attractive proposition. They also enable the available space on the building
to be used more efficiently.
“Set trends not only in the power

supply but also in building design.”
86 Phoenix ConTACT

industrial building Building with partially Public building
with facade panels transparent window panels with roof integration
Power supply
Connecting and combining

The Phoenix Contact miniature plug-in system fulfills the
special requirements that BiPV imposes on connection
technology.
Phoenix ConTACT 87

Solutions for autonomous power supply
Phoenix Contact solar systems supply your external stations
independently of the power grid – even on short, dark winter days.
The systems are ideal for supplying weather stations or parking
meters with power. Combined with wireless technology, they open
up new possibilities for covering remote and poorly accessible
parts of systems.
“Autonomous power supply is opening

up new possibilities for your
distributed automation
solutions.”
88 Phoenix ConTACT

Accessories
Phoenix Contact offers you a wide range of
products for all your PV system operations:
e.g., marking systems and materials enabling
your PV system wiring to be marked
transparently and efficiently. in addition,
high-quality and sophisticated tools are
available for fast and safe installation.
Phoenix ConTACT 89

Service and support
our specialists are always on hand to help you
plan, configure, and implement your
photovoltaic solution. invariably boasting vast
technical expertise, they bear in mind your
specific requirements.
Together with our specialists, you will always
find the ideal solution to meet your
requirements.
90 Phoenix ConTACT

Phoenix ConTACT 91

© Phoenix ConTACT 2014
Printed in Germany
Phoenix ConTACT Gmbh & Co. KG

MnR 52005594/2014-03-24/00
Flachsmarktstraße 8
32825 Blomberg, Germany
Phone: + 49 5235 3-00
CiS04-14.002.L3
Fax: + 49 5235 3-41200

e-mail: info@phoenixcontact.com
phoenixcontact.com

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Solar energy –

Quick and simple explanation of

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electrical energy from

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Absorption intake of short-wave sunlight by a body.

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Accumulator Storage unit for electrical energy, reusable (rechargeable).

Aging Decrease in the efficiency of a solar cell over time.

Air mass Measurement for the path of sunlight through the

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Alignment of optimum tilt of a solar system in a cardinal direction

Alternating Current which changes its flow direction regularly.

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Amortization Return of invested funds from the revenues of the

Angle of The tilt of solar systems on racks or roofs.

Anti- Coating which prevents reflections on solar systems.

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Battery Storage unit for electrical energy, reusable

Bidirectional A bidirectional meters measures both the energy fed into

BIPV/GIPV Building-integrated photovoltaics.

Buffer Water tank with a good heat storage capacity in a heating

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Bypass diode Used to prevent low yields and protects photovoltaic

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Carbon See CO2

CdTe Semiconductor which is used in certain thin-film solar

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Central Main inverter in large solar power systems.

Characteristic A characteristic curve is the graphical representation of two

Charge Safety equipment for batteries.

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Citizen- An association of several citizens/private investors for the

Climate All organizational and technical measures which counteract

CO2 Carbon dioxide, a gas which is produced during combustion,

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Connection Umbrella term for the components and systems required

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Control Continual tracking of measurable variables in a technical

Conversion Former industrial, military or commercial sites.

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Cost- The cost-effectiveness measures the yield of, for example, a

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DC direct See direct current

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Diffuse Radiation where properties (e.g., wavelength) can be

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Direct Radiation which comes directly from the radiation source.

Disconnection equipment for disconnecting a solar power system from the

Disposal Refers to the removal and reutilization of waste.

Doping Allows the current to flow in a solar power system.

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Electricity Costs required to generate electrical current from a

Electricity Company that provides electrical energy.

Emission The output of destructive substances into the environment,

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Energy price is established by energy trading and refers to the price of

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Energy yield indicates the energy generated during a specified time

Engineering, ePC refers to companies that deal with the planning,