Performance Manual Site Assessment v3

For Training Purposes Only
volvo performance manual

INTERNAL USE ONLY
ADAPTED FOR:
EARTHMOVING
SITE ASSESSMENT
COURSE
- Articulated haulers
- Excavators
- Wheel loaders
Content 3
Introduction 16
Reading Instructions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Production Estimation Quick Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Earthmoving Basics 18
Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Volumes and densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18.
Fill Factor / Load Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.
Excavation Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Measurement of material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Material properties for Logging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Work Schedule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Effective Working Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24.
Working Hours per Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Transport Road Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Grades and Grade Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Rolling Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27.
Total Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Ground Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31.
Traction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Load-bearing capacity of the ground. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Measurement of Transport Road Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Wheel Loaders 84
Wheel Loader Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Wheel Loader Work Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Bucket Type and Size Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Wheel Loader productivity estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Hourly production and "Normal job conditions" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Bucket Handling Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Grapple Type and Size Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Logging Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
L150H - L180H - L220H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Cycle Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Productivity Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Rimpull Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Bucket selection chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Short Cycle / Truck Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Articulated Haulers 190

Articulated Haulers Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
The Site Summary form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Articulated Hauler Work Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Traveling loaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Maneuvering to dump and dumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 .
Traveling Unloaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 .
Maneuvering for Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 . .
4 Content
Cont. Articulated Haulers

Hauling long stretches downhill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Determination of Fleet Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Articulated Hauler Productivity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
A25F - Complete Site Summary Form Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Rimpull Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Ground Pressure and Cone Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Tractive Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Body Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Specifications A25F - A30F - A25G - A30G......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Travel Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Articulated Haulers Performance Data 212
Rimpull Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Ground Pressure and Cone Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Tractive Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Body Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Loading Time for different Loading Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Loading Times for Hydraulic Excavators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Maneuvering Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Maneuvering at Loading Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Maneuvering at dumping area and dumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Operating on Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Excavators 250
General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
EC480E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 . .
Dimensions and Working ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Performance data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
461
Cycle time estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
Excavators Performance Data 462
E-series Cycle time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 . .
E-series Fuel consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Ground pressure (Track info) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

EC480E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Lifting table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
Attachments - Maximum permitted buckets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
EC480E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .706
.
TCO - Total Cost of Ownership 814

The Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
Hourly Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
Hourly cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
Ownership Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .815
Operating Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
Hourly Cost Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
TCO Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
Formulas 824
Site Simulation 825

An earthmoving business approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
16 Introduction
This book xxxxxx
Reading Instructions
Ixxxxx
Summary
Introduction 17
Terminology
Productivity:
The amount of material that can be moved per hour, day or year.
Availability:
The amount of time that the machine is available for operation when compared to scheduled operating time.
Operator effectiveness / Effective Working Time:
The ability of the operator to ensure the machine’s maximum potential is obtained.
Hourly cost:
Costs associated with operating and owning the machine.
Productivity Estimation:
Methods and data for estimating the machine’s productivity in bulk excavation and extractive applications. An estimation of productivity
is based on defined "normal conditions" and would usually need to be adjusted to particular site conditions. Use the productivity
estimations if an actual site evaluation is not possible or the need for accuracy is not of paramount importance.
Productivity Calculation:
Methods and data for calculating the machine’s estimated production. A calculation of production indicates what the machine can
produce under actual working conditions. Use the production calculation method when the conditions on site are known and the
need for accuracy is greater. For best results, use actual site data.
Hourly Cost Estimation:
Methods and data for estimating the owning and operating costs associated with the selected machine. For best results, use actual
site data.
Profitability Estimation:
The most favorable balance between cost and production will result in the highest long term profitabilit .
Production Estimation Quick Guide
Wheel Loader Production Estimation

Effektive Working time (min/hour) / Cycle Time (min/cycle) = Cycles/hour
Cycles per hour x Actual bucket Volume = Hourly Production (m3/h, ton/h).
Hourly Production x Working hours every year = Yearly Production
Excavator Productivity Estimation
Cycles per hour x Actual bucket Volume = Hourly Production (m3/h, ton/h).
Articulated Hauler Production Estimation
Cycles per hour x Actual load Volume = Hourly Production (m3/h, ton/h).
Fleet hourly production: Hourly production (one hauler) x Fleet Size
Fleet yearly production: Yearly production (one hauler) x Fleet Size
Summary
18 Earthmoving Basics
Material Properties
Volumes and densities

Density
The relationship of the mass (weight as often referred) of a material to its volume
is called density.
Density = Mass / Volume
Density is expressed in kg/m3 (Ib/yd3). Density of the same material may be
different depending on whether it is in the bank, loose or compacted form.
The difference is noted by using the same abbreviations as for volumes, e.g.
1700 kg/Lm3 (2870 lb/Lyd3) means that one loose cubic yard (meter) of the
Fig. 1 Density variation during excavation and transport. material weighs 1700 kg (2870 lb).
Swell Factor
When soil and rock materials are loaded into a dumper, the volume increases
due to expansion of the material. This increase is called swell. This is usually
expressed as a swell-factor which is the loose volume divided by the bank
volume, see below, but it can also be expressed as a percentage.
Fig. 2 Volume variation during excavation and transport.
For conversions between bank and loose forms the following formulas are used:
Volume Changes Density Changes

• Swell Factor = Loose Volume / Bank Volume • Loose Density = Bank Density / Swell
• Loose Volume = Bank Volume x Swell Factor • Bank Density = Loose Density x Swell
Density and swell of a material vary with grain size and moisture content. To make an accurate determination of density and swell,
measurements have to be made on the site, but rough estimates can be made from table 1.
Figure 1 and 2 shows an example of how the density and volume of a material can vary during excavation and transport.
In the earthmoving industry, volumes can be expressed in different ways, depending on which stage of excavation the material is in.
In this section the most common ones; bank, loose and compacted volume will be explained.
Bank volume (Bm3, Byd3) is the undisturbed material in the ground, before excavation. Note that the volume that is actually excavated
often is somewhat larger than the one calculated from drawings.
Loose volume (Lm3, Lyd3) is the volume of the material when it is loaded onto transport machine. The loose volume is larger than the
bank volume since the material expands when excavated. This difference is called swell.
Compacted volume (Cm3, Cyd3) is the volume of the material after leveling and compaction on the site. This volume is smaller
than the loose and is often somewhat larger than the bank volume depending on the material properties. As for bank volumes, it is
important to note that the actual filled olume often is larger than the volume calculated from drawings.
Example
• Dry clay has a bank density of 1700 kg/Bm3 (2870 lb/Byd3) and a swell-factor 1.3 (it swells 30%). What is the weight of 1 Lm3
(1 Lyd3)?
Loose density = 1308 kg/Lm3 (2208 lb/ Lyd3)
• What is the weight of a full load in a 16.5 m3 (21.6 yd3) dumper body?
Load weight = Load volume x Loose density = 16.5 Lm3 x 1308 kg/Lm3 = 21,600 kg = (21.6 Lyd3 x 2208 lb/Lyd3 = 47,726 lbs).
• If 75,000 Bm3 (98,100 Byd3) is to be excavated, how many Lm3 (Lyd3) are to be transported?
Loose volume = 75,000 Bm3 x 1.3 = 97,500 Lm3.
Summary
Table. 1 Different material densities and swell factors
MATERIAL lb/Byd3 kg/bm3 lb/Lyd3 kg/lm3 Swell

Ashes, soft coal with slagg 1010–1520 600–900 840–1350 500–800 1.1
Bauxite 3200 1900 2360 1400 1.3
Brick – – 2700–3200 1600–1900 –
Cement 2950 1750 2440 1450 1.2
Caliche 3790 2250 2110 1250 1.8
Clay:
dry 2870 1700 2190 1300 1.3
wet 3790 2250 2700 1600 1.4
+ gravel, dry 2870 1700 2360 1400 1.2
+ gravel, wet 3030 1800 2530 1500 1.2
compacted 3370 2000 2870 1700 1.2
Coal:
anthracite 2190–2610 1300–1550 1690–2020 1000–1200 1.3
bitumous 1850 1100 1350 800 1.4
lignite 2110 1250 1520 900 1.4
Concrete:
dry 3200–4210 1900–2500 2360–3030 1400–1800 1.4
wet - - 3620 2150 -
Copper ore 3200 1900 2700 1600 1.2
Earth:
dry 287 1700 2190 1300 1.3
wet 3200 1900 2700 1600 1.2
+ sand and gravel 3030 1800 2700 1600 1.1
+ 25% stone 3370 2000 2700 1600 1.2
loam 2530 1500 2110 1250 1.2
Granite 4380–5060 2600–3000 2780–3030 1650–1800 1.6
Gravel:
dry 2870 1700 2530 1500 1.1
moist, wet 3710 2200 3370 2000 1.1
Gypsum:
blasted 4890 2900 2700 1600 1.8
crushed 5230 3100 3030 1800 1.7
Iron ore:
Hematite 4720–6570 2800–3900 3880–5390 2300–3200 1.2
Limonite 8600–11800 5100–7000 3880–5390 2300–3200 1.7-2.2
Magnetite 4720–6570 2800–3900 3880–5390 2300–3200 1.2
Kaolin 2870 1700 2190 1300 1.3
Lime – – 1350 800 –
Limestone:
blasted 4380 2600 2700 1600 1.6
loose, crushed – – 2530 1500 –
marble 4550 2700 2700 1600 1.7
Mud:
dry (close) 3710–5060 2200–3000 3030–4210 1800–2500 1.2
wet (moderately comp.) 5060–5900 3000–3500 4210–4890 2500–2900 1.2
Rock:
hard well blasted 4800 2850 2850 1700 1.7
+ stone crushed 4800 2850 2850 1700 1.7
Sandstone 4210 2500 2530 1500 1.7
Sand:
dry 3200 1900 2870 1700 1.1
wet 3540 2100 3200 1900 1.1
+ gravel, dry 3200 1900 2870 1700 1.1
+ gravel, wet 3710 2200 3370 2000 1.1
Shale:
soft rock 3030 1800 2190 1300 1.4
riprock 2950 1750 2110 1250 1.4
Slag 5060 3000 1750
Slate 4720 2800 3540 2100 1.3
Top soil 2360 1400 1690 1000 1.4
Traprock 5060 3000 3370 2000 1.5
These weights are only approximate. The densities vary with moisture content, grain size, etc. Tests must be carried out to
determine exact material characteristics.
Summary
Fill Factor / Load Volume

Actual Bucket Volume
The actual bucket volume depends on the rated volume of the bucket and a
material property called fill factor. Essentially, fill factor describes how well
material sits in the bucket.
• Actual Bucket Volume = Rated Bucket Volume x Fill factor
Fig. 3 Material heap on excavator bucket.
Volvo buckets rated volume are heaped values. See figu e 3 and 4 for excavators
and wheel loaders. Note that the angle of the heap is different for excavators and
wheel loaders.
Fig. 4 Material heap on wheel loader bucket
Generally, the stickier the material, the higher the fill factor. However, although fill factor can be high for materials such as clay, large
voids can be evident, thus the actual volume is not necessarily high. In table below you’ll find that sand has got higher fill factor than
for instance shot rock.
Material Bucket fill Material density Material density Material Bucket fill
% ton/m3 lb/yd3 %
Earth/Clay ~110 ~1.60 ~2,695 Earth/Sandy Clay 100 - 110
~1.55 ~2,610 Hard and Compacted Clay 95 - 110
~1,50 ~2,530 Sand/Gravel 95 - 110
Sand/Gravel ~105 ~1,70 ~2,865 Rock - well blasted 75 - 95
~1,65 ~2,780 Rock - averagely blasted 60 - 75
~1,60 ~2,695 Rock - poorly blasted 40 - 60
Aggregate ~100 ~1,80 ~3,035 Fill factors for excavators
~1,70 ~2,865
~1,65 ~2,780
Rock ≤100 ~1,70 ~2,865
Fill factors for wheel loaders
Example
A material of fill actor 1.1 and density of 1600 kg/m3 (2700 lb/yd3) is excavated with a 3 m3 (3,92 yd3) bucket.
What is the weight of the material in the bucket?
Actual bucket volume: a 3 m3 x 1,1 = 3,3 m3 (3,92 yd3 x 1,1 = 4,31 yd3).
Weight of material: 3,3 m3 x 1600 kg/m3 = 5280, (4,31 yd3 x 2700 lb/yd3 = 11637 lb).
Summary
Calculation of hauler load Volume

The load capacity is expressed in tons (short tons) or tonnes. The load is
expressed in m3 (yd3), struck load SAE and heaped load SAE. (SAE Standard
3741a.) The struck load volume of a hauler body represents the actual volume
enclosed within the walls of the load space as restricted by a straight line running
along the upper edges of the sides. The struck load volume is expressed in m3
Fig. 5 Material heap on articulated hauler body (yd3) to one decimal place.
For a hauler body open at one end, the volume at this end is restricted by a line
running from the lower rear edge of the open end at an upward and inward slope
of 1:1.
The heaped load volume of a hauler body represents the sum of the struck load
volume and the volume enclosed by four surfaces at an inward and upward
slope of 2:1 from the upper edges of the sides and ends and their load carrying
extensions.
For a hauler body with an open end, the slope of 2:1 for heaped load volume
originates from the upper edge of the 1:1 slope as used for determining the
struck load volume. Illustration in figu e 5.
For a load space having a struck load volume of less than 10 m3 (10 yd3), the
heaped load volume is given to the nearest half m3 (yd3). For a load space having
a struck load volume of 10 m3 (10 yd3) or more, the heaped load volume is given
to the nearest whole m3 (yd3).
Excavation Classes
Different materials have different excavation characteristics and therefore require a varying amount of power and time in order to loosen
them for digging. To determine the performance of the loading machine, it is necessary to assess the excavation characteristics of
the material to be moved.
Classification guidance table: Soil types can be grouped in fi e excavation classes: Class 1 = little resistance to loosening and
high degree of bucket filling, i.e. high performance of loading equipment. Class 5 = high resistance to loosening and small degree
of bucket filling, i.e. low performance of loading equipment, under normal conditions. Blasting or ripping is required for excavation of
class 5 material.
Table. 3 Classification guidance table
CLASS
1 Easy digging – unpacked earth, sand-gravel, ditch cleaning, wood chips, saw dust
2 Medium digging – packed earth, tough dry clay, soil with less than 25% rock content
3 Medium to hard digging - well blasted rock or hard packed soils with up to 50% rock content.
4 Hard digging - averagely blasted rock or tough soils with up to 75% rock content.
Very hard digging - 100% rock content and poorly blasted. Examples are: granite, basalt, greywacke, sandstone, caliche,
5
dolerite, certain limestones. Hard frost.
Summary
Work Schedule
To be able to calculate the productivity for a single machine or a fleet of machines it is important to know two things related to
schedules and effective working time
1 Average numbers of minutes worked per hour or Effective Working Time.
2 Average numbers of hours worked per year.
If the purpose of a study is to determine hourly production, point number one above is sufficient
Effective Working Time

Effective Working Time is the actual time the machine unit works effectively during every hour. This time is important because from
this time the machine performance is estimated, see chapters on productivity and performance. If the machine were to work at 100%
efficienc , then it would be working 60 minutes every hour throughout the working day. However, it is not possible to work with a
machine with such efficiency due to unavoidable factors like occasional waiting in front of the loader, supervisory conversations and
other delays of varying duration. The amount of “unavoidable” job delays is of course to a certain extent depending on how the jobsite
is planned and organized. The productive time is usually expressed as the average number of minutes per hour the machine works.
Estimation of the productive time can be achieved by carrying out work studies on the site concerned. This estimation will be relatively
accurate as all the factors involved in the production will be measured. If the job has not yet started, and the operation is still in the
planning stage, the productive time has to be estimated using experience gained from previous similar applications and by using the
following formula.
T = (t / (t + U)) x 60
T (min/hour) is the effective working time the machine works on average every hour. t is the cycle time of the machine + planned
activities. Planned activities should include such items as weighing the load and other delays that occur every cycle, i.e. when using
a single track haul route with selected passing places or cleaning up around the work site.
U is the unavoidable, irregular job delays expressed in minutes per machine cycle. This includes time for occasional waiting in front of
the loader, supervisory conversations and other work on the site which may affect the performance of the transport unit.
Note: The unavoidable job delays do not account for longer delays due to weather, major overhauls or repairs. You must account for
such factors based on experience and local conditions. Also note that a 45 min hour represents 75% efficienc , since:
0,75 x 60 = 45.
In the same manner, a work efficiency f 50% means a 30 min hour and a 50 min hour is roughly 83% (50/60) efficienc .
50 minute hour or 45 minute hour is popular way of describing the effective working time. This means that we only operate the
machine 50 or 45 minutes respectively every hour.
Working Hours per Year

The following section describes one method of going from the length of one working shift and continue on to the number of working
hours per year. The effective working time (from previous section) is of course an important part, but here we calculate the ineffectivities
in minutes and subtract them from an hour to get to the for example 45 or 50 minute hour.
Start with the total shift duration and from that time withdraw time for ineffectiveness and delays. We have two types of delays:
1 Non operating shift delays. Here the machine is not in production, nor has it got the engine switched on. A typical Non operating
shift delay would be lunch or longer coffee breakes.
2 Operating shift delays. Here the machine is not in production, but the engine is switched on. Typical Operating shift delays are
described above: supervisory conversations etc. It might also be the case of the operator making a short stop for going to the
bathroom. “The 45 minute hour” is a popular term describing the way the Operating shift delays affects productivity.
The Effective working time per shift can be described as:
1 Shift duration – Non operating shift delays = In shift operating time.
2 In shift operating time – Operating shift delays = Effective working time per shift.
The example below shows how a 45 minute hour together with Non operating shift delay gives the Effective working time per shift.
Summary
EXAMPLE:
The shift duration on a certain work site is 10 hours. The crew have lunch for 1 hour and are allowed two coffee breakes for 30 minutes
respectively each day. The remaining part of the time, the foreman says that “we work a 45 minute hour”. How many hours does the
crew work every shift? 10 hours – 1 hour lunch – 2 * 0.5 hour coffee brakes = 8 hours in shift operating time.
Each hour we have 15 minutes (0.25 hours) operating shift delays. In 8 hours this would mean: 8 * 0,25 = 2 hours of Operating Shift
Delays every day. Hence, our Effective working time per shift will be 8 – 2 = 6 hours.
The next step is to determine the number of shifts worked per day and week. For instance, 2 shifts every day with fi e working days
per week gives: 2 x 5 = 10 shifts per week.
Continuing on, we need to know how many weeks we work every year. Assuming 4 weeks of vacation yearly, we are down to 48
working weeks per year.
By multiplying the number of shifts per week from above with the number of working weeks per year we get the number of working
shifts per year 10 x 48 = 480 shifts per year
Right here one might think it could be appropriate to multiply the number of shifts per year with the number of working hours per shift
from above.
However this would not reflect the act that a machine is not available for work 100% of the time.
Mechanical Availability
We need to be able to capture the fact that machines sometimes are unavailable for production due to repair and preventive
maintenance. For Volvo GPPE we define the term mechanical vailability as follows:
Mechanical Availability (%) = Available Hours / Scheduled Hour (of in shifts)
Available hours is the number of hours that the machine is actually available for production. It is what you get when you withdraw
down time from scheduled hours, that is time for preventive maintenance and repair.
Scheduled hours is the number of hours you have left when you withdraw holidays, weekends etc from the number of hours in a year.
Another way of writing it would be.
Mechanical Availability (%) = Available Hours / (Available Hours + Down Time)
• Where;
Down Time = Repair time + Preventive maintenance time
One way of taking the mechanical availability into consideration is to set some of the working shifts per year aside for preventive
maintenance and repair. In our example, a mechanical availability of 90% would give:
0,9 x 480 (shifts per year) = 432 shifts per year where the machine actually is available for operation.
We will call this the machine operating shifts per year.
• Hence;
0,1 x 480 = 48 shifts are set aside for preventive maintenance and repair.
This methodology is of course only an approximation. Sometimes the machine maintenance is taken care of outside the scheduled
time for the machine (in evenings or maybe weekends, when you know the machine must not be available). In these cases, the value
of the mechanical availability must be changed accordingly.
Summary
Work Schedule Breakdown

From the machine operating shifts per year, the Operating time per year and Effective working Time per year can be calculated.
In our example
Operating time per year = 432 (operating shifts per year) x 8 (in shift operating time) = 3456 hours.
Effective working time per year = 432 (operating shifts per year) x 6
(Effective working time per shift) = 2592 hours
Table 6 gives a schematic view of the discussion above.
1 Starting with the calendar hours in one year, you withdraw vacation, weekends and other holidays. You are in the left with your
scheduled hours.
2 From these hours you take your mechanical availability into account. This means you withdraw the down hours and are left with
your available hours.
3 From here you take away the non operating shift delays that is working brakes such as lunch and coffee breaks. Remember that
these are breaks when the engine is switched off. You now have your operating time per year.
4 From these hours, you take away the operating shift delays, time for ineffectiveness in the work, such as talking to the foreman,
smoking cigarettes etc (remember the 50 minute hour or 45 minute hour). You are now left with the effective working time per year.
Table. 6 Work Sc hedule Breakdown
Work Schedule Breakdown

Calendar hours
Scheduled hours Scheduled outages
Available hours Down hours
Operating time per year Non-operating delays
Effective Working Time per year Operating delays
Summary
Transport Road Properties
In this section we discuss mainly Articulated Haulers but also Wheel Loaders for load and carry applications.
The transport road properties listed in the following pages in some way affect the speed of the machine. A very uneven road forces
the operator to go slow due to issues with comfort, and a very steep uphill climb naturally causes the machine to go slower.
Grades and Grade Resistance

