ЛЕКСИКОЛОГІЯ ІСПИТ Comparative linguistics is an umbrella term to denote all types of linguistic enterprises(справ)

1. Lexicology as a subdivision of linguistics. Its object and tasks. founded on the assumption that languages can be compared.

Lexicology is a separate branch of linguistics which is concerned with the sign nature, meaning and use
of words and word combinations, it raises some important questions about the interpretation and  General comp.l. – is the general study of the vocabulary irrespective of a specific features of any
evaluation of the vocabulary of a language. It has its own object, aims and methods of scientific particular language. Linguistic phenomena and properties common for any language are called
research. general universals
Aims of lexicology are a study and systematic description of lexical units and the word-stock in general,  Specialized comp. l. – studies characteristic features of the vocabulary of a given language.
in respect to their origin, development, structure, semantics and current use.  I.Arnold and N.Rayevska mention that the general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective(не
Object: lexical and phraseological units, including morphemes, words, variable word-groups and idioms. залежні) of the specific features of any particular language is known as general lexicology and the
The basic object of Lexicology is the word. description of the characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given language - as special
Tasks: lexicology.
1. to investigate the word-structure, word-formation and combinations of words;
2. to analyze the semantic structure of words, semantic changes and semantic groupings of Historical vs descriptive
words;
3. to reveal the sources and means of the replenishment and growth of vocabulary, and the In Ukrainian linguistic tradition lexicology can be specified as
specific laws and regulations governing its development;  historical lexicology studying regularities of the formation, development and enrichment of
4. to study the vocabulary of a language as a system, relations between words in this language vocabulary from ancient times
system, synchronically and diachronically;  descriptive lexicology studying the lexical composition of modern languages
5. to describe the differentiation of vocabulary into various social, stylistic, territorial and
ethnic layers, and to ascertain the relations existing between these lexical layers of historical lexicology
vocabulary; vocabularies are constantly changing. Some of these changes are relatively minor and occur very
6. to study the problems of dictionary-compiling and lexicographical description of words. quickly (the addition of new words such as yuppie, chunnel, internet, grunge in English or
Lexicology is closely connected with other branches of linguistics such as phonology, grammar, плеймейкер, грант, офшорний, фітнес, памперс in Ukrainian. Other changes have a more
morphology, semantics, stylistics. dramatic effect on the overall form of the language and typically take place over a long period of
time.
2. Subdivisions of lexicology. The evolution of any vocabulary, as well as of its single elements, forms the object of historical
Comparative linguistics lexicology. This branch of linguistics discusses the origin of various words, their change and
an umbrella term to denote all types of linguistic enterprises(справ) founded on the assumption development, and investigates the linguistic and extra-linguistic factors modifying their form,
that languages can be compared. meaning and usage.
Contrastive etymology
Descriptive
linguistics Historical lexicology is closely connected with etymology which deals with the origin of a word
Synchronic by pointing out the root or primitive(корінне слово) upon which it is based.
Linguistics
General
Typological I.K.Bilodid considers etymology a part of historical lexicology.
Comparative
linguistics
Linguistics
Historical
Linguistics Descriptive lexicology
 deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development
Comparative
 studies morphological and semantic structures of words investigating the interdependence between
Linguistics Genetic Comparative Linguistics these two aspects
 is also concerned with stylistic differentiation of the lexical units of modern languages, their active
Specialized and passive layers at the present state of functioning.
Comparative Theory of Linguistic Contact
Linguistics
Contrastive l. – comparing of the vocabulary systems of two or more languages usually considering 1
aspect with the practical aim.
Areal Linguistics
Typological l. - studies and classifies languages according to their structural and functional features
irrespectively to the origin.