Grade resistance is caused by the fact that as the machine moves forward it
is also lifted to a higher level. Calculation of the necessary rimpull is done by
splitting the force of gravity into vectors (see figu e 6). The resistance is usually
expressed as a percentage of the GMW (Gross Machine Weight).
In order to run uphill, therefore, a tractive effort corresponding to the grade
percentage times the GMW is needed. Since the grade resistance is shown as
a percentage of the GMW in the same way as the rolling resistance, both values
can be added together or subtracted from each other.
Fig. 6 Splitting of gravitational force into vectors
Rolling Resistance
When operating the hauler, energy is absorbed by the deformation of tires and ground. An example of this is rutting. The restraining
effect this has on the machine is called rolling resistance.
The rolling resistance is affected by several factors, such as:
• type of soil
• condition of the ground
• moisture content
• tire load
• diameter and width of the wheel
Tables are used for practical assessment of the rolling resistance of the traveling surface, where the rolling resistance is shown as a
percentage of the GMW (Gross Machine Weight)
Table 7 shows the rolling resistance for different types of traveling surfaces (table is appropriate for Volvo machines).
Table. 7 Rolling resistance, sinkage and coefficient of traction
Rolling resistance Sinkage of tires Coefficient

Type of traveling surface
% cm in of traction
Concrete, dry 2 – – 0.8 – 1.0
Asphalt, dry 2 – – 0.7 – 0.9
Macadam 3 – – 0.5 – 0.7
Gravel road, compacted 3 – – 0.5 – 0.7
Dirt road, compacted 3 4 1.6 0.4 – 0.6
Dirt road, firm rutted 5 6 2.4 0.3 – 0.6
Stripped arable land, firm, dry 6 8 3.2 0.6 – 0.8
Soil backfill, soft 8 10 4.0 0.4 – 0.5
Stripped arable land, loose, dry 12 15 6.0 0.4 – 0.5
Woodland pastures, grassy banks 12 – 15 15 – 18 6–7 0.6 – 0.7
Sand or gravel, loose 15 – 30 18 – 35 7 – 14 0.2 – 0.4
Dirt road, deeply rutted, porous 16 20 8.0 0.1 – 0.2
Stripped arable land, sticky wet 10 – 20 12 – 25 5 – 10 0.1 – 0.4
Clay loose, wet 35 40 16 0.1 – 0.2
Ice 2 – – 0.1 – 0.2
Summary
Total Resistance
Total resistance = rolling resistance + grade resistance (The grade resistance is positive (+) uphill and negative (–) downhill).
Uphill Example:
Grade resistance = 2% (uphill)
Rolling resistance = 8%
Total resistance = 8%+2% = 10%
Downhill example:
Grade resistance = -2% (downhill)
Rolling resistance = 8%
Total resistance = 8%-2% = 6%
By adding the rolling resistance and grade resistance and using a graph showing the time needed for traveling at different total
resistance, it is possible to calculate how long it will take to cover a particular distance with loaded or unloaded machines.
In section "Articulated Haulers Performance Data" you will find graphs for travel time at different total resistance for Articulated
Haulers. Do note that there are separate tables for loaded and unloaded machines.
A25F - Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure: LOADED
Fig. E1 Traveling time at different total resistance and ground structure. Loaded
Example
A fully loaded Volvo A25F has to travel up a hill 200 m 656 ft with a grade of 2%. The rolling resistance is 8%. How long will it take?
Start from 200 m 656 ft in the graph (Fig. E1), follow a vertical line until intersecting the 10% line. Then follow a horizontal line and
read off the traveling time axis, which gives a time of 0.95 minutes.
Return trip (unloaded): Start from 200 m 656 ft in the graph (Fig. E2), follow a vertical line until intersecting the 6% line. Then
follow a horizontal line and read off the traveling time axis, which gives a time of 0.21 minutes.
Summary
A25F - Travel time at NEGATIVE total resistance (= downhill grade minus rolling resistance): UNLOADED
Fig. E2 Traveling time at different total resistance and ground structure. Unloaded
Curves
Curves can be taken at different speeds depending on the radius. When taking
a curve, the speed of the machine should not be higher than that which permits
ground grip and lateral acceleration to stay well within the limits of stability and
comfort.
To determine the traveling time through a particular curve, it is necessary to know
the curve radius or the curve angle and arc length. From section "Articulated
Hauler Performance Data" it is possible to read off the time required to negotiate
curves of different radius and arc lengths. Site Simulation uses arc length and
angle as input.
EXAMPLE:
Arc length: 50 m (164 ft). Radius: 20 m (66 ft). Travel time: 0.19 min. Use the
graph in Fig. E3: “Total time through curves with different arc length and radius.”
• Follow a vertical line from 50 m (164 ft). on the distance axis up to line 3,
360 x b r= radius in m radius 20 m (R66 ft).
r= • Follow a horizontal line from this intersection to the time axis and read off the
α x 2π b= arc length in m time needed for passing the curve.
α= angle in degrees • The time = 0.19 min.
π= 3.14 If you have measured the curve angle, you can calculate the curve radius by
using this formula: Curve radius = (Arc length / angle ) x (360 / (2 x ?)) Here
Fig. 7 Relation between arc lenght and angle angle is in degrees.
Arc length: 70 m 229 ft Angle: 100° Travel time: 0.18 min. Use the graph in Fig. 10: “Total time through curves with different arc
length and radius.” Using the formula above gives a curve radius of 40.1
• Follow a vertical line from 70 m 229 ft on the distance axis up to line 5 radius 40 m 131 ft.
• Follow a horizontal line from this intersection to the time axis and read off the time needed for passing the curve.
• The time = 0.18 min.
Summary
Total time through curves with different arc length and radius.
Time in min.
LINE RADIUS
Distance
in m
in ft.
Fig. E3 Total Time through curves with different arc length and radius
Summary
Ground Structure
It is not always the rolling resistance, gradient or sharpness of curves that determine the speed of the machine. Roughness of the
surfaces of the loading area, haul route and dump area also affect how the speed of the vehicle can be utilized.
The roughness does not have to be particularly severe to subject both operator and machine to high stresses due to shaking and
vibration.
The operator instinctively adapts the speed to a level which is easy on both the machine and himself. This speed varies with the
roughness of the surface and comfort and safety of different machines.
Depending on the size and nature of the obstacles, the running surface can be classified in the ollowing ground structure class:
Table. 8 Ground structure
Max. distance between obstacles, 5 m 16 ft

Group Ground structure class
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1. Hard ground with solid obstacles i.e. gravel road 0–2 2–3 3–4 4–6 6 – 10 10 – 30
Size of obstacles in cm (in). 0 – 0.8 0.8 – 1.2 1.2 – 1.6 1.6 – 2.4 2.4 – 4.0 4 – 12
2. Soft ground with soft obstacles i.e. wet clay 0–3 3–4 4–6 6 – 10 10 – 30 30 – 40
Size of obstacles in cm (in). 0 – 1.2 1.2 – 1.6 1.6 – 2.4 2.4 – 4.0 4 – 12 12 – 16
Description of ground structure classes

The photographs indicate the ground structure class, the length of the test surfaces (5 m = 5.5 yd) and the wheel track spacing
(2.5 m = 8.2 ft).
Group 1 – Hard ground with solid obstacles
The traveling surface is hard and stony, e.g. a gravel or dirt road of such a nature that the obstacles are not greatly affected and retain
their original size.
Group 2 – Soft ground with soft obstacles
The traveling surface is of soft nature, e.g. clay, backfill, dirt road or similar, where the traffic has compacted the material. Underlying
stones, rocks, etc. form ridges and ruts, and due to its construction and characteristics, the machine can also form pot holes and
obstacles itself. The nature of such a traveling surface may vary from time to time during the work.
Summary
Group 1 – Hard ground with solid obstacles
Class 0.0 Class 0.6

Height or depth of obstacles = 0–2 cm (0–0.8 in). • Height or depth of obstacles = 4–6 cm (1.6–2.4 in).
• Max. distance between obstacles 5 m (5.5 yd). • Max. distance between obstacles 5 m (5.5 yd).
• Surface size of obstacles affect the wheel and are not
"swallowed" by the tire or stuck in the tire tread, e.g. small
stones and similar.
Class 0.2 Class 0.8

• Height or depth of obstacles = 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in). • Height or depth of obstacles = 6–10 cm (2.4–4.0 in).
Class 0.4 Class 1.0

• Height or depth of obstacles = 3–4 cm (1.2–1.6 in). • Height or depth of obstacles = 10–30 cm (4–12 in).
Summary
Group 2 – Soft ground with soft obstacles
Class 0.0 Class 0.6

Height or depth of obstacles = 0–3 cm (0–1.2 in). • Height or depth of obstacles = 6–10 cm (2.4–4.0 in).
• Surface size of obstacles affect the wheel and are not to be
"swallowed" by the tire or stuck in the tire tread.
Class 0.2 Class 0.8

Class 0.4 Class 1.0

Summary
Group 2 – Soft ground with soft obstacles forts.

Volvo articulated haulers can run over solid obstacles with a height or depth of 40 cm (16 in) without causing damage to the machine.
However, it is recommended that the height of solid obstacles should not exceed 30 cm (12 in). To determine the time it takes to
run a Volvo A25F over different surface structure classes, use the graphs in Fig. E1 or E2. These graphs also show the traveling time
needed to pass different total resistances.
Example
On a stretch of hard gravel road, you have estimated the height of the obstacles to be 6 – 10 cm (2.4 – 4.0 in) spaced at less
than 5 m (5.5 yd). The stretch is 200 m (656 ft) long. How much time does it take a loaded Volvo A25F 6x6 to cover this stretch?
1 Surface structure class for obstacles
6-10 cm (2.4 – 4.0 in) = 0.8.
2 Stretch length = 200 m (656 ft).
3 Use the graph for A25F in figu es E1 and E2. Follow a vertical line from 200 m (656 ft) on the distance axis to the 0.8 line
(dashed). Then follow a horizontal line from this intersection to the travel time: 0.40 minutes, on the time axis.
It takes 0.40 minutes for a loaded Volvo A25F 6x6 to cover this stretch if the total resistance is below 5%.
30 cm
12 in.
Fig. 8 Ground structure illustration
Summary
Traction
The tractive force of the machine is transmitted to the ground by the wheels. The limit of the tractive force transmitted by a wheel is set
by the ground conditions, the design, condition and inflation of the tire and the load on the wheel. The traversability of the complete
machine is also affected by weight distribution, differential locks and the number of driven wheels or the number of wheels with
ground contact at the moment.
As a measure of the highest possible traction a wheel can transmit to the ground, the "coefficient of traction" is used. This is defined
as the highest possible tractive force divided by the load of the wheel.
A coefficient of traction around 0.1–0.2 corresponds to a surface of very slippery wet clay or wet ice, and 0.7–0.9 corresponds to
an asphalt surface.
A table of traction coefficients can be ound in chapter "Travel Time Diagrams" under "Articulated Hauler Performance Data".
Example
What total resistance can a Volvo Articulated Hauler negotiate if the coefficient f traction is 0.2?
See Fig. 9. Draw a vertical line from coefficient f traction 0.2 until it intersects the diagonal line in the graph.
Read out the total resistance on the resistance scale, in this example 20%.
Total resistance
All-wheel drive with differential locks.

Loaded/unloaded.
Coeff cient of traction

Fig. 9 Traversability at different coefficients f traction and total resistance
Summary
Measurement of Transport Road Properties

Grades
Grades are measured by means of an inclinometer. Any attempt to estimate
grades without some form of accurate measurement usually results in large
errors; so a suitable instrument should always be used.
There are several different instruments on the market which register the grades in
percentage and degrees. One example is shown in Figure 14.
This particular instrument is used as follows:
Stand at the bottom of the grade and look through the instrument. Have an
assistant whose height at eye level is almost the same as your own stand at
Fig. 14 Measuring slopes
the top of the hill. Sight the instrument as shown in the sketch and read the
percentage scale off the instrument at the index mark.
Rolling Resistance
Refer to table 7. As you can see, rolling resistance is very tightly connected to the sinkage of the tires. This is logical, since the rolling
resistance is a kind of friction.
Curves
Either you can use the formulas in figu e 7, or you can make an estimate as
follows.
1 Stand so that you can see the direction of the road coming into the curve and
the direction of the road after the curve. Face into the curve.
2 Point your right arm in the direction of the road coming into the curve.
3 Point your left arm in the direction of the road after the curve.
4 Estimate the angle between your arms.
Remember that you always must sanity-check your results by making a sketch
of the road.
360 x b r= radius in m
r=
α x 2π b= arc length in m
α= angle in degrees
π= 3.14
Ground Structure
Use tables and pictures in Table 8 with subsequent pictures and compare with reality.
Traction
There is no really good way of measuring traction. However, if the road seems very slippery grades etc might become a big safety
problem, so good judgment is important.
Summary
84 Wheel Loaders
Wheel Loader Introduction
This section provides valuable support with which to ensure that the most suitable wheel loader is determined for various applications.
It shows methods and data for estimating Volvo loader productivity in short cycle loading and in load and carry applications for both
bucket and grapple operations, as part of Total Solution Offering approach.
A productivity estimation is based on defined "normal conditions" and usually has to be adjusted according to actual site conditions.
Use the productivity estimations when sufficient information is not available or when the need for accuracy is low.
The outcome of a productivity estimation can be production per hour (m3 (yd3)/hour or ton/hour), or per year. It can also be a time
(in hours or years) to move a set target (set in m3 (yd3) or tons).
The production per hour often serves as a basis for determining which machine size is best suited for a given job. It is also important
to consider if the site tends to experience peak periods during the working day, for example at the beginning of the morning shift
because a large number of on-road trucks require loading. This is why a machine with extra capacity is usually chosen. When
comparing machines with similar productivity from different manufacturers, it is necessary to take into account the machines hourly
cost and the cost for work done. These calculations can be found in section TCO - Total Cost of Ownership.
Current model Volvo Wheel Loaders are divided into platforms as follows:
• L60H to L90H (small platform)
• L110H to L120H (medium platform)
• L150G to L220G (large platform)
• L250G (large platform)
• L350F (heavy platform)
Often it is necessary to decide which platform the customer is interested in.
Important issues when deciding are:
• What type of wheel loader does the customer have now?
• How big are the working areas?
• Are there narrow roads or is it difficult to work between objects?
Wheel Loader Work Cycle
For detailed explanation of work cycles reference the Asphalt Compaction Manual, available on VDN and the Volvo Image Library
Loading
Starts when the bucket enters the bank until reverse gear is engaged and the machine starts to reverse away from the bank.
Maneuvering after loading
This is the part where the machine is reversing away from the bank before starting to move forward into transportation.
Traveling Loaded
This is driving/transporting from the bank to the receiver (hopper, crusher, truck etc.).
Unloading
Emptying the bucket into the receiver.
Maneuvering after unloading
Similar to the maneuvering after loading, this is reversing from the receiver before going back to the bank.
Traveling Unloaded
Similar to the Travelling loaded, this is driving / transporting back to the bank.
The total time taken for all these segments together is the Cycle Time. In this manual there is a difference between short cycle
operations and load & carry operations. The work cycle for both operations consist of the different parts described above, the
difference is that the transport distance for short cycle is less than for load and carry. The split is made at approximately 10 m (33 ft),
meaning that for transport distances less than 10 m (33 ft) wheel loaders work in short cycle operations and for transport distances
over 10 m (33 ft) it is load & carry.
Summary
Wheel Loaders 85
Bucket Type and Size Selection
Bucket volume alone is not an adequate measure of the capacity of the loader. The crucial factor is the ability of the wheel loader to
fill the bucket during each pass. For that reason, the right size and the right shape of the bucket is important. A large bucket can result
in lower productivity because it is more difficult to fill, while a small bucket that is easier to fill can increase productivity. A number
of factors have to be taken into account, such as the nature of the material being handled, the condition of the wheel loader, the
operator’s skill, and the transport distance. If the transport distance is long, this may cause spillage. Since all of these factors vary,
a wide selection of buckets are required in order to achieve maximum productivity. The Volvo attachment range offers such a wide
selection.
Rehandling bucket
The rehandling buckets have an optimized shape to better suit aggregate material.
The new spill guard reduces spillage in load and carry operations. Moreover, the
bucket side cutters are in line with the bucket side providing fewer edges and
corners where material can stick. These buckets are available with Bolt on Edge
(BOE) option.
Straight edge general purpose bucket

When fitted with bolt-on edges, it is the best choice for rehandling of loose
material and aggregates in short cycle or load and carry operations. (Can also be
fitted with bolt-on teeth and segments.) When fitted with welded teeth options
and segments, it is the best choice for loading easily broken material from banks.
Flat floor bucket

The bucket has the same advantages as the present grading bucket, but is
designed with a higher, general-purpose type profile for more versatility. The long,
flat floor of the bucket makes it the ideal choice for earthmoving applications like
landscaping, stripping topsoil, grading, or work in soft underfoot conditions.
Straight edge rock bucket

The best choice for loading easily broken material from banks. Recommended to
be fitted with bolt-on edges or with teeth in combination with segments.
Spade nose rock bucket

The best choice for breaking out hard and stony material and shot rock.
Recommended to be fitted with 1 1/2 leg adapters, teeth GP or AM and
segments. For gravel, fine shot rock and ore, it can be fitted with bolt-on edges
instead of teeth.
Grading bucket
This bucket has a long flat bottom. It is intended for earthmoving work such as
topsoil stripping, small-scale dozing, landscaping and leveling of fill. An edge is
provided on the back side for grading when the machine is reversed.
Summary
86 Wheel Loaders
Wheel Loader productivity estimation
To do an hourly productivity estimation for wheel loaders is quite straightforward. Mainly three factors influence production. These are:
1 Cycle Time: Time needed to load material into the bucket, reversing out from the bank, transporting the material, unloading,
reversing from reveiver and transport back.
2 Actual bucket / grapple capacity: In practice this of course leads to how much material that is transported each cycle.
3 Effective Working time: That is if we use 45 or 50 minute hour or any other effective working time.
To determine these factors you will need to look into:

• Material Properties:
- The loose density of the material in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) and the material fill factor influences the choice of bucket size.
- The material excavating class influences the cycle time, choice of bucket type and bucket fill factor.
• Transport Road Properties:
- The ground conditions on the work site: the appearance, gradients, surface quality etc. of the transport road influence the cycle time.
• Work Schedule:
- The effective working time will give the production per hour, and this result together with the work schedule breakdown can give
the production per year.
• General
- The planning of the work and the skill and experience of the operator Influence the effective working time and the machine’s
capacity utilization factor.
Further information on material-, transport road- and work schedule properties can be found in the chapter on Earthmoving Basics.
Once these factors have been determined, this book supplies two ways of determining productivity
1 Calculated tables for cycle time and bucket selection charts are available in section Wheel Loader Performance Data :
Effective Working time (min/hour) / Cycle Time (min / cycle) = Cycles / hour
Cycles per hour x Actual bucket Volume = Hourly Production (m3/h, ton/ h).
2 From tables: Hourly Productivity curves for different traveling distances can be found in section Wheel Loader Performance Data.
Example
An L150G with a 4 m3 (5.23 yd3) bucket is carrying shot rock to a crusher. Material density is 1700 kg/m3 (2870 lb/yd3) and
fill factor is 1.1.
The cycle time has been calculated to 48 seconds (48/60 = 0.8 minute). At the site they work a 45 minute hour and 2000 hours
per year.
45 (min/hour) / 0.8 (min/cycle) = 56 cycles per hour
Our actual bucket volume is: 4 (5.23 yd3) (given capacity) x 1.1 (fill factor) = 4.4 m3 (5.75 yd3).
56 (cycles per hour) x 4.4 (5.75 yd3) (actual bucket Volume) = 246,4 m3/h or 419 ton/h (322.3 yd3 /h or 925001 lb/hour).
Yearly Production is: 246,4 (322,3) x 2000 = 492800 m3 (664600 yd3).
Hourly production and "Normal job conditions"

In all tables and charts where hourly production presented in this section are based on ’’normal conditions’’, meaning:
• the machine is equipped as standard, is in good condition and is operated by an experienced operator
• the material is suitable for wheel loader handling and has a density of 1400 -1900 kg/m3 (2,360 - 3,200 lb/yd3)
• the external conditions such as weather, light, altitude and ground conditions are not such that they have an adverse impact on
productiv ity
• rolling resistance max. 4%, good surface structure
• the machine works on level ground
• 45-min hour (see section Work Schedule under Earthmoving Basics)
Summary
Wheel Loaders 87
Bucket Handling Example
(All tables and figures used in this example are taken from the section "Wheel Loader Performance Data").
The following data is necessary to make a productivity calculation for bucket operations:
1 Find out the customers productivity requirements and density of the material.
2 The cycle time for a wheel loader and number of cycles per hour including effecting factors from ground conditions and road
appearance on work site.
3 Determine necessary bucket size and the weight of a full bucket.
4 Determine the machine size.
1 Find out the customers productivity requirements.

When determing the customers productivity requirements it is important to have an understanding what kind of operation the wheel
loader work in and the material to move. Important questions to ask are:
• What type of application is the loader supposed to work in? Load and carry, short cycle truck loading, moving rocks, pallet
loading, landscaping, cleaning, etc.
• How high production is necessary?
• What type of material and what is the density?
Example
The customer has a crusher with a capacity of 200 tonnes/h. After the material has been crushed it shall be carried to a sorting
plant with the same capacity as the crusher. The density of the uncrushed material is 1600 kg/ m3. The crushed material has a
density of 1800 kg/m3.
The customer needs:
• One wheel loader to feed the crusher
• One wheel loader to carry the crushed material to a sorting plant
Productivity calculations:
The buckets are measured in m3 so we need to know how many m3/h material the customer need to move:
Crusher capacity = 200 tonnes/hour (440924 lb/hour)
Density uncrushed = 1,6 tonnes/m3 (2713 lb/yd3)
Density crushed = 1,8 tonnes/m3 (3052 lb/yd3)
Crusher capacity = 200/1,6 = 125 m3/h (163 yd3/h)
Sorting plant capacity = 200 / 1.8 = 111 m3/h (145 yd3/h)
Summary
88 Wheel Loaders
2 Calculate cycle time

When you calculate the capacity for a wheel loader the cycle time is very important. In a site the ground conditions and appearance
of the roads where the wheel loader is supposed to work in have a major effect on the capacity. If there is a hilly road full of holes,
there can also be a lot of spillage.
The maneuvering times for a wheel loader you find in the section "Wheel Loader Performance Data". There you find the time for every
movement except the travel time. To find out the travel time you need information from the customer.
Example continued:
Bank To Crusher: The customer has well maintained roads on his site, and the distance from the bank to the crusher is 140 meters
(153 yd).
Crusher to Sorting Plant: The transport road is similar as from bank to crusher. From the crusher to sorting plant the distance is 180
meters (197 yd). Excavation class for the crushed material is 2.
To calculate the cycle time at this stage you need to know which machine to calculate. As yet we do not know this; all we do know is
the customer’s production requirements.
One approach is to look at the estimated productivity curves, another to use the tabulated values for the individual parts of the work
cycle. The later one will give a more precise result, so we will use that one. In the example we will only do the calculations for a bigger
machine, since it will be obvious that a smaller machine will not meet the requirements. To be on the safe side though, you will need
to calculate for many different sizes.
Cycle time for bank to crusher: Using the cycle time table WT1 you gather the following data for the larger machines in excavation
class 3:
Fill = 8 seconds
Dump = 4 seconds
Total Maneuver time (maneuver after loading + maneuver after dumping) = 14 seconds
In the column for "Transport Time Load & Carry" it says "Transport Time Table". From the figure WF1 you can see that 140 meter
(153 yd) one way trip takes roughly 46 seconds using the curve for the higher maximum speed (27 km/h (17 mp/h). Remember that
the transport roads are in good conditions).
Hence the cycle time for feeding the crusher is:
8 + 14 + 4 + 46 = 72 seconds.
In 1 hour you use 75% of the time (the customer operates a “45 minute hour”). The number of cycles per hour is calculated as:
3600 (seconds per hour) * 0.75 (efficiency) = 2700 seconds operated per hour
2700 (seconds operated per hour) / 72 (cycle time in seconds) = 37.5 = 37 cycles per hour
Cycle time for crusher to sorting plant: Using the cycle time table WT1 you gather the following data for the larger machines in
excavation class 2:
Fill = 4 seconds
Dump = 3 seconds
Total Maneuver time (maneuver after loading and maneuver after dumping)= 12 seconds
In the column for "Transport Time Load & Carry" it says "Transport TimeTable". From the figure WF1 you can see that 180 meter one
way trip takes roughly 60 seconds using the curve for the higher maximum speed (27 km/h).
Hence the cycle time for feeding the sorting plant is:
5 + 14 + 3 + 60 = 79 seconds.
Once again, in 1 hour you use 75% of the time (the customer operates a “45 minute hour”). The number of cycles per hour is
calculated as:
3600 (seconds per hour) * 0.75 (efficiency) = 2700 seconds operated per hour
2700 (seconds operated per hour) / 79 (cycle time in seconds) = 34,17 = 34 cycles per hour
3 Determine bucket size

From the calculations above you know under which time the machine needs to produce and the amount of cycles per hour the
machine can do. You also know how much material to move in m3 bucket size.
Bank To Crusher: The crusher capacity is 125 m3 /h (163 yd3/h) and the wheel loader can make 37 cycles per hour. In every cycle
the loader needs to move 125 / 37 = 3.37 = 3.4 m3 (4.4 yd3) to fill the crusher. Looking at the attachment catalogue you will see that
L150G has got a rock bucket 3.5 m3 (4.6 yd3). This will give some extra performance and should be a good choice for the customer.
Crusher to sorting plant: Production of crushed material is 111 m3 /h and a wheel loader can make 33 cycles per hour. In every cycle
the loader needs to get 111 / 34 = 3.26 m3 (4.26 yd3) to fill the sorting work. Looking at the attachment catalogue you will see that
L120H has got a general purpose bucket 3.3 (4.3 yd3) m3.
4 The recommendation to the customer is to buy one L150G to fill the crusher and one L120H to feed the sorting plant.
Summary
Wheel Loaders Performance Data 155
L150H - L180H - L220H
Engine
V-ACT Stage IV/Tier 4F 13 liter, 6-cylinder straight turbocharged diesel engine with 4 valves per cylinder, overhead camshaft and
electronically controlled unit injectors. The engine has wet replaceable cylinder liners and replaceable valve guides and valve seats.
The throttle applications is transmitted electrically from the throttle pedal or the optional hand throttle. Air cleaning: Two stage; pre-
stage filter and primary filter. Cooling system: Hydrostatic, electronically controlled fan and air-to-air intercooler.
L150H
Engine D13J (Tier 4f/Stage IV)

Max power at r/s (r/min) 21,7 (1300)
300 220 1400
275 200
1800 SAE J1995 gross kW / hp 220 / 300
250 180 1600 1200
225 160
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 net kW / hp 220 / 300
200 1400
175
140 1000 Max torque at r/s (r/min) 16,7 (1000)
120 1200
150
100 800 SAE J1995 gross Nm / lbf-ft 1960 (1446)
125 1000
80
100
60 600
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Nm / lbf-ft 1957 (1443)
800
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 Economic working range r/s (r/min) 13,3-26,6 (800–1600)
Displacement l / in3 12,8 / 781
L180H
Engine D13J (Tier 4f/ Stage IV)

Max power at r/s (r/min) 21,7-23,3 (1300–1400)
350 260 2000
325 240 1400 SAE J1995 gross kW / hp 246 / 334
1800
300 220
275 1600 1200 ISO 9249, SAE J1349 net kW / hp 245 / 333
200
250 180 1400 1000 Max torque at r/s (r/min) 16,7 (1000)
225 160
200
140
1200
800
SAE J1995 gross Nm / lbf-ft 2030 / 1497
175 1000
120
150
600
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 net Nm / lbf-ft 2024 / 1493
100 800
Displacement l / in3 12,8 / 781
Summary
156 Wheel Loaders Performance Data
L220H
Engine D13J (Tier 4f/Stage IV)

Max power at r/s (r/min) 21,7-23,3 (1300-1400)
280 2200
375 1600
350 260 SAE J1995 gross kW / hp 274 / 367
2000
240
325
220
1400 ISO 9249, SAE J1349 net kW / hp 273 / 366
300
1800
275 200 Max torque at r/s (r/min) 18,3 (1100)
250 180 1600 1200
225 160 SAE J1995 gross Nm / lbf-ft 2231 / 1646
200 140 1400
175
1000
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 net Nm / lbf-ft 2220 / 1637
120
Displacement l / in
3
12,8 / 781
Drivetrain
Torque converter: Lock-up clutch converter and free wheel stator.
Transmission: Volvo countershaft transmission with single lever control. Fast and smooth shifting of gears with Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) valve. Torque converter with lockup.
Transmission: Volvo Automatic Power Shift (APS) with fully automatic shifting 1-4 and mode selector with 4 different gear shifting
programs, including AUTO.
Axles: Volvo fully floating axle shafts with planetary hub reductions and nodular iron axle housing. Fixed front axle and oscillating rear
axle. 100% differential lock on the front axle.
Optional: Limslip rear.
L150H L180H L220H

Transmission Volvo HTL 222C HTL 222C HTL 307B
Torque multiplication 1,98:1 1,98:1 1,98:1
Maximum speed, 1st gear km/h (mph) 6,5 (4.0) 6,5 (4.0) 7,0 (4.3)
forward/reverse 2nd gear km/h (mph) 12,5 (7.8) 12,5 (7.8) 12,0 (7,5)
3rd gear km/h (mph) 26,0 (16.2) 26,0 (16.2) 25,5 (15,8)
4th gear* km/h (mph) 38,0 (23.6) 38,0 (23.6) 38,0 (23.6)
Measured with tires 26.5 R25 L3 26.5 R25 L3 29.5 R25 L4
Front axle/rear axle Volvo/AWB 40B/40C/40B Volvo/AWB 40B/40B Volvo/AWB 50/41
(limslip)
Rear axle oscillation ±° ± 15 ± 15 ± 15
at 15° osc. at 15° osc. at 15° osc.
Ground clearance mm (in)
610 (24) 610 (24) 610 (24)
* limited by ECU
Electrical system
Central warning system: Contronic electrical system with central warning light and buzzer. Best in class on-board diagnostics with
fault codes.
L150H, L180H, L220H
Voltage V 24
Batteries V 2 x 12
Battery capacity Ah 2 x 170
Cold cranking capacity, approx; A 1000
Alternator rating W/A 2280/80
Starter motor output kW (hp) 7,0 (9.4)
Summary
Brake system
Service brake: Volvo dual-circuit system with nitrogen charged accumulators. Outboard mounted hydraulically operated, fully sealed oil
circulation-cooled wet disc brakes. The operator can select automatic disengagement of the transmission when braking using Contronic.
Parking brake: Fully sealed, wet multi-disc brake built into the transmission. Applied by spring force and electro-hydraulically released
with a switch on the instrument panel.
Secondary brake: Dual brake circuits with rechargeable accumulators. One circuit or the parking brake fulfills all safety requirements.
Standard: The brake system complies with the requirements of ISO 3450.
Cab
Instrumentation: All important information is centrally located in the operator’s field of vision. Display for Contronic monitoring
system.
Heater and defroster: Heater coil with filtered fresh air and fan with auto and manual controls. Defroster integrated in air flow
and heating capacity.
Operator’s seat: Operator’s seat with adjustable suspension and retractable seatbelt. The seat is mounted on a bracket on the rear
cab wall and floor. The forces from the retractable seatbelt are absorbed by the seat rails.
Standard: The cab is tested and approved according to ROPS (ISO 3471), FOPS (ISO 3449). The cab meets with requirements
according to ISO 6055 (Operator overhead protection - Industrial trucks) and SAE J386 (Operator Restraint System).
L150H L180H L220H

Emergency exit: Use emergency hammer to break window
Sound level in cab according to ISO 6396/SAE J2105:
LpA dB(A) 69 70 70
External sound level according to ISO 6395/SAE J2104:
LwA dB(A) 108 108 109
Ventilation m3 (ft3/min) 9 (318) 9 (318) 9 (318)
Heating capacity kW (hp) 16 (21.4) 16 (21.4) 16 (21.4)
Air conditioning (optional) kW (hp) 7,5 (10.1) 7,5 (10.1) 7,5 (10.1)
Lift arm system

Torque parallel linkage (TP-linkage) with high breakout torque and parallel action throughout the entire lifting range.
L150H L180H L220H

Lift cylinders 2 2 2
Cylinder bore mm (in) 160 (6.3) 180 (7.1) 190 (7.5)
Piston rod diameter mm (in) 90 (3.5) 90 (3.5) 90 (3.5)
Stroke mm (in) 784 (30.9) 788 (31.0) 768 (30.2)
Tilt cylinder 1 1 1
Piston rod diameter mm (in) 110 (4.3) 120 (4.7) 120 (4.7)
Stroke mm (in) 452 (17.8) 480 (18.9) 455 (17.9)
Summary
Hydraulic system
System supply: Two load-sensing axial piston pumps with variable displacement. The steering function always
has priority. Valves: Doubleacting 2-spool valve. The main valve is controlled by pilot pressure and electric servo.
Lift function: The valve has four positions; raise, hold, lower and floating position. Inductive/magnetic automatic boom kick-out can
be switched on and off and is adjustable to any position between maximum reach and full lifting height.
Tilt function: The valve has three functions including rollback, hold and dump. Inductive/magnetic automatic tilt can be adjusted to
the desired bucket angle.
Cylinders: Double-acting cylinders for all functions. Filter: Full flow filtration through 10 micron (absolute) filter cartridge.
L150H L180H L220H

Working pressure maximum, pump 1 MPa (bar) 29 (290) 29 (290) 29 (290)
Flow l (gal)/min 180 (47.5) 217 (57.3) 253 (66.8)
at MPa (bar) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100)
engine speed r/s (r/min) 32 (1900) 32 (1900) 32 (1900)
Flow l (gal)/min 202 (53.4) 202 (53.4) 202 (53.4)
at MPa (bar) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100)
Flow l (gal)/min 77 (20.3) 77 (20.3) 77 (20.3)
at MPa (bar) 10 (100) 10 (100) 10 (100)
Pilot system, working pressure MPa (bar) 3,5 (35) 3,5 (35) 3,5 (35)
Cycle times
Tilt s 2.0 1,8 1,6
Lower, empty s 3,7 3,3 3,2
Total cycle time s 11,6 11,5 10,6
Steering system
Steering system: Load-sensing hydrostatic articulated steering.
System supply: The steering system has priority feed from a load-sensing axial piston pump with variable displacement.
Steering cylinders: Two double-acting cylinders.
Steering cylinders L150H L180H L220H

2 2 2
Rod diameter mm (in) 60 (2.4) 60 (2.4) 60 (2.4)
Stroke mm (in) 390 (15.4) 525 (20.7) 525 (20.7)
Working pressure MPa (bar) 21 (210) 21 (210) 21 (210)
Maximum flow l (gal)/min 188 (49.7) 188 (49.7) 191 (50.5)
Maximum articulation ±° 37 37 37
Service
Service accessibility: Large, easy-to-open hood covering whole engine compartment, electrically operated. Fluid filters and
component breather air filters promote long service intervals. Possibility to monitor, log and analyze data to facilitate troubleshooting.
L150H L180H L220H

Fuel Tank l (gal) 375 (99) 375 (99) 375 (99)
AdBlue l (gal) 31 (8) 31 (8) 31 (8)
Engine coolant l (gal) 46 (12) 46 (12) 46 (12)
Hydraulic oil tank l (gal) 156 (41) 156 (41) 226 (41)
Transmission oil l (gal) 48 (13) 48 (13) 48 (13)
Engine oil l (gal) 50 (13) 50 (13) 50 (13)
Axle oil front/ rear l (gal) 45/55 (12/15) 45/55 (12/15) 78/76 (20,6/20)
Summary
Cycle Times
Reading instructions for cycle time tables.

Tables WT1 and WT2 gives the individual times for the wheel loader work cycle as described in the section "Wheel Loader Work Cycle".
The tables are divided by machine model and excavation class.
Fill (1): Time to fill the bucket
Dump (2): Time to empty bucket / dumping
Total Manouvering time (3): Sum of maneuvering after loading & maneuvering after dumping.
Total transport time short cycle (4): Sum of time for travelling loaded & travelling unloaded for short cycle operations.
Cycle time short cycle: Sum of the times described above (1+2+3+4). Total cycle time for short cycle operations.
Total transport time Load & Carry (5): Sum of time for traveling loaded & travelling unloaded for Load & Carry operations. This time
is taken from the transport time diagram WF1.
Cycle time less transport: Sum of fill, dump and total maneuvering time (1+2+3)
To get the cycle time for load & carry operations you will need to add 1+2+3+5. The time for transport in load and carry will be read
from the transport time diagram WF1.
Table. WT1 Cycle time table, Bucket handling.
Total Transport Cycle Time

Exc. Fill Dump Total Manouver Cycle Time Total transport time
Model time - Short Load & Carry
class (1) (2) Time (3) Short Cycle Load & Carry (5)
Cycle (4) less transport
1 3 3 14 10 30 Transport time table 20
L150H
L180H
L220H
Summary
Table. WT2 Cycle time table, Grapple handling.
Loading Unloading Total Total Transport Cycle Time Total transport Cycle Time
Model Type of Timber Time Time Manouver time - Short Short time Load & Carry less
(1) (2) Time (3) Cycle (4) Cycle (5) transport
Pulp Wood
15 14 14 10 53 Transport time table 43
(3 m 10 ft)
L150H Other
(max 5.5 m 18.1 ft)
Tree length 24 21 14 10 69 Transport time table 59
Pulp Wood
(3 m 10 ft)
L180H Other
(max 5.5 m 18.1ft)
Pulp Wood
L180H (3 m 10 ft)
High Other
Lift (max 5.5 m 18.1ft)
Tree length x x x x x Transport time table x
Pulp Wood
(3 m 10 ft)
L220H Other
(max 5.5 m 18.1 ft)
Fig. WF1 Transport time. L150H, L180H, L180H HL, L220H
Summary
Productivity Curves
Reading instructions for productivity curves

Below you find productivity data for G-series Wheel Loaders. Do note that the distance on the x-axis if for one way. There is one curve
for each excavation class respectively.
Pre-reqisities are as follows:
• Effective Working time: 45 min hour
• Average travel speed: 18 km/h
• Bucket fill factor: 1 (100%)
Fill, dump and maneuvering times are taken from the table WT1.
Only use these graphs when the demand on calculation accuracy is moderate.
Load and carry production L150H Load and carry production L180H
Load and carry production L150H Load and carry production L180H
400 450
350 400
Exc class 1
Exc class 1 350
300 Exc class 2 Exc class 2
Exc class 3 300
250 Exc class 3
Exc class 4
250 Exc class 4
m3/h
200
m3/h
200
150
150
100
100
50 50
0 0
m 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Load and carry production L220H

Load and carry production L220H
600
500 Exc class 1
Exc class 2
400
Exc class 3
Exc class 4
m3/h
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
m
Summary
Fuel Consumption
Tier 4f (Stage IV)
Low Application Low Medium High Transport
Applies to light materials handling, e.g. materials and timber
Model L/h G/h L/h G/h L/h G/h L/h G/h
handling.
L150H 16 4.2 19 5.0 27 7.1 32 8.5
Medium
L180H 17 4.5 21 5.5 30 7.9 40 10.6
Applies to loading of vehicles with materials in excavating classes
1 and 2. L180H HL 14 3.7 17 4.5 20 5.3 - -
L220H 18 4.8 25 6.6 33 8.7 - -
High
Applies to production loading of materials in excavating classes 2,
3 and 4 or in load and carry cycles.
Transport
Applies to long transport distances with empty machine and full
acceleration.
Note: fuel consumption varies with several factors such as
application, mode of operation, material density, weather etc.
These figures are guidelines.
Rimpull Graphs
How to read the graphs to determine speed and rimpull at certain weights and gradients.
1 Rimpull 3 Gross vehicle weight
2 Sum of grade resistance plus rolling resistance 4 Speed.
Example: How to determine speed and rimpull
• Start in the right-hand part of the graph for the selected loader with the gross vehicle weight 25 tons (55,200 lb) (3)
• Draw a vertical line until it intersects the total resistance (20%) (2)
• Draw a horizontal line from the point of intersection to the left-hand part of the graph.
• Where the line intersects the curve for one of the gears (1, 2, 3 or 4), read the travel speed for the gear on the lower axis (4) gear
2 = 9 km/h (5.6 mph)
• Read the rimpull on the left-hand axis 45 kN (10,500 lbf) (1)
Summary
L150H
KN Resistance
200 200
50%
175 175
Volvo L150H 40 %
150 1 Tires 26,5 R25 L3 150
125 125 30 %
100 100
20%
75
2 75
50 50
3 10 %
25 4 25
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
20,00 25,00 30,00 35,00 40,00 45,00
Speed km/h Machine weight (ton)
L180H
KN Resistance
250
250
50%
200 200
1 Volvo L180H 40%
Tires 26,5 R25 L3
150 150
30%
100 100 20%

2
50 3 50 10%
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 25,00 30,00 35,00 40,00 45,00 50,00
L220H
KN Resistance
250 250 50 %
40 %
200 200
1
Volvo L220H
Tires 29,5 R25 L4
30 %
150 150
100 100 20 %
2
50 50 10 %
3
4
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 30,00 35,00 40,00 45,00 50,00 55,00
Summary
Bucket selection chart

L150H
LIGHT
REHANDLING GENERAL PURPOSE ROCK***
MATERIAL
Tires 26.5 R25 L3
LONG
BOOM*
4.0 m3 4.4 m3 4.8 m3 5.2 m3 4.0 m3 4.4 m3 4.5 m3 3.5 m3

STE P STE P STE P STE P STE P STE P STE P SPN P 6.8 m3 LM P
BOE BOE BOE BOE T SEG T SEG T SEG T SEG
Volume, heaped ISO/SAE m3 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 4.0 4.4 4.5 3.5 6.8 -
Volume at 110% fill factor m3 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.7 4.4 4.8 5.0 3.9 7.5 -
Static tipping load, straight kg 20 500 20 230 19 950 19 800 18 100 17 690 17 670 18 730 16 360 -3 550
at 35° turn kg 18 320 18 050 17 780 17 630 16 190 15 780 15 760 16 730 14 520 -3 270
at full turn kg 18 070 17 810 17 530 17 380 15 970 15 560 15 550 16 500 14 310 -3 230
Breakout force kN 201.3 191.7 183.2 182.7 202 192 184 188.0 140.0 9
A mm 8 600 8 680 8 750 8 750 8 790 8 860 8 930 8 850 9 230 520
E mm 1 230 1 300 1 360 1 370 1 400 1 460 1 520 1 450 1 790 -10
H**) mm 3 020 2 970 2 920 2 920 2 890 2 850 2 800 2 870 2 620 570
L mm 5 720 5 770 5 880 5 870 5 880 5 990 6 040 5 970 6 140 570
M**) mm 1 220 1 270 1 320 1 320 1 360 1 410 1 450 1 420 1 700 -20
N**) mm 1 800 1 830 1 860 1 860 1 880 1 910 1 930 1 930 1 960 410
V mm 3 200 3 200 3 200 3 400 3 230 3 200 3 000 3 230 3 200 0
a 1 clearance circle mm 14 640 14 670 14 700 14 890 14 750 14 760 14 600 14 800 14 940 340
Operating weight kg 25 090 25 300 25 500 25 620 24 090 24 450 24 420 25 320 24 920 410
*) Measured with 4.0 m3 GP STE P T SEG bucket Note: This only applies to genuine Volvo attachments.
**) Measured to the tip of the bucket teeth or bolt-on edge. Dump height to bucket edge measured at 45° dump angle. (Spade nose buckets at 42°.)
***) Measured with 26.5 R25 L5 tires
Bucket Selection Chart L150H
The chosen bucket is determined by the density of the material and the expected
bucket fill factor. The actual bucket volume is often larger than the rated capacity, due 4,4 m3 4,6 4,4
Rehandling*
to the features of the TP linkage, including an open bucket design, good rollback 4,8 m 3
5,0 4,8
angles in all positions and good bucket filling performance. The example represents a 5,2 m3 5,5 5,2
standard boom configuration.
Example: Sand and gravel. Fill factor ~ 105%. Density 1.6 t/m3.
purpose
General
4,0 m3 4,4 4,0
Result: The 4.0 m3 bucket carries 4.2 m3. For optimum stability always consult the 4,4 m3 4,8 4,4
bucket selection chart.
material Rock purpose Rehandling* material Rock
3,5 m3 3,5 3,3

Material ISO/SAE Actual volume,
Material Bucket fill, % density, bucket volume, m3
Light
6,8 m3 6,8
t/m3 m3
4,0 m3 4,2 4,0
~ 1.6 4.0 ~ 4.4
Earth/Clay ~ 110
~ 1.5 4.4 ~ 4.8 4,4 m3 4,6 4,4
~ 1.6 4.0 ~ 4.2

General
Sand/Gravel ~ 105 3,7 m3 4,1 3,7

~ 1.5 4.4 ~ 4.6
~ 1.8 4.4 ~ 4.4 3,5 m3 3,5 3,3
Aggregate ~ 100 ~ 1.7 4.8 ~ 4.8

Light
~ 1.5 5.2 ~ 5.2 6,8 m3 6,8
Rock ≤100 ~ 1.7 3.5 ~ 3.5

The size of rock buckets is optimized for optimal penetration and filling capability
rather than the density of the material. * Including counterweight
Supplemental Operating Data

Standard boom Long boom
Tires 26.5 R25 L3 26.5 R25 L4 26.5 R25 L5 775/65 R29 L3 26.5 R25 L4 26.5 R25 L5 775/65 R29 L3
Width over tires mm +5 +30 +180 +5 +30 +180
Ground clearance mm +18 +30 +10 +18 +30 +10
Tipping load, full turn kg +250 +760 +590 +220 +640 +500
Operating weight kg +400 +1 060 +760 +400 +1 050 +750
Summary
Short Cycle / Truck Loading
Reading instructions short cycle / truck loading bucket handling table

Here you find productivity for short cycle operations per machine model and excavation class. Note that bucket size changes with
excavation class. The markings are also designed to take operator experience into account. Furthest to theleft of the markings you
can read productivity for an inexperienced operator with the smallest bucket, at furthest to the right you read productivity for an
experienced operator with the largest bucket.
Other important things to note:
• Distance between bank and reciever is up to 10 m (short cycle)
• Effective working time 50 minutes per hour
• Only use this table when the demand on calculation accuracy is moderate
Table. WT3 Short Cycle / Truck Loading Bucket Handling
Summary
190 Articulated Haulers
Articulated Haulers Introduction
Many different types of machines can be used for the bulk transport of materials, the hauling distance generally being of decisive
importance. The existence of, or proposed haul road network, load carrying capacity of the ground, availability of suitable base
courses, the amount of material to be transported and the loading equipment are factors which rule the choice of machine for carrying
out the work most efficiently and p ofitabl .
Articulated haulers are most profitable where:
• Operating conditions call for good negotiability.
• The haul route is good, but the loading or dump areas become so soft and slippery in wet weather that other types of haulers get
bogged down.
• The load or dump areas are so restricted that on highway dumptrucks and rigid haulers have to turn or backup for long distances.
• The road is so narrow that on highway dumptrucks, rigid haulers and scrapers are only able to pass each other at special passing
points, whilst articulated haulers are better able to pass at various points along the haul road by using terrain that lies along it.
On highway dump trucks are most profitable where:
• Public roads are used for distances of more than 500 m (1,650 ft). The loading and dump areas are level and sufficiently large to
permit turning around without loss of time, and that loading and dumping can continue without periodical interruption by inclement
weather conditions.
Rigid haulers are most profitable where:
• Quantities in excess of 500 000 Bm3 (650,000 Byd3) have to be moved on the same road. The road must be built on firm ground
and have a width of 2.2 times that of the machine. Furthermore, the distance should exceed 1 000 m (3,300 ft) in one way direction,
and the loading time should be less than 1.5 minutes. Operation must be possible in wet weather.
Scrapers are most profitable where:
• The ground is dry, has a high bearing capacity but is easy to excavate and free from stones and boulders.
• The excavation is made in a cut, and the dumping is performed on an embankment.
• The transported volume is large, at least 500 000 Bm3 (650,000 Byd3).
• The material is such that sufficient t action is available for scrapers to load themselves.
If the quantity of more than 10 000 Bm3 (13,000 Byd3) has to be transported over a long distance approximately 1 000 m (3,300 ft),
it is usually cheaper to build a special road and keep it in good condition. This allows the transport machines to run at high speed and
means that fewer are needed. Part of the total cost will then be reflected by the road and road maintenance instead of by machines
and operators.
The Site Summary form
Volvo CE has taken forth a form to collect all site data necessary when performing a productivity estimation for Articulated Haulers.
This is the Site Summary form, see figu e AF1.
Material
At the top left of the form you enter the material properties. Information on material properties can be found in section "Earthmoving
Basics".
Loader
Below the material properties, you can enter different necessary characteristics for the loading unit, such as bucket volume and cycle time.
Sketch of jobsite
In the middle of the form at the top, there is space for a sketch showing details of the jobsite. This should indicate the extent of the transport
route and how it is divided into various subsections. It should also indicate how to turn and manoeuvre when loading and dumping.
Hauler
At the top right you enter information on the articulated hauler. Here you also enter the effective working time.
Description of haul route
On the bottom left side of the form a description is given of the haul route strech, where the length, grade, rolling resistance, total
resistance, coefficient of traction, curve radius and ground structure class are shown for each strech. The note column is used for
noting (e.g.) other site activities which could limit the travel speed. A description of the various terrain factors and how they are
assessed is given in section "Earthmoving Basics".
Production
When all of the above information has been filled in, you can start calculating the travel time and later on production. Information on
how this is done will be given later on in this chapter.
Summary
Fig. AF1 Site Summary Form
Summary
Articulated Hauler Work Cycle
It is always possible to divide an articulated hauler work cycle that is continuously repeating during the work day into the following stages:
• Loading
• Traveling loaded
• Maneuvering for dumping
• Dumping
• Traveling unloaded
• Maneuvering for loading
When calculating the performance of transport machines, the time needed for each of the steps is fi st calculated. After which the
times are added together, thereby giving the time required for the total work cycle.
Fig. AF2 Articulated Hauler Work Cycle
Summary
Loading
When calculating the number of buckets that can be loaded on to the transport machine, it is fi st necessary to know the excavation
class of the material and the load volume of the transport machine. The tables under section "Loading Time for different Loading
Equipment" show the most suitable bucket volumes for different loading equipment. The volumes are shown in Lm3 (Lyd3), i.e. the
volume the material has when loaded on to the transport machine.
When it is known how many buckets are required on to the dumper, it is possible to calculate the loading time.
The loading time of the articulated hauler is measured from when it has stopped under the loader bucket, until travel begins.
Example
A contractor and a quarry owner have an A25F articulated hauler with a body volume of 15 Lm3 (19.6 Lyd3). The machine is to be
loaded with wet earth, material of excavation class 1. A Volvo EC460C excavator is used for the loading.
To find the appropriate excavator bucket volume for different material classes, see section "Loading time for different loading
equipment", section for hydraulic excavators. Follow the line across to the column "Loaded volume Lm3 (Lyd3) per cycle in
excavation class." Under class 1, it is found that the average volume per bucket load in this material with the machine fully utilized
is 2.9 Lm3 (3.8 Lyd3). The number of buckets that can be loaded in the dumper body can now be calculated as follows:
15 / 2.9 = 5.2
Although the volume is not quite right, as soon as the excavator operator has learned to estimate how much the dump truck can
negotiate, he will adapt the bucket load so that 6 passes give a full load.
Consider figu e AF3. When hauler B has received its last bucket, hauler A should
be standing as shown in the sketch. Hauler B starts traveling loaded, while the
loader fills the fi st bucket. Hauler B then passes by dumper A, which is reversed
into position for loading.
Hauler A stops immediately before the position for loading and waits until the
loader has moved with the loaded bucket raised to where the loader operator
wishes the hauler to stand. Hauler A then reverses under the bucket. The time
for loading the fi st bucket is measured from when the hauler has stopped until
Fig. AF3 Work at Loading Area the fi st bucket has been emptied. The time is 0.1 minute for wheeled loaders,
crawler loaders and excavators and 0.2 minute for draglines. For subsequent
bucket loads, the hauler has to stand for a time corresponding to the cycle time
of the loader, multiplied by the remaining number of buckets.
Example
In the preceding example it was found that with a Volvo EC460C, six bucket loads in earth-moving class 1 gave a full dumper load.
How long will the loading time be?
Looking again at the excavator table in section "Loading Time for different Loading Equipment", follow the line opposite EC460C
across to the column headed "Cycle time in minutes in excavation class", it is found under class 1 that the time for filling a full bucket
load is 0.28 minutes.
The loading time can now be calculated as follows:
Bucket load 1 = 0.10 min
Loading time = 1.5 min
This loading time is used in the example we will start in a later section. The loading time for wheel loaders, crawler loaders and
draglines is calculated in a similar manner, see tables under section "Articulated Haulers Performance Data".
Summary
Traveling loaded
The time needed for traveling loaded naturally depends on the speed that can be maintained throughout the whole distance. As
mentioned in section "Earthmoving Basics", the speed depends on the various terrain factors, such as ground structure, rolling
resistance, gradients and curves.
The speed can also be restricted by other activities on the site, such as other machines or narrow passages.
In order to calculate the travel time, it is fi st necessary to describe the total travel distance and divide it into sections with regard to
the various terrain factors. To help out with this we use the Site Summary form, see Fig. AF1.
The methods used for measuring the various terrain factors and for calculating the time required for covering stretches of different
length have previously been explained in section "Measurement of Transport Route properties". The time needed for covering
each stretch of the route is now calculated, and by adding these times together, the total time for running loaded can be obtained.
Fig. AF4 Total travel distance divided into sections
Summary
Example
A haul route consists of four stretches as shown in Fig. AF9. How long will it take to cover the whole distance with a fully loaded
Volvo A25F?
From the graph in Fig. AF10, it can be seen that the coefficient of traction will not cause any problems on any of the sections. On the
other hand, it cannot be clearly seen whether it is the gradient plus rolling resistance, ground structure class or curves that restrict
the speed on the sections. It is therefore necessary to calculate the time for all these factors and then choose the longest one.
Stretch A – B Stretch C – D
Length = 305 m (1,001 ft). Length = 20 m (66 ft).
Total resistance = 13% Total resistance = 2%
Ground structure class = 0.4 Ground structure class = 0.2
From graph in Fig. AF11, travel time loaded: From graph in Fig. AF11, travel time loaded:
• At 13% resistance = 1.7 min (200 + 105 gives 1.1 + 0.55 • At 2% total resistance = 0.03 min.
= 1.65 min) • At ground structure class 0.2 = 0.02 min.
• At ground structure class 0.4 = 0.40 min. Curve radius = 10 m (33 ft).
The longest time is used: Travel time for stretch A – B loaded • From graph in Fig. 25, travel time due to curve radius =
is 1.7 min. 0.11 min.
Stretch B – C The longest time is used: Travel time for stretch C – D loaded
Length = 400 m (1,312 ft). is 0.11 min.
Total resistance = 2% (read off at the lowest resistance in the Stretch D – E
graph) Length = 90 m (295 ft).
Ground structure class = 0.2 Total resistance = 13%
From graph in Fig. AF11, travel time loaded: Ground structure class = 0.8
• At 2% total resistance = 0.50 min. (200 + 200 gives 0.25 From graph in Fig. AF11, travel time loaded:
+ 0.25 = 0.50 min.) • At 13% total resistance = 0.50 min.
• At ground structure class 0.2 = 0.45 min. • At ground structure class 0.8 = 0.20 min.
The longest time is used Travel time for stretch B – C loaded The longest time is used: Travel time for stretch D – E loaded
is 0.50 min. is 0.50 min.
Total travel time loaded:

Stretch Time
A – B : 1.65 min - B – C : 0.50 min - C – D : 0.11 min - D – E : 0.50 min
2.76 min
Summary
Maneuvering to dump and dumping
Since the working cycle steps "turning and maneuvering for dump" and "dumping" take place immediately after each other, they can
be combined under the heading "dumping" and given a total time for both operations.
Dumping can be done in different ways, but the quickest one should naturally be used to achieve the highest possible production.
Time requirements for the different cases are found in Section "Articulated Haulers Performance Data".
Case 1
The sketch shows the most common dumping procedure. The time is counted
from when the hauler has stopped at "A" until return travel begins.
Fig. AF5
Case 2
The hauler can be used for compacting loose materials in wet conditions. The
operator reverses straight into the material and then dumps the load.
The advantage of this method is that a large amount of material can be deposited
on a relatively small surface. If necessary, final leveling of the material can be
carried out when dry. A tailgate can be used if the material is free from large
stones.
Fig. AF6
Case 3
If a dozer is used for leveling the dump area, the material should be deposited in
a pile, as shown in the sketch. Normally the operator of the dozer indicates where
the load is to be spotted. The dump area is normally flat
Fig. AF7
Case 4
Thanks to their good off-road traveling characteristics, Volvo articulated haulers
can be utilized for dumping as shown here. The advantage of this method is that
a narrow embankment can be built up quickly since there are no haulers blocking
the area while maneuvering to dump. This method allows a high flow of machines
and gives a short dumping time.
Fig. AF8
Summary
Traveling Unloaded
The time needed for traveling unloaded is calculated in a similar manner as for traveling loaded. Remember that uphill stretches will
now be downhill and vice versa if the same route is used for the return trip. If a different route is used, it will be necessary to make
a new description for the return trip.
Example
Using the same example with the four segments as shown in Fig. AF9, how long will it take to cover the whole distance with an
unloaded Volvo A25F?
Stretch E – D Stretch C – B
Length = 90 m (295 ft). Length = 400 m (1,312 ft).
Total resistance = 7% Total resistance = 4% (read off at the lowest resistance in the
Ground structure class = 0.8 graph)
From graph in Fig. AF12, travel time unloaded: Ground structure class = 0.2
At 7% total resistance = 0.15 min. From graph in Fig. AF12, travel time unloaded:
At ground structure class 0.8 = 0.24 min. At 4% resistance = 0.48 min. (200 + 200 gives 0.22 + 0.22
The longest time is used = 0.44 min.)
Traveling time for stretch E – D unloaded is 0.24 min. At ground structure class 0.2 = 0.44 min.
Stretch D – C The longest time is used
Length = 20 m (66 ft). Travel time for stretch C – B unloaded is 0.44 min.
Total resistance = 2% Stretch B – A
Ground structure class = 0.2 Length = 305 m (1,001 ft).
From graph in Fig. AF12, travel time unloaded: Total resistance = 1%
At 2% total resistance = 0.02 min. Ground structure class = 0.4
At ground structure class 0.2 = 0.02 min. From graph in Fig. AF12, travel time unloaded:
Curve radius = 10 m (11 yd). At 1% total resistance (read off at the lowest total resistance
From graph in Fig. 25, travel time due to curve radius = in the graph) = 0.34 min.
0.11 min. (200 + 105 gives 0.22 + 0.1 = 0.32 min.)
The longest time is used At ground structure class 0.4 = 0.48 min (200 + 105 gives
Travel time for stretch D – C unloaded is 0.11 min. 0.26 + 0.14 = 0.4 min.)
The longest time is used
Travel time for stretch B – A unloaded is 0.4 min.
Total travel time unloaded:

Stretch Time
E – D : 0.24 min - D – C : 0.11 min - C – B : 0.44 min - B – A : 0.4 min
1.19 min
Note 1
There may be other factors apart from the terrain that restricts the running speed. On a confined construction site with a large
number of people and machines, this has to be taken into consideration when calculating the travel time. This can be noted in the
"Note" column.
Note 2
The graphs include a time allowance for acceleration and braking. Therefore it is not necessary to pay particular attention to the
entry and exit speeds on the various sections when calculating the travel time for the whole distance.
Summary
Fig. AF9
Summary
Example - Traversability at different coefficients of traction and total resistance
Total resistance
All-wheel drive differential locks.

Loaded/unloaded.
Coefficient of traction
Fig. AF10 Traversability at different coefficients f traction and total resistance - A25F
Example - Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure: LOADED
Fig. AF11 Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure – Volvo A25E, loaded
Summary
Example - Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure: UNLOADED
Fig. AF12 Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure – Volvo A25F, unloaded
Example - Travel time through curves with different length and radius
Time in min.
LINE RADIUS
Distance
in m
in ft.
Fig. AF13 Travel time through curves with different length and radius - A25F
Summary
Maneuvering for Loading
Case 1
Normally the articulated hauler is turned and reversed to the loading area. Due
to their off-road mobility, Volvo haulers can drive through slopes and ditches to
carry out this maneuver.
The articulated hauler frame steering enables the machine to turn to one side to
make room for the loaded hauler to leave.
Fig. AF14
Case 2
If the available space at the load area is large and loading is done with a hydraulic
excavator or dragline, it should be arranged in such a way that the haulers can
drive around. Due to their articulated frame steering, Volvo haulers can be lined
up next to the hydraulic excavator.
Fig. AF15
Summary
Hauling long stretches downhill
When operating on downhill grades, you may need to reduce speed by use of retarder system.
To determine the travel time on such a stretch, use the graph "Travel time at different negative total resistance".
Determination of Fleet Size
How do you find the number of transport machines that matches the size of the loading equipment? It is very rare that the production of
the transport machines and the loading equipment is exactly the same. Usually one of the cases below occurs.
Oversized transport equipment
This will result in transport machines waiting at the loading area. This is followed by a decreased work pace as the operators find it better
to drive a little bit slower instead of waiting at the loading area. If there is a shortage of time, this might still be the best choice since the
overall production is somewhat higher in this case.
Oversized loading equipment
This is preferred as it gives the loading unit time to do clean-up work at the loading area, and it is possible for the transport units to keep
a high pace if the loader is always waiting with the bucket raised when they return to be loaded. This is also more economical since only
one unit is not fully utilized instead of the whole fleet f transport machines.
The number of transport machines (N) that matches the loading equipment is calculated with the formula:
N = Cycle Time for transport Unit / Loading Time = ttrans / nbuckets x tloading
N = the number of transport units
ttrans = the cycle time of the transport units
nbuckets = the number of buckets on a load
tload = the cycle time of the loader
Instead of comparing transport unit cycle time with loading time, we can get the same result if we compare loader production with
production of one transport unit using this formula:
N = Pload / Ptrans
N = number of transport units
Pload = loader production per hour
Ptrans = production per hour for one transport unit
Summary
Articulated Hauler Productivity Estimation
Having estimated the number of minutes per hour – productive time or effective working time – a transport unit works every hour, it
is now possible to estimate the hourly performance of a transport unit, or any number of transport units, assuming that they all have
identical load volumes, productive times and cycle times. Factors you need to consider are:
• Cycle Time: As discussed and exemplified earlier in this chapte .
• Actual Load Volume: In practice this of course leads to how much material that is transported each cycle.
• Effective Working time: That is if we use 45 or 50 minute hour or any other effective working time.
If you are interested in fleet p oduction, you will also need to know:
• Fleet Size: number of hauling units
To determine these factors you will need to look into:
Material Properties (Section "Material Properties"):
• The loose density of the material in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) and the material fill actor influen es the choice of bucket size.
• The material excavating class: influen es the cycle time, choice of bucket type and bucket fill actor.
Transport Road Properties (Section "Transport Road Properties"):
• The ground conditions on the work site: the appearance, gradients, surface quality etc. of the transport road influen e the cycle time.
Work Schedule (Section "Effective Working Time"):
• The effective working time will give the production per hour, and this result together with the work schedule breakdown can give
the production per year.
General
• The planning of the work and the skill and experience of the operator influen es the effective working time and the machine’s
capacity utilization factor.
All performance data are available in section "Articulated Hauler Performance Data"
Calculate production (for one hauler) in the following way:
Effektive Working time (min/hour) / Cycle Time (min / cycle) = Cycles / hour
Cycles per hour x Actual load Volume = Hourly Production (m3 / h, ton / h).
Fleet hourly production: Hourly production (one hauler) x Fleet Size
Fleet yearly production: Yearly production (one hauler) x Fleet Size
Example
What would the estimated hourly production of one transport unit be when the load volume is 15 Lm3 (19.6 Lyd3). The effective
working time per hour is 48 minutes and the cycle time is 6.81 min?
P = 15 x (48/6.81) P = 106
The estimated hourly production of the transport unit will be 106 Lm3/h (139 Lyd3/h).
Summary
A25F - Complete Site Summary Form Example
We will now finish calculating the example started in section "traveling loaded" and at the same time continue to fill in the site
summery form.
Information concerning company, material and loading in Fig. AF11 - AF12. The travel times over the various route
equipment sections are then added together. The times have already been
On the top and left side of the calculation form (see Fig. entered both under the column “Travel time min. loaded” in the
AF9) there is some general information regarding the jobsite, middle of the form and in the production summary on the right.
material and loading equipment. This starts with the name of Maneuvering to dump and dumping
the company and jobsite and then the total amount of material
to be moved, which is usually given in bank volume. Fill in the The time needed for turning and maneuvering to dump and
type of material “Earth wet”, density 1 900 kg/Bm3 (3,200 lb/ dumping is estimated to be 0.50 minutes (See "Maneuvering
Byd3), swell factor 1.2 and excavation class 1 (already filled in). for Dump and Dumping" Case 1). Here we do not distinguish
between the two suboperations but enter 0.50 minutes on the
In order to calculate the loading time, it is necessary to indicate form.
the type of loading equipment, bucket volume and cycle time of
the loading equipment. Traveling unloaded
The time for traveling unloaded is calculated in the same way as
Information concerning transport machine
for traveling loaded (Section "Traveling Unloaded").
On the top right side of the calculation form, fill in the date and
name of the person filling in the form. This is followed by the Maneuvering for loading
type of transport machine and its body volume. Then the load The time needed for turning around and maneuvering for
volume, both bank and loose, and the load weight. Finally fill loading is estimated to 0.40 minutes (Section "Maneuvering
in the number of hours in each shift and the productive time in for Loading", Case 1).
min/h.
Planned activities
Sketch of jobsite The planned activites are estimated to be 0.30 minutes per cycle.
In the middle of the form at the top, there is space for a sketch
showing details of the jobsite. This should indicate the extent of Cycle time
the transport route and how it is divided into various subsections. The times for sub-operations are then added.
It should also indicate how to turn and maneuver when loading Loading time = 1.50 min.
and dumping. Traveling loaded = 2.76 min.
Maneuvering to dump and dumping = 0.50 min.
Description of haul route Traveling unloaded = 1.19 min.
On the bottom left side of the form a description is given of the Maneuvering for loading = 0.40 min.
haul route strech, where the length, grade, rolling resistance, Planned activities = 0.30 min.
total resistance, coefficient of traction, curve radius and ground So the total cycle time is 6.65 min.z
structure class are shown for each strech. The note column is
used for noting (e.g.) other site activities which could limit the Production
travel speed. P = Q x T/t
A description of the various terrain factors and how they are If the productive time is 48 minutes per hour worked, we obtain:
assessed is given in Section "Transport Road Properties". T/t = 48 / 6.65 = 7 complete cycles per hour.
By multiplying the number of cycles per hour by the load volume
Calculation of travel time and production and load weight, we obtain the transported volume and weight
When all of the above information has been filled in, start per hour.
calculating the travel time and eventually finish with the Load volume
production section located on the bottom right part of the form.
Bank volume = Loose Volume / Swell Factor = 12.5 Bm3
Loading time
Load mass
From Sections "Articulated Hauler Work Cycle - Loading" we
have the number of buckets to load the hauler and the loading Bank volume x Bank density
time. The loading time is 1.50 min., which we filled in earlie . 12.5 Bm3 x 1 900 kg/Bm3 = 23.8 t 26.4 sh ton.
Traveling with load Performance

The time for traveling loaded was fully explained for each 12.5 Bm3 x 7/h = 88 Bm3/h 115 Byd3/h
strech of the route in Section "Articulated Hauler Work Cycle 15 Lm3 x 7/h = 105 Lm3/h 137 Lyd3/h
- Traveling Loaded". It is necessary to check the coefficient 23.8 t. x 7/h = 167 t/h 185 sh ton/h
of traction and other factors to make sure that the machine Number of haulers
can, in any case, traverse the section concerned. If not, the
To find the right number of haulers, we are refering to section
transport route must be altered or some other suitable measure
7.11.
taken. Any terrain factors likely to limit the travel speeds must
N = t(transport) / (n x t(load)) = 6.65 / (6x0.28) = 3.96
be considered and the travel time calculated using the graphs
Summary
Example - A25F
Summary
Summary
Specifications A25F -A30F - A25G - A30G
Engine A25F - A30F Drivetrain

Fuel efficient, powerful, low-emission, 6-cylinder, straight turbocharged Torque converter with built-in lock-up function.
diesel engine with 4 valves per cylinder, overhead camshaft and electroni- Transmission: Volvo PowerTronic planetary fully automatic transmission
cally controlled unit injectors. High torque at low rpm. Long service life. with 6 forward gears and 2 reverse gears.
The engine features wet replaceable cylinder liners, replaceable valve Dropbox: Volvo-developed, in-line design with high ground clearance and
guides and valve seats. Two-stage incoming air fi ltration is standard. 100% longitudinal "dog clutch" type differential lock.
Cooling system: high capacity cooling system with easy accessible, Axles: heavy duty, purpose built Volvo design with planetary type hub
power and fuel saving, variable speed hydraulically driven fans. reductions and 100% "dog clutch" type differential locks.
Automatic traction control system (ATC).
A25F Volvo D11F
Max power at r/s 35 Torque converter 2,37:1
SAE J1995 Gross kW 235 Transmission, Volvo PT 2116
Flywheel power at r/s 35 Dropbox, Volvo IL1 ATC
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Net kW 234 Axles, Volvo AHW56/64
Max torque at r/s 18,3 Electrical System
SAE J1995 Gross Nm 2 040 Cables are enclosed in protective plastic conduits, secured to the frame.
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Net Nm 2 031 All cables, sockets and pins are identified. Prewired for options. Connec-
Displacement l 10,8 tors meet IP67 standard for water-proofing.
Easy accessed battery disconnect switch.
A30F Volvo D11F
Halogen lights. Powerful LED lights is optional.
Max power at r/s 33
SAE J1995 Gross kW 266 Voltage V 24 (2x12)
Flywheel power at r/s 33 Battery capacity Ah 2x170
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Net kW 265 Alternator kW (A) 2,264 (80)
Max torque at r/s 20 Starter motor kW 9,0
SAE J1995 Gross Nm 2 040 Brake System
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Net Nm 2 032 Complies with ISO 3450.
Displacement l 10,8 Fully hydraulic brakes with wet discs on all wheels.
Two independent circuits: one for front axle and one for bogie axles.
Engine A25G - A30G Secondary brake: Dual brake circuits with rechargeable accumulators.
V-ACT, 11 liter,6-cylinder in line turbocharged diesel engine with 4 Parking brake: spring-applied disc brake on the propeller shaft.
valves per cylinder, overhead camshaft and electronically controlled Retarder: Service brake retarder function and Volvo Engine Brake (VEB).
unit injectors. It has wet replaceable cylinder liners and replaceable
valve guides and valve seats. The engine has light EGR (Exhaust Gas Steering System
Recirculation) and exhaust after treatment with EAT-Muffler (Exhaust Hydro-mechanical, self compensating design. Two double-acting
After treatment) including SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction) with an steering cylinders.
electronically controlled UDS (Urea Dosing System). Steering angle: 3,4 steering wheel turns lock-to-lock, ±45°.
Cooling system: High capacity cooling system with power and fuel Steering system, including secondary steering fulfills ISO 5010.
saving, variable speed hydraulic driven fans.
Chassis
A25G Volvo D11L (Tier 4f / Stage IV) Frames: box type, heavy duty. High strength steel, robot welded.
Max power at r/s 35,0 Rotating hitch: 100% maintenance free, fully sealed, with permanently
SAE J1995 Gross kW 235 greased tapered roller bearings.
Flywheel power at r/s 35,0 Front suspension: Gas-hydraulic struts. Soft and progressive.Independent
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Net kW 234 wheel movement via a 3-point mounting system.
Max torque at r/s 19,2 Rear suspension: 100% maintenance free. Straddle mounted bogie beam.
Independent wheel movement via a 3-point mounting system.
SAE J1995 Gross Nm 1 950
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Net Nm 1 942 Cab
Displacement l 10,8 Mounted on rubber pads. Ergonimically designed. Easy entry and exit.
Wide angle forward view.
A30G Volvo D11L (Tier 4f / Stage IV) Operator centerally positioned above the front axle. Adjustable operators
Max power at r/s 35 seat with retractable seat belt.
SAE J1995 Gross kW 265 Tilt/telescopic steering wheel. Ergonomically positioned controls. Filtered
Flywheel power at r/s 35 air. Optional climate control system.
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Net kW 264 Operator communication system: Contronics.
Large color display, user-friendly and easy-to-understand information, all
Max torque at r/s 21,7
vital machine functions are constantly monitored.
SAE J1995 Gross Nm 1 950
Instructor seat with seat belt.
ISO 9249, SAE J1349 Net Nm 1 942 Safety: ROPS/FOPS standards approved according
Displacement l 10,8 to ISO3471, SAE J1040 / ISO3449, SAE J231.
Sound level in cab according to ISO 6396: 74 dB(A).
External sound level* according to ISO 6395:
A25F 111 dB(A)
A25G* 108 dB(A)
A30F 111 dB(A)
A30G* 109 dB(A)
* with Noise Reduction Kit
Summary
Hydraulic System Operating weight unloaded A25F - A30F

Pumps: Four engine-driven variable displacement piston pumps driven A25F A30F
by the flywheel PTO. Tires 23,5R25* 750/65R25**
One ground-dependent piston pump mounted on the dropbox for kg
emergency steering. Front 12 900 13 000
Two return oil filters with magnetic cores provide effective oil filtration.
Rear 9 500 10 500
System max working pressure is 25 MPa.
Total 22 400 23 500
Dumping System Payload 24 000 28 000
Patented Load and Dump Brake.
Dumping Cylinders: two single stage double acting. Total weight
A25F A30F
Tipping angle ° 74/70 Tires 23,5R25* 750/65R25**
Tipping time with load sec 12 kg
Lowering time sec 10 Front 14 900 15 500
Body Rear 31 500 36 000
Plate thickness: Total 46 400 51 500
Front mm 8
Sides mm 12
Operating weight includes all fluids and operator
Bottom mm 14 *) A25F with tires 750/65R25, add 200 kg/axle
Chute mm 14 **) A30F with tires 23,5R25, decrease 200 kg/axle
Material: HB400 steel
Yield strength N/mm2 1 000
Tensile strength N/mm2 1 250
Load Capacity Operating weight unloaded A25G - A30G
A25F/ A30F/ A25G A30G
A25G A30G Tires 23,5R25* 750/65R25**
Standard Body kg
Load capacity kg 24 000 28 000 Front 13 000 13 100
Body, struck m3 11,7 13,6 Rear 9 500 10 500
Body, heaped 2:1 m3 15 17,5 Total 22 500 23 600
With overhung tailgate Payload 24 000 28 000
Body, struck m3 12,1 14 Total weight
Body, heaped 2:1 m3 15,6 18,1 A25G A30G
Refill capacities Tires 23,5R25* 750/65R25**
A25G A30G kg
litre Front 15 000 15 600
Crankcase 35 35 Rear 31 500 36 000
Fuel tank 380 380 Total 46 500 51 600
Cooling system 64 64
Brake cooling system 37 37 Operating weight includes all fluids and operator
Transmission 40 40 *) A25G with tires 750/65R25, add 200 kg/axle
Dropbox 9 9 **) A30G with tires 23,5R25, decrease 200 kg/axle
Axles, front/bogie 32/74 38/78
Hydraulic tank 135 135
DEF/AdBlue 39 39
Speed
A25F/A25G A30F/A30G
km/h
Forward
1 8 8
2 12 12
3 21 21
4 30 30
5 38 38
6 53 53
Reverse
1 8 8
2 13 13
Summary
A25F A30F
Pos mm
A 10 218 10 296
A1 4 954 4 954
A2 5 736 5 811
B 5 153 5 342
C 3 451 3 451
C1 3 318 3 318
C2 1 772 1 772
D 2 763 2 762
D1 2 606 2 607
E 1 209 1 209
F 4 175 4 175
G 1 670 1 670
H 1 610 1 688
I 609 608
J 2 760 2 834
K 2 103 2 181
L 677 686
M 6 529 6 560
N 8 091 8 092
N1 4 065 4 023
O 2 700 2 900
P 2 490 2 690
Q 2 298 2 472
R 513 514
R1 629 630
S 2 110 2 293
T 3 083 3 158
U 3 249 3 301
V 2 258 2 216
V* 2 216 2 258
W 2 859 2 941
W* 2 941 2 859
X 458 456
X1 586 585
X2 659 659
Y 2 258 2 216
Y* 2 216 2 258
Z 2 859 2 941
Z* 2 941 2 859
a1 23.5° 23.2°
a2 74° 70°
a3 45° 45°
A25F: Unloaded machine with 23,5 R25

A30F: Unloaded machine with 750/65R25
*) A25F with optional 750/65R25 tires;
A30F with optional 23,5 R25 tires.
Summary
A25G A30G
Pos mm
A 10 218 10 296
A1 4 954 4 954
A2 5 736 5 811
B 5 153 5 342
C 3 451 3 451
C1 3 318 3 318
C2 1 772 1 772
D 2 763 2 762
D1 2 606 2 607
E 1 209 1 209
F 4 175 4 175
G 1 670 1 670
H 1 610 1 688
I 609 608
J 2 760 2 834
K 2 103 2 181
L 677 686
M 6 529 6 560
N 8 091 8 092
N1 4 065 4 023
O 2 700 2 900
P 2 490 2 690
Q 2 298 2 472
R 513 514
R1 629 630
S 2 110 2 293
T 3 083 3 158
U 3 249 3 301
V 2 258 2 216
V* 2 216 2 258
W 2 859 2 941
W* 2 941 2 859
X 458 456
X1 586 585
X2 659 659
Y 2 258 2 216
Y* 2 216 2 258
Z 2 859 2 941
Z* 2 941 2 859
a1 23.5° 23.2°
a2 74° 70°
a3 45° 45°
A25G: Unloaded machine with 23.5 R25

A30G: Unloaded machine with 750/65R25
*) A25G with optional 750/65R25 tires;
A30G with optional 23.5 R25 tires.
Summary
A25F - A25G / A30F - A30G

The following pages contain performance data for the current Volvo articulated hauler models.
Travel Times
A25F - A25G - Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure: LOADED
Total resistance
40% 35%
3,0
2,5
30%
28%
2,0 26%
24%
Time in min.
22% 1,0
1,5 20%
18%
16%
14%
12%
1,0 10%
8%
0,5 6%
0,8
4%
0,2 - 0,6
2%
0,0 Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in meter
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 in feet
A30F - A30G - Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure: LOADED
Total resistance
40% 35%
3,0
30%
2,5
28%
2,0 26%
24%
Time in min.
22% 1,0
1,5
20%
18%
16%
14%
1,0 12%
10%
8%
0,5 6%
0,8
4%
0,2 - 0,6
2%
0,0 Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in meter
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 in feet
Summary
212 Articulated Haulers Performance Data
A25F - A25G - Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure: UNLOADED
Total resistance
1,0 40% 35%
1,2
30%
28%
1,0 26%
24%
22%
0,8 20%
Time in min.
18%
16%
0,6 0,8
14%
12%
0,4 10%
8% 0,6
6% 0,4
4% 0,2
0,2 2%
0,0 Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in meter
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 in feet
A30F - A30G - Travel time at different total resistance and ground structure: UNLOADED
Total resistance
1,0 40%
1,2 35%
1,0 30%
28%
26%
24%
0,8 22%
20%
Time in min.
18%
0,6 16%
0,8
14%
12%
0,4
10% 0,6
8% 0,4
6%
4% 0,2
0,2 2%
0,0 Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in meter
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 in feet
Summary
A25F - A25G Total time through curves with different arc length and radius.
Time in min.
LINE RADIUS
Distance
in m
in ft.
A30F - A30G - Total time through curves with different arc length and radius.
Time in min.
LINE RADIUS
Distance
in m
in ft.
Summary
A25F - A25G - Travel time at NEGATIVE total resistance (= downhill grade minus rolling resistance): LOADED
Total resistance
1,5 45%
1,4
40%
1,3
1,2 35%
1,0
1,0 30%
0,9
Time in min.
0,8 25%
0,7
20%
0,6
0,5 15%
0,4
10%
0,3
5%
0,2
0,1
0,0 Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in meter
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 in feet
A30F - A30G - Travel time at NEGATIVE total resistance (= downhill grade minus rolling resistance): LOADED
Total resistance
45% 40%
1,5
1,4 35%
1,3
1,2 30%
1,0
25%
1,0
0,9
Time in min.
0,8 20%
0,7
0,6 15%
0,5
0,4 10%
0,3
5%
0,2
0,1
0,0 Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in meter
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 in feet
Summary
A25F - A25G - Travel time at NEGATIVE total resistance (= downhill grade minus rolling resistance): UNLOADED
Total resistance
0,8
0,7 45%
0,6 40%
35%
0,5
30%
Time in min.
0,4 25%
20%
0,3 15%
10%
0,2 5%
0,1
0,0 Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in meter
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 in feet
A30F - A30G - Travel time at NEGATIVE total resistance (= downhill grade minus rolling resistance): UNLOADED
Total resistance
45%
0,8
40%
0,7
35%
0,6
30%
0,5
Time in min.
25%
0,4
20%
0,3 15%
10%
5%
0,2
0,1
0,0 Distance
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in meter
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 in feet
Summary
Rimpull Graphs
A25F - A25G - Rimpull
Instructions
Diagonal lines represent total resistance (grade % plus rolling resistance %). Charts based on 0 % rolling resistance, standard
tires and gearing, unless otherwise stated. In the retardation chart, the diagonal lines represent the “total resistance” as well (here
in downhill grades, it is the total extra pushing force), which is the grade in % minus the rolling resistance in %.
A. Find the diagonal line with the appropriate total resistance on the right edge of the chart.
B. Follow the diagonal line downward until it intersects the actual line for machine weight, NMW or GMW.
C. Draw a new line horizontally to the left from the point of intersection until the new line intersects the rimpull or retardation curve.
D. Read down for vehicle speed.
RIMPULL 1) Rimpull in kp lbf - 2) Speed in km/h mph - 3) Machine weight in kg lbs - 4) Grade in % + rolling resistance in %.
Summary
A25F - A25G - Retarder Performance
Instructions
Diagonal lines represent total resistance (grade % ± rolling resistance %). Charts based on 0% rolling resistance, standard tires
and gearing, unless otherwise stated.
A. Find the diagonal line with the appropriate total resistance on the right-hand edge of the chart.
B. Follow the diagonal line downward until it intersects the actual machine weight line, NMW or GMW.
C. Draw a new line horizontally to the left from the point of intersection until the new line intersects the rimpull or retardation curve.
D. Read down for vehicle speed.
Summary
Fuel Consumption
A25F - A25G / A30F - A30G

Load factor guide
High
Long haul times with frequently adverse grades. Continous use on poorly maintained haul roads with high rolling resistance.
Medium
Average loading zone conditions and frequently maintained haul roads. Normal hauling times and several adverse grades. Some areas
of high rolling resistance.
Low
Large amount of idling. Short to medium hauls on well maintained level haul roads. Minimum total resistance.
A25F - A25G A30F - A30G

D11F D11L D11F D11L
Engine Engine
Non regulated markets Stage IV/Tier 4 Final Non regulated markets Stage IV/Tier 4 Final
Low (l/h) 12 – 16 12 – 17 Low (l/h) 15 – 19 15 – 20
(US gal/h) 3.2 – 4.2 3.2 – 4.5 (US gal/h) 4.0 – 5.0 4.0 – 5.3
Medium (l/h) 16 – 22 17 – 23 Medium (l/h) 19 – 24 20 – 25
(US gal/h) 4.2 – 5.8 4.5 – 6.1 (US gal/h) 5.0 – 6.3 5.3 – 6.6
High (l/h) 22 – 28 23 – 30 High (l/h) 24 – 30 25 – 32
(US gal/h) 5.8 – 7.4 6.1 – 7.9 (US gal/h) 6.3 – 7.9 6.6 – 8.5
Ground Pressure and Cone Index
Fully loaded machine at 15% sinkage of unloaded wheel radius;
Ground Pressure A25F A25G

Tires 23 .5R25 750/65R25 23 .5R25 750/65R25
Unloaded
Front 131 kPa 19 psi 109 kPa 16 psi 132 kPa 19 psi 110 kPa 16 psi
Rear 48 kPa 7 psi 40 kPa 6 psi 48 kPa 7 psi 40 kPa 6 psi
Loaded
Cone index 70 58 70 58
Ground Pressure A30F A30G

Tires 750/65R25 23 .5R25 750/65R25 23 .5R25
Unloaded
Loaded
Cone index 60 72 60 72
Summary
Tractive Effort
A25F - A25G
Total resistance
All-wheel drive with diffrential locks.

Loaded/unloaded.
A30F - A30G
Total resistance
All-wheel drive with diffrential locks.

Loaded/unloaded.
Summary
Body Volume
A25F - A25G
20
1.2
19 Standard body Underhung tailgate Overhung tailgate
1.3
Max density (ton/m3)

Body volume (m3)
18
1.4
17
16 1.5
15 1.6
0 200 400
Side extension (mm)
A30F - A30G
24
1.2
23 Standard body Underhung tailgate Overhung tailgate
22
Max density (ton/m3)

1.3
Body volume (m3)
21
20 1.4
19
1.5
18
1.6
17
0 200 400
Side extension (mm)
Body Volume A25F - A25G A30F - A30G

Standard Body
Load capacity 24 000 kg 26 .5 sh ton 28 000 kg 30 .9 sh ton
Body, struck 11,7 m³ 15 .3 yd³ 13,6 m3 17 .8 yd3
Body, heaped 15,0 m³ 19 .6 yd³ 17,5 m3
22 .9 yd3
With overhung tailgate
Body, struck 12,1 m³ 15 .8 yd³ 14,0 m3 18 .3 yd3
Body, heaped 15,6 m³ 20 .4 yd³ 18,1 m3 23 .7 yd3
Summary
Maneuvering Times
Maneuvering at Loading Area
Case 1
The time includes 10 m 33 ft reversing from point A (stop before reversing) to
point B (loading position). For a reversing distance of more than 10 m 33 ft
additional allowance should be made for each meter yard.
Needed time from Extra allowance for each additional

Type
11 m A to B, in minutes meter (yard), in minutes
A25F - A25G 0.40 0.01
A30F - A30G 0.40 0.01
A35F - A35G 0.40 0.01
A40F - A40G 0.40 0.01
Case 2
If the available space at the loading area is large and loading is done with a
hydraulic excavator or dragline, it should be arranged so that the haulers can
drive into loading position without stopping and reversing. With its articulated
frame steering, the hauler can position itself next to the excavator, eliminating the
maneuvering time.
Summary
Maneuvering at dumping area and dumping
Case 1
The operation includes 10 m 33 ft reversing from where the hauler has stopped
at A, to the dump location (B), and until the return transport begins. Due to its
good off-road characteristics and maneuverability, the hauler can generally be
turned around directly on the dump area. Should the road be so narrow that the
machine has to be reversed for a longer distance, an additional allowance must
be made for each metre feet exceeding the fi st 10 m 33 ft.
B
Needed time from Extra allowance for
Type A to B including each additional meter (yard),
dumping, in minutes in minutes
A
A25F - A25G 0.50 0.01
A30F - A30G 0.50 0.01
A35F - A35G 0.50 0.01
A40F - A40G 0.50 0.01
Case 2
The time includes 10 m 33 ft reversing from where the hauler has stopped at A,
B to the dump location (B), and until return transport begins.
Needed time from Extra allowance for

Type A to B including each additional meter (yard),
dumping, in minutes in minutes
A25F - A25G 0.50 0.01
A30F - A30G 0.50 0.01
A A35F - A35G 0.50 0.01
A40F - A40G 0.50 0.01
Case 3
This time is calculated from when the hauler stops for dumping until the return
transport begins.
Type Needed time, in minutes

A25F - A25G 0.25
A30F - A30G 0.25
A35F - A35G 0.25
A40F - A40G 0.25
Case 4
This time is calculated from when the hauler stops for dumping until the return
transport begins.
Type Needed time, in minutes

A25F - A25G 0.30
A30F - A30G 0.30
A35F - A35G 0.30
A40F - A40G 0.30
Summary
Turning around in tunnels

In the table below you find the time needed to turn a ound Volvo articulated haulers in tunnels.
Turning time in minutes and number of reversals
Tunnel Width
14 m (46 ft) 13 m (43 ft) 12 m (39 ft)
Time Minutes No. of reversals Time Minutes No. of reversals Time Minutes No. of reversals
A25F - A25G - - 0.5 1 0.9 2
A30F - A30G - - 0.5 1 0.9 2
A35F - A35G - - 0.9 2 - -
A40F - A40G 0.9 2 0.9 2 - -
Operating on Slopes
Only in exceptional cases should a Volvo Articulated Hauler be operated up or

down grades steeper than 20–30%. The absolute limit uphill is approximately
45%, and downhill the Volvo Articulated Hauler can negotiate 50%, but other
factors such as the available traction makes it hazardous to work under such
conditions.
Only in exceptional cases should the machine be operated on lateral slopes of
more than 15%. The maximum limit for the machine to travel on lateral slopes is
30%, but other factors such as roughness of the ground can cause the machine
to tip over before this limit is reached.
45%
15%
Summary
Excavators 387
Summary
250 Excavators
General information
Selecting the right Excavator

In order to ensure that the excavator fully meets the customer’s expectations in a given application, we must fi st determine if it is the
most appropriate machine for the task at hand. If the machine is to work in a highly productive environment such as bulk earthmoving,
quarrying or mining, an in-depth site visit should always be made. Do not simply accept that because an equivalent excavator is
already achieving the required volume, that the Volvo excavator proposed is the correct choice. For example, in hard rock quarrying,
look at the site’s existing unit; does it show signs of metal fatigue after just 6,000 hours? If so, the site should have opted for a
different specification, a la ger unit or adopted more suitable blasting techniques.
When the correct machine has been identified, the most app opriate specification must be determined
Maxmizing production with an excavator

Right bucket selection - can take the advantage of the digging forces fully and contributes to maximizing production that match to
soil conditions. The bigger bucket does not always ensure more production. Important bucket measurements that affect performance,
include the tip radius and the bucket width. A short tip radius bucket provides more digging forces than long tip radius buckets,
making it easier to load harder material. Bucket width is also a critical measurement that impacts digging forces. Wide buckets are
typically used in easily dug soil, while narrow buckets are used for harder material. Because the digging forces are spread over a
larger area, there is less penetration force per width of bucket cutting edge with a wider bucket. Wider buckets are also more prone
to twisting when an obstacle is encountered, which can cause some serious damage all the way up to the arm. Another feature of the
bucket which affect performence is the bucket profile that is related with the ease of filling the bucket and its self-cleaning capabilities.
Ideal bench height and truck distance - Bench height should be about equal to arm length for stable or consolidated materials.
It should be less for unstable materials. The most useful truck position is when the inside truck body rail is below the boom arm hinge pin.
Optimum work zone and swing angle - The work zone should be limited to 15° either side of the machine center or about equal
to the undercarriage width for maximum production. Trucks should be positioned as close as possible to machine centerline. Two
alternatives are shown here.
Best distance from the edge - The machine should be positioned so that the arm is vertical when the bucket reaches full-load.
Digging force is reduced if the unit is farther back. Undercutting may occur and time is wasted bringing the arm back out if it is closer
to the edge. Also, the operator should begin with the boom-up when the bucket is 75% of the way through the curl cycle. This should
be as the arm nears the vertical position.
General purpose boom

GP booms reduce bucket capacity but increase the machines working range. As a result, they can more readily work both lower and
higher benches and thus, the excavator must reposition less frequently in order to extend the excavation. Furthermore, should the
ground conditions or lack of space prevent dumptrucks from gaining close access, the longer reach can more readily prove sufficient
for loading.
GP booms can also prove favourable when loading hoppers, either when extracting sand or rock.
Mass excavation boom

ME booms are available for over 35ton models and permit the largest possible bucket due to the suspended load being closer to the
centre line of the machine. However, they only provide limited reach and therefore dumptrucks or hoppers must be closely positioned,
otherwise the excavator will have to frequently reposition itself to load. As a result, ME booms are ideally suited to particularly hard
rock quarrying applications or bulk digging when high volumes of easily accessible material is evident.
General purpose arm

The GP arm should be specified with the GP boom and not the ME if the latter is available. The GP arm provides increased flexibility
with which to successfully complete a wide variety of tasks that include high capacity bulk earthmoving, extracting well or averagely
blasted, the loading of hoppers, trenching and when used with attachments such as hammers.
Summary
Excavators 251
Mass Excavation arm

Over 22 ton models can be equipped with an ME arm. However, dedicated ME arms specifically designed for selection with the ME
boom are only available for over 35 ton models. For example, there are two versions of the 2.9 m arm available for the 70 ton model
with one designed to accompany the ME boom and the second the GP boom. The ME boom/ME arm combination provides the
largest breakout force by virtue of a larger diameter bucket cylinder than the version which would be supplied should the sales order
request the GP boom.
ME arms reduce reach, nonetheless, when specified with the GP boom, its selection often ensures the perfect compromise by
providing an advantageous working range in comparison to ME boom and ME arm specified machines, whilst retaining high digging
forces. As such, this combination is often favoured by quarries, whereby the excavator must ultimately serve the primary crusher and
will ideally be capable of out producing it, thus the largest bucket is not as crucial an element as with bulk earthmoving specialists that
typically favour ME boom and arm. When compared to GP boom/arm combinations, bucket capacity is of course larger.
Long arm
Long arms should only be specified with the GP boom and although its use is permitted in high impact materials i.e. blasted rock,
albeit with limited bucket capacities, it is used most successfully to accomplish tasks such as the loading of trucks and hoppers in
predominantly less challenging materials such as sand.
Extra long arm

For the EC380D, EC480D, EC380E, EC480E and EC700C, extra long arms have been introduced predominantly for the US market.
Its selection permits particularly deep trenching and the location of utility pipes at such a depth as to resist freezing temperatures.
LR configurations
The EC220D, EC250D, EC300D, EC250E and EC300E models are available in "long reach" configu ation but should only be
selected to work in ‘free flowing’ materials such as sand. However, care should be taken because even if sand is the primary material
to be excavated, lagoon excavations can for example, also contain highly resistant materials including "iron oxide" which may form an
almost conglomerate type material and thus not suitable for extraction by these models
General purpose and Heavy duty guide by ground condition, primary usage and practice
GP HD
Seismic velocity less than 2000ft./sec. Seismic velocity from 2000 ft./sec. to 4000ft./sec.
Ground condition
Dirt and soft rock Rock measuring ½ yd3 and up
• Quarry
• Earth moving
• Logging
• Pipe/Utility
Primary usage • Demolition
• Building
• Drilling & Tunneling
• Light material handling
• Heavy material handling
• Continuous digging and/or dumping in low or medium density • Continuous digging and/or dumping in high-density material
material (sandy clay/sandy gravel) (rock, shot rock soils)
• General construction (digging/grading/ditching/leveling) • Hard material handling (rock/ore)
• Breaking with hammer (when necessary) • Frequent breaking with hammer
Practice • Material handling (pipe, trench box, etc.) • Wood handling with log grab
• Landscaping and gardening • Material handling in high-density material
• Compacting ground • Frequent demolition work Working with high impact
• Dozing with dozer blade (frozen soils)
• Grabbing with bucket and thumb • Mass excavating with wide bucket
Track shoes
An excavator’s undercarriage can be extended by selecting the most appropriate shoe width and generally speaking, choose the
narrowest shoes available in order to resist bending. 500 mm and 600 mm shoes are primarily chosen to reduce transport widths.
For the bulk earthmoving specialist, 800 mm (750 mm for EC700C L) shoes are usually the preferred choice due to the high degree
of flotation and reduced ground bearing pressure offered. 900 mm shoes provide even greater flotation, but should only be specified
if the machine is to work in particularly soft underfoot conditions. When specifically purchased to work in rock, double grouser shoes
should always be chosen.
Summary
252 Excavators
Excavator cycle time

A cycle time is the time required for one complete cycle, i.e. the time needed to:
• fill the buc et and lift the boom,
• slew to the desired location,
• dump the material
• return to the digging position.
In order to achieve maximum productivity, the following points should be adhered to:
• All excavators achieve their maximum slew speed at 60 degrees, however due to high slew torque rapid acceleration will be obtained
over a much shorter distance. An optimum slewing angle of 15 degrees either side of the machine centre or undercarriage width,
should be adhered to. The result of a reduced slewing angle is not only increased production but also reduced fuel consumption.
• If the excavator is positioned on stable material, bench height should be about equal to arm length, however, if more unstable
conditions are evident due to loading blasted rock, the bench height should be reduced.
• The machine should be positioned on the bench so that the arm is in the vertical position when the bucket is fully loaded. If the
excavator is further back, breakout force will be lost. If closer to the edge, undercutting may occur and the cycle time increased
because the arm must be brought back out. In addition, the operator should begin to raise the boom when the bucket is 75%
way through its curl cycle, i.e. as the arm nears the vertical position.
Although it is not possible to ensure excellent working conditions on every site, achieving the above points will positively affect
production and ultimately profitabilit .
Operating tips to extend machine life

Avoid Twisting - Excessive twisting could damage attachments and the excavator’s swing system.
Avoid excessive twisting by :
a) not tearing out materials using swing force, and
b) not scratching or extracting hard materials using the bucket edge.
Travel Force - Don’t use travel force for digging, pushing or pulling operations, as this can damage attachments, hydraulic cylinders
and the track drive.
Drop Force - Don’t crush objects using drop force from the boom and arm. This kind of pounding action can seriously damage the
entire machine.
Weight Balance - Make sure lifted/carried loads don’t exceed excavator capacity. Overload can cause premature wear and damage
the undercarriage.
Bucket Size - Don’t use a wide bucket for digging in hard material. The resulting twisting force could damage the machine. Use of
too big a bucket for heavy materials will reduce productivity and could damage the machine.
Summary
372 Excavators
EC480E
Specifications
Engine Hydraulic system

The latest generation, Volvo engine Tier 4f (Stage IV) emissions compliant The new electro-hydraulic system and new MCV (main control valve) use
diesel engine fully meets the demands of the latest, emsissions regulations. intelligent technology to control on-demand flow for high-productivity, high-
Featuring Volvo Advanced Combustion Technology (V-ACT), it is designed to digging capacity and excellent fuel consumption. The following important
deliver superior performance and fuel efficiency. The engine uses precise, functions are included in the system for optimum performance: Summation
highpressure fuel injectors, turbo charger and air-to-air intercooler, and system: Combines the flow of both hydraulic pumps to ensure quick cycle
electronic engine controls to optimize machine performance. Air Filter: times and high productivity. Boom priority: Gives priority to the boom
3-stage with precleaner. Automatic Idling System: Reduces engine speed operation for faster raising when loading or performing deep excavations.
to idle when the levers and pedals are not activated resulting in less fuel Arm priority: Gives priority to the arm operation for faster cycle times in
consumption and low cab noise levels. leveling and for increased bucket filling when digging. Swing priority: Gives
Engine Tier 4f (Stage IV) Volvo D13J priority to swing functions for faster simultaneous operations. Regeneration
Max power at r/s / r/min 30 / 1800 system: Prevents cavitation and provides flow to other movements during
simultaneous operations for maximum productivity. Power boost: All digging
Net, ISO 9249/SAE J1349 kW / hp 277 / 377
and lifting forces are increased. Holding valves: Boom and arm holding
Gross, ISO 14396/SAE J1995 kW / hp 278 / 378 valves prevent the digging equipment from creeping.
Max torque at Nm / r/min 1 890 / 1 350 Main pump, Type 2 x variable displacement axial piston pumps
No. of cylinders 6 Maximum flow l/min 2 x 376
Displacement l 12.8 Pilot pump, Type Gear pump
Bore mm 131 Maximum flow l/min 32
Stroke mm 158 Hydraulic motors
Electrical system Travel: Variable displacement axial piston motor with mechanical brake
High-capacity electrical system that is well protected. Waterproof double-lock Slew: Fixed displacement axial piston motor with mechanical brake
harness plugs are used to secure corrosion-free connections. The main Relief valve setting
relays and solenoid valves are shielded to prevent damage. The master switch
Implement MPa 32.4/35.3
is standard. Contronics provides advanced monitoring of machine functions
and important diagnostic information. Travel circuit MPa 32.4
Voltage V 24 Slew circuit MPa 25.8
Batteries V 2 x 12 Pilot circuit MPa 3.9
Battery capacity Ah 200 Hydraulic cylinders

Alternator V / Ah 28 / 80 Mono boom 2
Swing system Bore x Stroke ø x mm 165 x 1 590
The swing system uses an axial piston motors, driving a planetary gearbox Arm 1
for maximum torque. An automatic holding brake and anti-rebound valve are Bore x Stroke ø x mm 190 x 1 850
standard. Bucket 1
Max. slew speed r/min 9.3 Bore x Stroke ø x mm 165 x 1 335
Max. slew torque kNm 166.3 ME Bucket 1
Drive Bore x Stroke ø x mm 175 x 1 335
Each track is powered by an automatic two-speed shift travel motor. The Service refill capacities
track brakes are multi-disc, spring-applied and hydraulic released. The travel Fuel tank l 680
motor, brake and planetary gears are well protected within the track frame. AdBlue® tank l 62.5
Max. drawbar pull kN 333.4
Hydraulic system, total l 525
Max. travel speed km/h 3.2 / 5.2
Hydraulic tank l 270
Gradeability ° 35
Engine oil l 42
Undercarriage Engine coolant l 60
The undercarriage has a robust X-shaped frame. Greased and sealed track Slew reduction unit l 2x6
chains are standard.
Travel reduction unit l 2 x 7.5
Track pads 2 x 52
Cab
Link pitch mm 215.9
The operator’s cab has easy access via a wide door opening. The cab is
Shoe width, triple grouser mm 600/600HD*/700/
supported on hydraulic dampening mounts to reduce shock and vibration
800/900 levels. These along with sound absorbing lining provide low noise levels.
Shoe width, double grouser mm 600 The cab has excellent all-round visibility. The front windshield can easily
Bottom rollers 2x9 slide up into the ceiling, and the lower front glass can be removed and stored in
Top rollers 2x2 the side door. Integrated air-conditioning and heating system: The pressurized
and filtered cab air is supplied by an automatically-controlled fan. The air is
Top rollers (retractable) 2x3
distributed throughout the cab from 14 vents. Ergonomic operator’s seat: The
* Not HD shoe but HD track link
adjustable seat and joystick console move independently to accommodate
Sound Level the operator. The seat has nine different adjustments plus a seat belt for the
Sound level in cab according to ISO 6396 operator’s comfort and safety.
LpA dB(A) 71
External sound level according to ISO 6395 and EU Noise Directive (2000/14/EC) and
474-1:2006 +A1:2009
LwA dB(A) 106
Summary
Excavators 373
Digging forces with direct fit bucket

Description Unit EC480E EC480E, mechanically retractable width **
Boom m 6.5 ME 7.0 6.5 ME 7.0
Arm m 2.55 2.55 3.35 3.9 4.8 2.55 2.55 3.35 3.9 4.8
Bucket radius mm 1 923 1 810 1 810 1 810 1 810 1 923 1 810 1 810 1 810 1 810
SAE J1179 kN 253 230 230 230 230 253 230 230 230 230
Breakout force - bucket SAE J1179 kN 275 251 251 251 251 275 251 251 251 251
(Normal/Power boost) ISO 6015 kN 285 261 261 261 261 285 261 261 261 261
ISO 6015 kN 311 284 284 284 284 311 284 284 284 284
SAE J1179 kN 225 232 196 176 160 225 232 196 176 160
Tearout force - dipper arm SAE J1179 kN 244 252 215 192 174 244 252 215 192 174
(Normal/Power boost) ISO 6015 kN 232 239 201 179 163 232 239 201 179 163
ISO 6015 kN 253 260 220 196 178 253 260 220 196 178
Rotation angle, bucket ° 169 183 183 183 183 169 183 183 183 183
* FIXED UNDERCARRIAGE, Machine with pin-on bucket l ** RETACTABLE UNDERCARRIAGE, Machine with pin-on bucket
Dimensions and Working ranges

DIMENSIONS
Boom Arm
EC480E
Description Unit mono mono Description Unit
Boom m 6.5 ME 7.0 HD Arm m 2.55 ME 3.35 HD 3.9 4.8
A mm 6 750 7 250 A mm 3 770 4 590 5 140 6 100
B mm 2 000 1 840 B mm 1 235 1 235 1 240 1250
Width mm 960 960 Width mm 600 600 600 600
Weight kg 4 368 4 403 Weight kg 2 416 2 639 2 664 2 938
* Includes arm cylinder, piping and pin * Includes bucket cylinder, linkage and pin
Description Unit EC480EL fixed undercarriage EC480EL retractable undercarriage

Boom m 6.5 7.0 6.5 7.0
Arm m 2.55 2.55 3.35 3.9 4.8 2.55 2.55 3.35 3.9 4.8
A. Overall width of upper structure mm 2 990 2 990 2 990 2 990 2 990 2 990 2 990 2 990 2 990 2 990
B. Overall width (retracted) mm 3 440 3 440 3 440 3 440 3 440 3 090 3 090 3 090 3 090 3 090
Overall width (extended) mm 3 590 3 590 3 590 3 590 3 590
C. Overall height of cab mm 3 282 3 282 3 282 3 282 3 282 3 392 3 392 3 392 3 392 3 392
D. Overall height of diffuser mm 3 525 3 525 3 525 3 525 3 525 3 650 3 650 3 650 3 650 3 650
E. Overall height of guard rail mm 3 747 3 747 3 747 3 747 3 747 3 857 3 857 3 857 3 857 3 857
F. Tail swing radius (Counterweight >9 050Kg) mm 3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800 3 800
Tail swing radius (Counterweight 9 750Kg<) mm 3 880 3 880 3 880 3 880 3 880 3 880 3 880 3 880 3 880 3 880
G. Counterweight clearance * mm 1 211 1 211 1 211 1 211 1 211 1 321 1 321 1 321 1 321 1 321
Removal Counterweight clearance * mm 1 207 1 207 1 207 1 207 1 207 1 317 1 317 1 317 1 317 1 317
H. Tumbler length mm 4 370 4 370 4 370 4 370 4 370 4 370 4 370 4 370 4 370 4 370
I. Track length mm 5 370 5 370 5 370 5 370 5 370 5 370 5 370 5 370 5 370 5 370
J. Track gauge (retracted) mm 2 740 2 740 2 740 2 740 2 740 2 390 2 390 2 390 2 390 2 390
Track gauge (extended) mm 2 890 2 890 2 890 2 890 2 890
K. Shoe width mm 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700 700
L. Min. ground clearance * mm 515 515 515 515 515 710 710 710 710 710
M. Overall length (Counterweight >9 050Kg) mm 11 614 12 114 12 134 12 130 12 014 11 615 12 116 12 115 12 107 12 066
Overall length (Counterweight 9 750Kg<) mm 11 694 12 194 12 214 12 210 12 094 11 695 12 196 12 195 12 187 12 146
N. Overall height of boom mm 4 010 3 850 3 537 3 565 4 572 4 041 3 877 3 570 3 580 4 561
* Without shoe grouser
Summary
374 Excavators
WORKING RANGE
Description Unit EC480E * EC480E, mechanically retractable width **

Boom m 6.5 ME 7.0 6.5 ME 7.0
Arm m 2.55 2.55 3.35 3.9 4.8 2.55 2.55 3.35 3.9 4.8
A. Max. digging reach mm 10 934 11 453 12 146 12 645 13 366 10 934 11 453 12 146 12 644 13 366
B. Max. digging reach on ground mm 10 690 11 221 11 927 12 434 13 168 10 665 11 197 11 905 12 413 13 148
C. Max. digging depth mm 6 586 7 028 7 828 8 378 9 278 6 476 6 918 7 718 8 268 9 168
D. Max. digging depth (2.44 m level) mm 6 418 6 860 7 686 8 250 9 167 3 608 6 750 7 576 8 139 9 057
E. Max. vertical wall digging depth mm 5 769 6 242 6 774 7 214 7 625 5 659 6 132 6 664 7 104 7 515
F. Max. cutting height mm 10 584 10 910 11 064 11 234 11 168 10 694 11 021 11 174 11 344 11 278
G. Max. dumping height mm 6 957 7 310 7 526 7 713 7 744 7 067 7 420 7 636 7 823 7 854
H. Min. front slew radius mm 4 758 5 040 5 088 5 050 5 100 4 757 5 043 5 088 5 050 5 100
* FIXED UNDERCARRIAGE, Machine with pin-on bucket l ** RETACTABLE UNDERCARRIAGE, Machine with pin-on bucket
Summary
Excavators 461
Performance data
Cycle time estimation
The excavator cycle time is the total time required to fill a bucket, swing loaded, dump bucket and swing empty to the digging position.
The cycle time is mainly dependent on the excavation class (material to be moved) and the loading position to the hauling equipment.
Excavation Classes
Clearly, the performance of an excavator will depend on the kinds of material to be excavated. The harder or tougher the material,
the longer it takes to fill the buc et and the longer it takes to perform the cycle. Categorizing different ground conditions is not
easy, and everyone will have their own opinions on the matter. Nevertheless, it is useful to communicate the degree of difficulty
in filling the buc et. Excavation classes are therefore a way of categorizing ground conditions (see table below). Problems such
as underground services, trench support systems and men working close to the bucket can slow the bucket filling ope ation
regardless of the nature of the excavated material, and therefore affect cycle times. The following table may be used as a guide.
Excavation Classes Examples of Materials

Class 1: Easy digging Unpacked earth, sand-gravel, ditch cleaning
Class 2: Medium digging Packed earth, tough dry clay, soil with less 25% rock content
Class 3: Medium to hard digging Hard packed soil with up to 50% rock content
Class 4: Hard digging Shot rock or tough soil with up to 75% rock content
Loading position
Can be represented by 4 positions.
- Hauler is below the excavator and swings 45° to load hauler
- Hauler is below the excavator and swings 90° to load hauler
- Hauler and excavator are on the same level and swing 90° to load hauler
- Hauler and excavator are on the same level and swing 180° to load hauler
Summary
464 Excavators Performance Data
E-series Cycle time
Cycle time with the excavator above the hauler and a slew angle of 45 degrees
Excavation Material Class (unit : sec)

Model
1 2 3 4
EC250E 9,1 ~ 11,9 10,5 ~ 12,9 11,9 ~ 15,3 13,4 ~ 17,2
EC300E 8,8 ~ 11,6 10,2 ~ 13,0 11,6 ~ 14,9 13,0 ~ 16,7
EC350E 9,3 ~ 12,1 10,7 ~ 14,0 12,1 ~ 15,3 13,5 ~ 17,2
EC380E 9,3 ~ 12,1 10,7 ~ 14,0 12,1 ~ 15,3 13,5 ~ 17,2
EC480E 9,9 ~ 13,2 11,3 ~ 14,5 12,7 ~ 16,8 14,5 ~ 19,1
Cycle time with the excavator above the hauler and a slew angle of 90 degrees

Model
1 2 3 4
EC250E 11,0 ~ 13,9 12,4 ~ 15,3 13,4 ~ 17,2 15,3 ~ 19,1
EC300E 11,1 ~ 13,9 12,5 ~ 15,3 13,0 ~ 16,7 14,9 ~ 19,0
EC350E 11,6 ~ 14,8 13,0 ~ 16,7 14,5 ~ 18,1 16,3 ~ 21,0
EC380E 11,6 ~ 14,8 13,0 ~ 16,7 14,5 ~ 18,1 16,3 ~ 21,0
EC480E 12,7 ~ 16,4 14,5 ~ 18,1 15,9 ~ 20,0 18,1 ~ 22,7
Cycle time with the excavator and hauler on the same level and a slew angle of 90 degrees

Model
1 2 3 4
EC250E 11,5 ~ 14,8 11,9 ~ 15,8 12,9 ~ 16,7 14,8 ~ 18,6
EC300E 11,6 ~ 14,9 12,1 ~ 15,8 13,0 ~ 16,2 14,9 ~ 18,6
EC350E 12,5 ~ 16,7 13,5 ~ 17,7 14,0 ~ 18,1 16,3 ~ 21,0
EC380E 12,5 ~ 16,7 13,5 ~ 17,7 14,0 ~ 18,1 16,3 ~ 21,0
EC480E 14,0 ~ 17,3 14,5 ~ 18,1 15,4 ~ 19,1 17,7 ~ 21,7
Cycle time with the excavator and hauler on the same level and a slew angle of 180 degrees

Model
1 2 3 4
EC250E 14,3 ~ 18,2 14,8 ~ 19,1 15,8 ~ 20,5 17,2 ~ 22,5
EC300E 14,4 ~ 18,1 14,9 ~ 19,0 15,8 ~ 20,4 17,2 ~ 22,3
EC350E 15,3 ~ 19,5 16,3 ~ 20,5 17,2 ~ 21,3 18,6 ~ 23,7
EC380E 15,3 ~ 19,5 16,3 ~ 20,5 17,2 ~ 21,3 18,6 ~ 23,7
EC480E 15,4 ~ 20,4 16,4 ~ 21,3 17,3 ~ 22,7 19,1 ~ 24,5

E-series Fuel consumption
Utilization (Liter per hour / Gal per hour )

Model Light Medium Heavy
Min ~ Max Min ~ Max Min ~ Max
9,8 ~ 13,3 12,4 ~ 16,9 16,9 ~ 20,5
EC250E
2,6 ~ 3,5 3,3 ~ 4,5 4,5 ~ 5,4
12,0 ~ 15,7 14,7 ~ 19,3 19,3 ~ 23,9
EC300E
3,2 ~ 4,1 3,9 ~ 5,1 5,1 ~ 6,3
13,9 ~ 19,4 17,6 ~ 23,1 23,1 ~ 28,7
EC350E
3,7 ~ 5,1 4,6 ~ 6,1 6,1 ~ 7,6
14,2 ~ 19,8 17,9 ~ 23,6 23,6 ~ 29,3
EC380E
3,7 ~ 5,2 4,7 ~ 6,2 6,2 ~ 7,7
17,5 ~ 22,3 21,3 ~ 27,2 27,2 ~ 34,0
EC480E
4,6 ~ 5,9 5,6 ~ 7,2 7,2 ~ 9,0
Summary
EC480E
EC480EL fixed undercarriage
Cutting
Bucket type Capacity Weight Teeth 6.5 ME 7.0m Boom
width
600mm shoe, 9 050kg counterweight
L mm kg EA ME2.55m 2.55m 3.35m 3.9m 4.8m
1 550 1 200 1 763 4 C C C C C
2 100 1 500 2 085 5 C C C C B
General 2 380 1 650 2 217 5 C C C C B
purpose 2 660 1 800 2 350 5 C C B B A
2 840 1 900 2 441 5 C C B A X
Direct fit 3 310 2 150 2 712 6 C B A X X
Buckets 2 100 1 500 2 316 5 D D D C B
2 380 1 650 2 453 5 D D C B A
Heavy 2 660 1 800 2 606 5 D C B A X
duty 2 660 1 800 2 565 5 D C B B X
2 840 1 900 2 698 5 D C B A X
2 840 1 900 2 657 5 D C B A X
EC480EL retractable undercarriage
Cutting
Bucket type Capacity Weight Teeth 6.5 ME 7.0m Boom
width
600mm shoe, 9 050kg counterweight
L mm kg EA ME2.55m 2.55m 3.35m 3.9m 4.8m
1 550 1 200 1 763 4 C C C C C
2 100 1 500 2 085 5 C C C C C
General 2 380 1 650 2 217 5 C C C C B
purpose 2 660 1 800 2 350 5 C C C B B
2 840 1 900 2 441 5 C C C B A
Direct fit 3 310 2 150 2 712 6 C B A A X
Buckets 2 100 1 500 2 316 5 D D D D C
2 380 1 650 2 453 5 D D D C B
Heavy 2 660 1 800 2 606 5 D D C B A
duty 2 660 1 800 2 565 5 D D C B A
2 840 1 900 2 698 5 D D B B X
2 840 1 900 2 657 5 D D B B A
Please consult with your Volvo dealer for the proper match of buckets and attachments X : Not recommended
to suit the application. Maximum materal density
The recommendations are given as a guide only, based on typical operation conditions. A 1 200 - 1 300 kg/m3 Coal, Caliche, Shale
Bucket capacity based on ISO 7451, heaped material with a 1:1 angle of repose. B 1 400 - 1 600 kg/m3 Wet earth and clay, Limestone, Sandstone
C 1 700 - 1 800 kg/m3 Granite, Wet sand, Well blasted rock
D > 1 900 kg/m3 Wet mud, Iron ore
Summary
814 TCO - Total Cost of Ownership
The Concept
Life cycle costs can be viewed as all the costs from cradle to grave in the life of a piece of equipment. Typically, life cycle costs can be
divided into two broad categories: ownership and operating costs. Although equipment managers have long considered the concept
of ownership and operating costs, it has taken a while to formulate a systematic approach to use this as a measure while selecting
between alternatives.
Focusing only on initial cost does not necessarily produce the best alternative, as a piece of equipment with a lower purchase price
could bleed the pockets due to high maintenance costs. However, comparing equipment only on operating costs does not facilitate
the comparison of two alternatives similar in life cycle cost but differing in productivity. Thus the most recent step in this evolution
is the use of total cost of ownership (TCO), which addresses both cost and productivity aspects. By moving to TCO, buyers are
able to relate to profits rather than just cost. Although these considerations might seem obvious, it is interesting to note that only a
small percentage of buyers-sellers actually have the discipline and knowledge to perform this analysis. The difficulty has been in the
collection and analysis of appropriate data. Three key elements of TCO are Production, Cost per Hour and Cost per Unit.
Production (ton/h or m3/h)
Production per hour is the output of a single machine working by itself, or a fleet of machines working together. Depending on the
type of work, production is typically calculated in a weight measurement (such as ton/hr) or a volume measurement (m3/h). Equipment
capacity, configu ation, loader-hauler match, material to be moved, work schedule, haul distance and fleet size are some of the
important factors which affect the production of a fleet f machines.
tco cost
Cost per hour, including both ownership and operating costs will be dealt with in more detail in this document. Purchase price,
residual value, economic life (ownership period), repair and maintenance policy and fuel consumption have a conspicuous effect on
the cost per hour.
Unit Cost ($/ton or $/m3)
Unit Cost is a result of the two elements above. To calculate Unit Cost, we divide the cost per hour value for a machine or a fleet by
the corresponding production per hour. The beauty of Unit Cost is that it allows the comparison of dissimilar units. In other words,
one can compare a small loader with small trucks against a big loader and big trucks. This is the definition of TCO. The objective is
to move a desired amount of material at the lowest Unit Cost, or the lowest TCO.
TCO = ($ / h)/ (ton / h) = $ / ton
Various organizations use the term TCO in different ways. In some cases, TCO refers only to the total cost per hour when the
equipment is not involved in measureable production. For example, if a piece of equipment is a utility machine involved in cleanup
or diverse support activity , it is not easy to quantify a cyclical activity and hence a production. However, this document will focus on
cases where the equipment is involved in production, so Unit Cost will be used.
Hourly Production
Production refers to the output of a single machine or a fleet of machines working together. Typically we refer to loading production
when we refer to the production of a single machine such as an excavator or a wheel loader.
It is rather easy to determine the production of a loading unit simply by using the bucket capacity and cycle time. However, fleet
production is a little more complicated: it is the throughput of the loading and the hauling units considered as one system.
How to estimate hourly production is covered in the previous chapters in this publication.
Summary
Hourly cost
The total cost of a machine comprises both ownership and operating components. However, by considering one composite value, we
lose the opportunity to understand the inherent differences between the components and the factors that affect them.
Ownership cost, including depreciation and interest, can be viewed as fixed costs because they begin when the machine is purchased
and end when it is sold. In between these two points, one must pay the ownership costs irrespective of the state of the machine.
Whether it is working on a job, standing idle in the yard, or broken down for repairs, the ownership costs continue to accrue. On the
other hand, operating costs, which include fuel, tires, maintenance and repair, and ground engaging tools, can be viewed as variable
costs because they take effect only when the machine is put to work. Thus, it makes a difference to the operating costs if the machine
is working or standing idle. From this brief description, it is clear that there is a need to track owning and operating costs separately.
Owning and operating costs are equally important. Unfortunately, the only clearly visible cost for a piece of equipment is the purchase
price; thus, the tendency can be to neglect the impact of other costs. A common metaphor on this subject is that of an iceberg. The
tip of an iceberg, like the purchase price, does not divulge the true nature of the impact it can create. Operating costs associated with
life cycle can have a bigger impact and often lie hidden from view. Therefore, it is prudent for equipment managers to delve deep into
the subject of owning and operating costs to truly understand their roles and impact.
Ownership cost is the cost of buying and keeping a machine in a fleet. It includes the purchase price, taxes, cost of borrowing capital
to purchase the equipment, other financing costs, insurance, and the residual value at the time of sale. Almost all aspects of the
ownership cost are related to accounting, not machine operation. A major part of the ownership cost is the depreciation, which is the
difference between the original purchase price of the machine and the value at the end of its life. In order to determine the cost per
hour, we need to divide it by the number of hours to be worked. Therefore, ownership cost per hour decreases as its time in the fleet
increases.
Operating cost, on the other hand, starts as soon as you start the machine. There are several ingredients to operating cost. Typically,
we can divide them into the following categories: fuel consumption, preventive maintenance, repair, tires and GET (ground engaging
tool). Operating cost is a function of age, application, environment and preventive maintenance policies. Like every machine ever
invented, the cost of maintaining a piece of construction equipment increases with age (otherwise we could have kept the machine
for ever!). All moving and load bearing components have a physical life and need to be replaced at some time.
There is a point in the machine life when the ownership and operating costs combined produce the lowest total cost per hour. This
is called the economic life, which is very different from the physical life of the machine. Determining the economic life of the machine
can assist in equipment procurement as well as disposal. Also, it can provide the fleet management with an indication of the optimal
duration of keeping the machine in the fleet
Can the ownership and operating costs be considered as one? The answer is yes, but is qualified by the ever-present caveat
"sometimes". Consider the occasion when you rent a piece of machine, say a wheel loader. When the rental house quotes you a
rate of $600 a week, all costs are included except fuel. Therefore, this cost represents both owning and operating components.
However, the difference between renting a machine and owning it is the same as between renting an apartment and owning it. Rental
is subject to availability and price fluctuations; further, it does not offer an equity build-up. On the other hand, ownership of a machine
guarantees availability, price stability, tax benefits, and equity build-up
Ownership Cost
The understanding of ownership costs parallels the development in financial transaction, accounting policies and risk management. If
one was to review the evolution of the buying-selling process for any type of equipment (capital goods), it is possible to see a pattern.
Since the middle of the twentieth century, most purchase decisions were based only on the initial price. Then the cost of borrowing
capital, inflation and eturn on investment introduced the finan e cost into the procurement process.
Purchase price, depreciation and taxation became the key components in calculating equipment cost. Subsequent to that, buyers
wanted to shield themselves from the uncertainty of the residual values, especially when the equipment cost was not written down to
zero. The next step in the evolution process was based on accounting and financial targets as well as cash flo . This development
endorsed leasing as the preferred method where the focus moved from purchase price or residual values to monthly payments.
Of course, the accounting principles and financial policies were different in different countries and therefore adapting the leasing
program to the local business environment was critical.
The straight leasing programs were augmented with various fl vors such as an optional buy-out clause at the end of the period.
Although lease payments created a certainty in the ownership component, the operating component of the cost was still subjected to
uncertainties. In addition to this, most buyers realized that the lease programs did not necessarily produce the lowest cost. In reality,
the buyers were paying more to reduce their risk or exposure. Those buyers who had developed in-house competency in equipment
management and understood the cost-risk propositions then began to follow a two-step process:
1 evaluating various alternatives in equipment selection based on both ownership and operating cost
2 effecting the transaction based on the need-demand situation (projects, work backlog, etc.) at the time of transaction.
Summary
Purchase price
Purchase price – or capital investment – is the only factor that is known with certainty. It is simply what you pay when you purchase
the machine. As pointed out earlier, costs relating to purchase will affect the transaction process; for example, depending on whether
you buy a machine with your own capital, buy it with finan ed capital, lease it or rent it, you will pay a different price. The only related
costs to consider in addition to purchase price are delivery (freight), setup and installation, title/registration and any initial training.
The freight cost will vary, depending upon the distance between the "stock yard" and the job site, and the weight to be transported.
In some cases, machines can be larger than legal transportation limits and therefore must be transported in sections. This might
lead to additional setup and installation cost. As a side note, the size of the machine (dimension and weight) may impact mobilization
cost between sites. Legal transportation limits need to be considered in assessing this cost and need to be accounted for in the
equipment costing or job costing system. This cost will have an impact on equipment selection.
The other aspect to consider is that the cost of the tires/tracks needs to be deducted from the purchase price of the machine while
calculating the ownership cost per hour. The main reason is that the tires/tracks are treated as operating cost. Moreover, the life of the
machine is different from that of the tires. Therefore, by leaving the cost of the tires in the calculation, we make an implicit assumption
that when the machine is sold, it will be delivered with a new set of tires or tracks.
Building on an example as we proceed, we can consider that we are buying an articulated hauler for the fleet. The cost of the hauler
delivered to the site is $302,366. The cost of a set of tires is $16,042. Therefore, the purchase price excluding tires is $286,324.
This is the value that will be used for calculating the ownership cost per hour.
Residual Value
The residual value is the value that remains at the end of the ownership period. It is the value that is used to determine the capitalized
amount or the equity to be recovered. The one issue about residual value that can be very deceptive is that it occurs in the future.
Therefore, it cannot be treated in the same terms as the capital investment, which occurs in the present. E.g. an equipment salesman
sets the price of an excavator at $10 million and then guarantees to buy it back from you for the same amount after four years.
Therefore, from your viewpoint the residual value is $10 million. Does this mean that your capitalized amount is zero? Obviously,
something is missing.
There is an interest cost associated with it: the cost of borrowing money. The interest on your $10 million is going to pay for the cost
of the machine and more. Your cost of capitalization should be calculated by bringing the residual value from the future to the present
using the appropriate discount factor. Therefore, when you calculate the ownership cost of a machine, it is always necessary to bring
the future values to the present. The discussion regarding Time Value of Money is beyond scope for this material.
The one other point to consider is the difference between fair market value (FMV) and guaranteed buy-back value. FMV, as the name
suggests, is the value that the market will pay for a piece of equipment. Auction results are the best indicator for this value. The
guaranteed buy-back value, on the other hand, is the wholesale value from an equipment retailer’s perspective.
The equipment retailer is ready to pay this value, perform any necessary work on the machine and then take on the carrying cost
until the machine is sold. There is a difference between these two values. Understanding it is vital to calculation of ownership cost.
It is misleading to use the FMV in estimating the ownership cost and then expect the buy back number to be the same. You can use
the FMV to obtain an estimate of the residual value. However if you intend the equipment retailer to buy the machine back from you,
then you should use the buy back value. It is important to maintain a realistic balance between the evaluation and actual transaction
process.
Summary
Depreciation cost
Depreciation can be simply defined as the "fall in value" of a product. If we know what we paid for a piece of equipment, and we
have an idea as to what the equipment will fetch in the market after a period of time, then depreciation is the calculation by which we
determine how we will recover this fall in value. There are three methods to calculate depreciation: market depreciation, book keeping
based depreciation and tax laws based depreciation. The main difference between the methods is the basis for the residual value and
the depreciation period.
In our example, the residual value of the hauler is expected to be $58,000 after fi e years. Therefore, if we determine the present
value of this sum based on fi e years and 6% interest rate, it works out to $43,340. If the truck operates 2000 hours a year for fi e
years, the depreciation cost per hour works out to $24.30. It is clear that as the interest rate becomes higher (like some countries in
emerging markets) or if the ownership period is very long, the effect on present value becomes conspicuous.
The depreciation time is the duration that will be used as the basis for calculating the ownership cost per hour. This period has a lot
of influen e on the equipment selection and transaction process. Understanding the depreciation time or the right ownership period
requires some discussion on the operating costs and so, we will re-visit this subject in a later section.
In the meantime, it is worthwhile to plant a few questions in the mind of the reader:
• Is ownership period a function of the economics or more related to the physical capability of the machine? In other words, is the
economical life different from the physical life?
• Are there any models which help us determine the economic life?
• Does the expected life of components affect the ownership period?
• Are there any legal statutory limits on ownership period which can be used for depreciation?
• How does economic life affect TCO?
• How does economic life affect operational decisions such as repair, rebuild, replace and retire?
P Interest cost or cost of capital

Two parameters are important when it comes to calculating the cost of capital:
• The interest rate to be used.
P –d d = (P – S) / n
• The average annual value of the machine.
P – 2d AAV = (P + S) / 2
The interest rate depends on whether the machine is purchased with own capital
P – 3d
or whether it is finan ed. When the owner’s own capital is used for purchasing the
piece of equipment, then the rate used for calculating the cost of capital should
at least be equal to a rate which can be expected from an equal investment.
S
However, if the equipment is purchased with financing, then the rate used in the
0 1 2 3 4 n (years) financing calculation should be used or calculating the cost of capital.
Fig. C1 Depreciation and calculation
of average annual value
The average annual value (AAV) is simply the average between the fi st value: the purchase price, and the last value: the residual
value. Assuming the purchase price of the machine is P, and the residual value at the end of its life (n years) is S, the average annual
depreciation (d) can be expressed as d= (P-S)/n. In other words, at the end of the fi st year, the machine has a value of P-d, at the
end of second year, its value is (P-2d), and so forth. The average annual value of the machine can then be stated as (P+S)/2. This
method uses several approximations. Financial methods exist which can calculate accurately the interest cost using the time of value
of money concepts. For the purpose of the present discussion, it is sufficient to use this simple ormula.
d = (P–S)/n
AAV = (P+S)/2
In our example of the articulated hauler, the purchase price is $302,366 (we tend to use this figu e rather than the one without tires
because the interest cost starts with the down payment). The residual value is $58,000. Therefore the average annual value on a two-
year period is $180,183. If we multiply this value by the interest rate of 6%, we get an annual interest cost of $10,811. If the hauler
is put to work for 2000 hours a year, the interest cost per hour yields $5.41. In this case, the interest cost is 22% of the depreciation
cost. Therefore, it is important to understand the implication of the interest cost as part of the overall cost.
Insurance and machine tax

In almost all cases, a piece of construction equipment needs to carry insurance against theft or damage. Typically, the insurance for
a piece of equipment is calculated based on the value of the equipment. If the equipment is permitted to run on public roads, then
there could be a machine tax associated with the piece of equipment.
To conclude, the owning costs of a machine are:
• Depreciation Cost
• Interest Cost
• Machine Tax
• Insurance Cost
Summary
Operating Cost
Operating costs, the costs incurred as soon as the machine is started, include things such as fuel, tires or tracks, ground engaging
tools, preventive maintenance, and repair. A lot of money is involved and good decisions must be made on a day-to-day basis if costs
are to be kept in line.
As stated before, operating cost is affected by four factors: age, application, environment and preventive maintenance policies.
Managing the acceleration of the increase in operating cost is the big challenge in equipment management. Most people associate
increasing operating cost to age alone. Although this is partially correct, it does not present the total picture. Machines have moving
parts and load bearing points and so wear out over time. However, good operator care and maintenance programs can help to
monitor and reduce this wear and tear. Operator care could have the single biggest impact on the operating cost of the machine.
Application affects the wear and tear of machines – some are easy and others are tough. On most occasions, applications impact
external implements such as tires and buckets more that they do transmission and turbo charger. However, choosing the right
machine for the application is, without doubt, the most important factor in reducing operating cost.
Environment cannot be controlled – we have to live with it. But although we cannot control it, we need to provide for it to keep the
operating cost under control. When working in hot and dusty conditions, pre-cleaners and secondary cooling kits must be installed.
When working in abrasive environment, heavy duty components are required.
Finally, equipment policies which include maintenance and repair practices, operator care, walk around instructions and training are
very important when managing operating costs.
Most equipment managers break total operating costs into four major categories: fuel consumption, wear parts (ground engaging
tools and tires), preventive maintenance and repair. The best indicator for these categories is in past records. However, application,
environment and age of machine are never the same in two instances. Therefore, it is important to understand the basis of these
categories and manage them.
Fuel consumption
Fuel consumption cost is a critical component of the operating cost. At the time of writing this document, the Tier 3 regulations are
already in effect. Government regulations are tightening the requirements on emissions. Equipment manufacturers are developing
new technologies to control and reduce fuel consumption without compromising performance. For example, load sensing hydraulics
draws power only when required. The torque curves are being improved to provide torque rise at low RPM and hence reduce fuel
consumption. Onboard electronics such as the ECUs offer better gear shifting patterns. Having a driveline where the different
components are matched and communicate with one another can have a favorable impact on fuel consumption. In a situation of
fluctuating oil prices, paying attention to the fuel cost and its impact on overall cost is critical. In the articulated hauler example, let
us assume that the fuel consumption is 25 liters per hour and that the cost of diesel is around $0.40/liter – this means $10/h.
Comparing this with depreciation cost of $24.30, it works out to 41%.
The important conclusions from this discussion on fuel consumption are:
• It is important to consider the cost-benefit analysis of purchasing a higher priced machine which may have lower fuel consumption.
In some cases, the saving in fuel cost can pay for the higher initial price within a year or two.
• Even between comparable machines, a difference in fuel consumption can have significant difference in operating cost and the
total cost.
• It is important to analyze the effect of changes in oil prices before making procurement decisions – this helps to understand the
risk involved.
In some parts of the world, the cost of diesel is so high that the fuel consumption cost is actually greater than the depreciation cost.
It is surprising to note that many companies do not keep track of fuel consumed per machine. Typically, the fuel truck makes a round
on the job and fills up all the equipment. The total fuel consumed is then charged to the job. When data on fuel consumption is
not tracked on a machine by machine basis, it becomes difficult to identify inefficiencies. Also, there is a school of thought which
recommends that the preventive maintenance program be based on fuel consumed rather than clock hours. The reasoning behind
this approach is that, if the machine consumes fuel, then it has to be working.
Wear parts (ground engaging tools) and tires

As the name indicates, wear parts includes wear items such as bucket, teeth and segments, cutting edges, rippers, tracks, and tires.
The life of these wear items are typically dependent on the environment and application. For example, an abrasive environment may
lead to increased wear and tear compared to a normal one. The operator’s training level and commitment also impacts the wear items.
There are occasions when tires with 1500 hours on trucks have no treads left on them. Engaging the 6x6 modes on flat and even
surface only tends to accelerate the wear. Similarly, choosing the right type of bucket (and cutting edges) can help increase the life
of the bucket.
Summary
Preventive maintenance
Some of the synonyms for the word preventive are "precautionary" and "protective". Therefore, preventive maintenance for a piece of
equipment can be viewed as an investment to protect the equipment rather than a necessary cost to run the machine. Many people in
the industry believe that preventive maintenance of mobile equipment simply involves changing of oils, fluids and filte s and lubricating
pivot points on a regular basis. The truth is that while these are important segments of a properly planned and practiced preventive
maintenance program, there are many additional elements that must be part of a successful program.
A generally accepted definition f preventive maintenance is:
The care and servicing by trained personnel of mobile equipment in satisfactory operating conditions by providing
systematic inspections, and detecting and correcting potential failures either before they occur or before they develop
into significant de ects that may cause machine downtime and additional cost.
Detecting and correcting failures before they occur can mean that we may have to replace a component before it actually fails. In other
words, the old adage gives way to a new mantra – "If it ain’t broke, change it anyway." [Interestingly the business world is buzzing
with the book If it ain’t broke, break it, by Robert J. Kriegel]. The worst thing about a downtime (due to repair) is the collateral damage
caused by the breakdown. A $500 bearing can ruin a $7,000 transmission; a $100 hose can cause a $2,000 loss in production.
Collateral costs are extremely difficult to measu e, as they do not appear in cost reports and are easily disregarded.
Equipment managers in the current world of mobile equipment must have skills that are equal to the technology of the machines
that they will be supporting. It is not in the best interest of equipment managers, the company, or the machines themselves to have
preventive maintenance carried out in a non-regulated or non-controlled way. Nor is it advisable that unqualified and non-trained
service personnel do maintenance of any kind on these types of machines.
Equipment will continue to become more sophisticated; it will, therefore, require higher levels of skill and technology in order that it
continues to perform at all levels of maintenance.
Preventive maintenance is mandatory; companies must identify and define the policies, practices, procedures, measurements and
systems that will provide the company owners the best machine availability, the lowest cost and the best return on their investment.
Repair
Repair is the action required to get a machine from a non-operable state to an operable state. It is generally assumed that the machine
is down during this state. Since repairs are visible and cause a disruption, this gets the attention of everyone on the job. Repairs can
be classified as those that occur without prior indication – a sudden failure; and those that occur due to deterioration – aging failure.
For example, a tire could fail suddenly when it hits a piece of rock or a sharp object. On other hand, the same tire could experience
wear and become weak and fail over a period of time. Some of the "signs" of deterioration are easy to observe, especially for those
components which are external such as tires. On the other hand, detecting signs of repair for a transmission or a turbo charger is
more difficult. Modern technologies such as oil analysis and thermog aph analysis help us to track deterioration levels.
Elimination of the repair involves replacing the failed component with a new one. Typically, the cost of doing the repair in an unplanned
manner in the middle of a job is high. First, it involves troubleshooting, then obtaining the right parts and then fixing with minimal
support equipment. Sudden repairs also pull out mechanics from their routine work and hence are very disruptive. All the other
equipment in the fleet also comes to a standstill. On the other hand, the concept of repair before failure allows for a planned approach
to maintaining the machine. A machine can be scheduled for repair over a weekend or during the night. Moreover, these repairs can
be done in a workshop, which is a more controlled environment for the mechanics. Some managers estimate that on-shift failures cost
up to six times as much as planned repair.
If, for some reason, the cost of oil, grease and filte s are not a part of your preventive maintenance, they will need to taken in
consideration separately.
To conclude, operating costs of a machine are:

• Fuel
• Wear Parts
• Tire
• Preventive Maintenance
• Repair (Filters, oil and grease)
Summary
Hourly Cost Example
First look at a template for hourly cost calculation.
Conditions:
Machine type:
a Purchase price
b Purchase price excluding tires
c Depreciation time years
d Residual value
e Depreciation b–d per year
cost --------------
c
f Interes t %
g Interest f a+d per year
cost ----------- x ---------------
100 2
h Machine tax
i Insurance per year
j Fuel price per l per gal
k Fuel consumption l/h gph
l O il pric e per l per qt
m Oil consumption l/h qt per hour
n Cost of a set of tires
o Lifetime of tires h
p Repairs and maintenace per year
q Operator cost per year
r Operating hours per year
Machine type:
A Fixed cost per hour
Depreciation e
---
r
Interest cost g
---r
Machine tax h
---
r
Insurance i
-
r
Total fixed cost

B Variable cost per hour
Fuel
j×k
Oil grease and filters l×m
Tires n
---
o
Repair and maintenance p

---
r
Total variable cost

q
C Operator cost --- per hour
r
Total costs per hour A+B+C
Summary
Below you see how the previous data is used in calculating the owning- / fixed and ope ating- / variable cost.
Always keep in mind that this cost does not include administration costs, nor does it take into consideration the machine owners
whish for profit
Following is an example of cost calculations for the fleet f om productivity example in the Articulated Haulers section.
Conditions: Earthmoving in road construction
M a c h i n e ty p e : A 25F
a Purchase price 1,500,000
b Purchase price excluding tires 1,405 000
c Depreciation time years 7
d Residual value 300,000
e Depreciation b–d per year 1 5 8 ,0 0 0
cost --------------
c
f Interes t % 10
g Interest f a+d per year 9 0 ,0 0 0
cost ----------- x ---------------
100 2
h Machine tax 20,000*

i Insurance per year 5000
j Fuel cost per l per gal 2.50
k Fuel consumption l/h gph 20
l O il c os t per l per qt 15
m Oil consumption l/h qt per hour 0.3
n C os t of a s et of tires 9 5 ,0 0 0
o L ifetime of tires h 4130
p Repairs and maintenance per year 85,600
q Operator cost per year 320,000
r Operating hours per year 1600
Machine type: A25F

A Fixed cost per hour
Depreciation e 98.75
---
r
Interest cost g 56.25

---r
Machine tax h 12.50

---
r
Insurance i 3.10
-
r
Total fixed cost 170.60

B Variable cost per hour
Fuel 50.00
j×k
Oil grease and filters l×m 4.50
Tires n 23.00
---
o
Repair and maintenance p 75.60

---
r
Total variable cost 131

q
C Operator cost --- per hour 200.00
r
Total costs per hour A+B+C 501.60
Summary
The hourly cost of one hauler is 502. In our example, we needed 4 haulers, so the total hourly cost of the haulers is 4 x 502 =
2008. The hourly cost of the excavator is calculated in the same way. To avoid repeating ourselves, we assume that the result of this
calculation was 900 for the Volvo EC 460. The total hourly cost for our fleet is then 2008 + 900 = 2908
Note in the figu e above those items that are important when calculating the total hourly cost and those that have less significan e:
Depreciation and interest are heavy items, but since the depreciation time and interest rate are generally fixed at the time of purchase,
it is difficult to influe e these costs afterwards.
Fuel consumption and tire wear largely depend on the type of work the machine is used for, but much can be gained by running the
machine correctly and using the correct type of tires.
Repair and maintenance are heavy items which demand particular attention.
Repair and maintenance costs can be reduced by using proper operating methods, conscientious daily maintenance and periodical
service. This also reduces unexpected and expensive breakdown times as well as increasing the service life of the machine. Repair
costs increase with the age of the machine.
TCO Example
We must now coordinate the performance calculation described in Section "Articulated Hauler Productivity" with the hourly cost
calculation in Section "Hourly Cost Example". It is not sufficient to only look at the performance or the hourly cost. We have to look at
the cost of the work performed, i.e. cost per transported unit. A calculation can have different purposes. It concerns:
Machine purchase. By comparing alternative machine types, it is possible to choose the most suitable machines for carrying out the
work.
Machine distribution. A large contractor may have several different machine types and different types of work to be performed. By
suitable calculation he can decide which machines should be placed on which jobs so the total cost of the job can be reduced to a
minimum.
Cost forecast. Before starting a job it is desirable to calculate how much it will cost, as it may form the basis for a bid.
Whatever the purpose, the calculation procedure is always the same:
1. Production calculation
2. Hourly cost calculation
3. Coordination of production and hourly cost to arrive at a cost for the work to be performed.
For the sake of simplicity, we disregard that there are sometimes limiting factors which mean that a certain type of machine must be
chosen even though it may not be the most profitable one
However, in the majority of cases, it is the profitability expressed in cost per production unit which is the decisive factor in choosing
types of machines for a particular job:
The cost per produced unit is calculated from the following formula:
K=C/P
where:
K = the cost per unit
C = the hourly cost
P = the production per hour
Summary
Example
We assume the production from the complete summary form example (Articulated Hauler section) applies to the previous hourly
cost example.
Production per hour:
352 Bm3 (4 haulers x 88 Bm3)
460 Byd3 (4 haulers x 115 Byd3)
The total hourly cost for our fleet: 290
The cost per Bm3: K= 2908 = 8.26/ Bm3
460
The cost per Bm3: K= 2908 = 6.32/ Byd3
460
We are trying to estimate the cost of a contract that includes transporting 75.000 Bm3 98.040 Byd3.
The results of the production and hourly cost calculations can now be summarized in a table:
Type of machine Volvo A25F Volvo EC 460 Total system

Number of machines 1 4 1 5
Performance Bm / h3
88 352 352 352
Byd3 / h 115 460 460 460
Cost per hour 502 2008 900 2908
Cost Per Bm3 / h 5.70 5.70 1) 2.56 2) 8.25
Byd / h3
4.36 4.36 1.95 6.31
Total cost 619.500 3)
Duration of work hours 213 4)
1) 2008 = 5.70
352
2) 900 = 2.56
352
3) 75.000 x 8.26 = 619.500
4) 75.000 = 213
352
Summary
824 Formulas
Weight and Densities Calculation of radius
Weight Cases when the radius is unknown. Use the following

Density =
Volume formulas for calculation:
Loose volume 360 x b
Swell = r=
Bank volume α x 2π
Loose volume = Bank volume x Swell

r = radius in m
Loose volume b = arc. length in m
Bank volume = α = angle in degrees
Swell
Bank density π = 3.14
Loose density =
Swell
Bank density = Loose density x Swell
Actual payload = Loose density x Load volume
Resistance Production calculation
Total resistance = Rolling resistance + grade resistance The number of buckets per load:
The grade resistance is: + uphill Load volume

n=
– downhill Bucket volume
GMV x total resistance Productive time:

Rimpull = t
100 T= x 60
t+U
Production formula:
t
T= x 60
t+U
The number of transport machines that match the
loading equipment:
T (transp) P (loader)
N= or N =
n x t (load) P (transp)
Cost per unit:
T
K=
t
C The cost per hour

K The cost per unit
N The ideal number of transport machines relative to the loading equipment
n Number of buckets per load
P Production per hour
Q Load volume or weight
T Productive time in minutes per hour
t Cycle time in minutes
t (load) = loader cycle time in minutes Loader cycle time in minutes
t (transp) Transport machine cycle time in minutes
U Unavoidable job delays in minutes per cycle
Summary
Site Simulation 825
An earthmoving business approach
Customer value
Volvo Construction Equipment wants to provide you, the customer, with an earthmoving total solution. We can help you determine
your productivity and cost based on your fleet f Volvo equipment and your site conditions.
Your benefits:
• Enhanced overview of your operations,
• Shortened time needed for in-depth analysis,
• Maximized production of a fleet f equipment,
• Reduced cost by analyzing different scenarios.
Site Simulation - The tool

The Site Simulation tool is a computer-based tool developed by Volvo Construction Equipment. The software simulates, based on the
equipment performance, a fleet ope ation on a customer-defined jobsite
Typical applications:
• Determine optimal fleet
• Analyze performance of current fleet
• Analyze fleet inc ease,
• Compare performance,
• Evaluate and compare cost.
Simulation scenarios
Site Simulation can be used to evaluate and compare Volvo Articulated Haulers, Excavators and Wheel Loaders in different scenarios:
• Load and Haul with Volvo Excavators and Articulated Haulers,
• Load and Carry with Volvo Wheel Loaders,
• Log handling in forestry applications using Volvo Wheel Loaders with log grapples,
• Trenching with Volvo Excavators.
Simulation parameters
A correct and accurate study of your operations requires a combination of your knowledge of the site conditions and Volvo Construction
Equipment knowledge of machines and applications obtained during half a century in the earthmoving industry.
Site Simulation parameters:
• Material density,
• Job schedule,
• Loading and hauling units,
• Haul road information,
• Cost data.
Results
Volvo Construction Equipment Site Simulation generates on-screen results and also a wide variety of printable customer reports.
A complete productivity analysis will give production per year, month and hour or time required to meet a production target. Provided
that cost information is entered, it will estimate the fleet total cost per ton, bank cubic meter, or loose cubic meter, whatever you
choose.
Outputs from the study include:
• Hourly production,
• Fuel consumption,
• Cycle times with details on waiting and travel time,
• Animations and views to graphically analyze your operations.
Please contact your Volvo representative for further information.
Summary
Not all products are available in all markets. Under our policy of continuous improvement, we reserve the right to change specifications and design without prior noti e.
The illustrations do not necessarily show the standard version of the machine.
Ref. No 21_20001111_E 2015.03 / English-21 / GPPE / Volvo, Global Marketing

Performance Manual Site Assessment v3

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volvo performance manual

Short Cycle / Truck Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Articulated Haulers 190

Cont. Articulated Haulers

Ground pressure (Track info) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

Lifting table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

TCO - Total Cost of Ownership 814

Site Simulation 825

This book xxxxxx

Production Estimation Quick Guide

Wheel Loader Production Estimation

Volumes and densities

Fig. 2 Volume variation during excavation and transport.

Volume Changes Density Changes

Table. 1 Different material densities and swell factors

MATERIAL lb/Byd3 kg/bm3 lb/Lyd3 kg/lm3 Swell

Fill Factor / Load Volume

Fig. 4 Material heap on wheel loader bucket

Calculation of hauler load Volume

Table. 3 Classification guidance table

Effective Working Time

Working Hours per Year

Work Schedule Breakdown

Table. 6 Work Sc hedule Breakdown

Work Schedule Breakdown

Transport Road Properties

Grades and Grade Resistance

Fig. 6 Splitting of gravitational force into vectors

Table. 7 Rolling resistance, sinkage and coefficient of traction

Rolling resistance Sinkage of tires Coefficient

Table. 8 Ground structure

Max. distance between obstacles, 5 m 16 ft

Description of ground structure classes

Group 1 – Hard ground with solid obstacles

Class 0.0 Class 0.6

Class 0.2 Class 0.8

Class 0.4 Class 1.0

Group 2 – Soft ground with soft obstacles

Class 0.0 Class 0.6

Class 0.2 Class 0.8

Class 0.4 Class 1.0

Group 2 – Soft ground with soft obstacles forts.

All-wheel drive with differential locks.

Coeff cient of traction

Measurement of Transport Road Properties

Wheel Loader Introduction

Wheel Loader Work Cycle

Bucket Type and Size Selection

Straight edge general purpose bucket

Flat floor bucket

Straight edge rock bucket

Spade nose rock bucket

Wheel Loader productivity estimation

To determine these factors you will need to look into:

Hourly production and "Normal job conditions"

Bucket Handling Example

1 Find out the customers productivity requirements.

2 Calculate cycle time

3 Determine bucket size

L150H - L180H - L220H

Engine D13J (Tier 4f/Stage IV)

Engine D13J (Tier 4f/ Stage IV)

Engine D13J (Tier 4f/Stage IV)