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Applied branches of lexicology
- lexicography (creating dictionaries)
- translation studies (to be successful in translation)
- linguistic pedagogic;
- speech culture
Edward Sapir (1884–1939)
Being a collective art of expression each language possesses “aesthetic factors - phonetic, rhythmic,
symbolic, morphological - which it does not completely share with any other language”
Our task is to discover how “the colour and texture of its matrix” can be “carried over without loss of
modification” as without that “a work of literary art can never be translated”
Deep treatment of theory and methods in lexicology can be found in books by
O.S.Akhmanova, V.N.Yartseva,, I.V.Arnold, N.N.Amosova, G.A.Zhluktenko, K.T.Barantsev,
F.S.Batsevich, A.I.Smirnitskyy, M.A. Zhovtobriuh et al.
Western European and American linguists acknowledge lexicological studies but commonly include
them in books on grammar: “The study of words is the business of lexicology, but the regularities in
their formation are similar in kind to the regularities of grammar and are closely connected to them”.
3. Tasks of contrastive lexicology. Its theoretical and practical value.
Contrastive linguistics
There are many differences among English and Ukrainian as even a superficial(поверхневий)
examination of their sound patterns, vocabularies, and word order reveals. But this does not mean that
there are no limits on the type of lexical systems that human beings can acquire and use. Сurrent
research suggests that there are important lexical principles and tendencies shared by all human
languages. Studying these principles contributes to the development of the general linguistic theory and
is the main concern of contrastive linguistics.
Contrastive Linguistics as a systematic branch of linguistic science is of fairly recent date, though it is
not the idea which is new, but rather the systematization and the underlying principles.
Task: to reveal the features of sameness and difference in lexical meanings and semantic structures of
correlated words in both philogenically related and non-related languages.
In fact, the contrastive analysis grew as a result of practical demands of language teaching
methodology where it was empirically shown that errors which are made recurrently by foreign
language students can be often traced back to the differences in the structure of the target language and
the learner's mother tongue.
It is common knowledge that one of the major problems in learning a foreign language is the
interference caused by the difference between the learner’s mother tongue and the target language. All
the problems of foreign language teaching will certainly not be solved by Contrastive Linguistics alone.
The most effective teaching materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the
target language carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner.
They proceed from the assumption that the categories, elements, etc. on the semantic as well as on the
syntactic and other levels are valid for both languages, i.e. are adopted from a universal inventory.
The contrastive analysis can be canted out at three linguistic levels: phonology, grammar
(morphology and syntax) and lexis (vocabulary).
It is commonly assumed by non-linguists that all languages have rocabulary systems in
which words themselves differ in sound-form but refer to reality in the same way. From this assumption
it follows that for every word in the mother tongue there is an exact equivalent in the foreign language.
But every language classifies this reality in its own way by means of vocabulary units.
Contrastive lexicology studies both convergent and divergent features (similarities and differences) in
the vocabulary systems of both cognate and distant or non-related languages on the synchronic level. Its
difference from Comparative Philology and Typology. The forerunners of CL (V.Mathesius, R.Lado).
One can proceed from the assumption that the categories, elements on the semantic, syntactic and other
levels are adopted from a universal inventory. Procedure: to study a phenomenon in one language, to
study it in the other, to see how they compare. E.g.: linking verbs: to grow thin - схуднути, to get angry
- розсердитися, to fall ill - захворіти. Vocabulary system differ in sound form but refer to reality in
the same way.
Differences in the classification of reality (foot, leg - нога, clock - годинник, cousin - брат, сестра,
privacy - пояснення).
Different combinability (head of a person - голова людини, head of a bed -узголів’я ліжка, mayor of
the the city - міський голова; new dress - нове плаття, New Year - Новий рік, new potatoes - молода
картопля, new bread - свіжий хліб; to fill the lamp/ a truck/ a pipe/ a gap - заправляти,
завантажувати, набивати, заповнювати пропуск; тонка книжка - a thin book, тонка іронія - subtle
irony, тонка талія - slim waist.
The usage of function words (до 5 - till 5, до війни - before the war, до рогу - to the corner).
Idiomatic language (він добре вчиться - He is a good student, Він рано встає - He is an early riser)
and situational patterns or formulaic sentences (Ви набрали не той номер - Wrong number; Вибачте! -
Нічого! - I’m sorry. - It’s all right, Never mind) constitute analyzable wholes.
Theoretical value of contrastive lexicology
 becomes obvious if we realize that it forms the study of one of the three main aspects of language,
i.e. its vocabulary, grammar and sound system.
 just as the small set of Arabic numerals can be combined to express in writing any natural numbers,
so the small set of sounds and letters can be combined to express in speech and writing respectively
an indefinitely large number of words.
Practical value of contrastive lexicology
 contrastive lexicology came into being to meet the needs of many different branches of applied
linguistics:
 translation,
 lexicography,
 standardization of terminology,
 information processing,
 foreign language teaching,
 literary criticism and others.
stimulates a systematic approach to the facts of the vocabulary and plays a prominent part in the
general training of every linguist.
4. The IC analysis in lexicological studies.
The research methods applied in lexicology have always been closely connected with the paradigms of
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linguistic research.
The development of structuralist ideas gave birth to the structural method which includes several types
of analysis.
Immediate constituents analysis
The theory of Immediate Constituents (IC) was originally elaborated as an attempt to determine the
ways in which lexical units are relevantly related to one another .
It was discovered that combinations of units are usually structured into hierarchial sets of binary
constructions.
The fundamental aim of IC analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent
sequences or ICs thus revealing the hierarchical structure of this set.
Successive segmentation results in ultimate constituents (UC). i.e. two-facet units that cannot be
segmented into smaller units having both sound-form and meaning. The procedure was first suggested
by L. Bloomfield [„Languageˮ] and was later developed by E. Nida [„Morphology. The Descriptive
Analysis of Wordsˮ].
A sample analysis which has become almost classical, being repeated many times by many authors, is
Bloomfield`s analysis of the word ungentlemanly. Comparing the word with the other utterances the
listener recognises the morpheme un- as a negative prefix because he has often come across words built
on the pattern un- + adjective stem: uncertain, unconscious, uneasy, unfortunate, unmistakable,
unnatural. One can also come across the adjective gentlemanly.
Thus at the first cut we obtain the following immediate constituents: un – + gentlemanly.
If we continue our analysis we see that although gent occurs as a free form in low colloquial usage, no
such words as lemanly may be found either as a free or as a bound constituent, so this time we have to
separate the final morpheme. We are justified in so doing as there are many adjectives following the
pattern noun stem + -ly, such as womanly masterly, scholarly, soldierly with the same semantic
relationship of „having the quality of the person denoted by the stem”; we also have come across the
noun gentleman in other utterances.
The two first stages of the analysis resulted in separating a free and a bound form:
 1) un- + gentlemanly, 2) gentleman + -ly.
The third cut has its peculiarities. The devision into gent- + -leman is obviously impossible as no such
patterns exist in English, so the cut is gentle + man. A similar pattern is observed in nobleman, and so
we state adjective stem + -man.
The word gentle is open to discussion. If we compare it with such adjectives as brittle, fertile, juvenile,
little, noble, subtle and some more containing the suffix -le/-ile added to a bound stem, they form a
pattern for our case.
To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only two ICs, one of which is the stem of the
given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As
a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages we obtain the
following formula:
 un- + {[(gent- + -le) + -man] + -ly}
This method of analysis is extremely fruitful in discovering the derivational structure of words.
5. Distributional analysis in lexicological studies.
In linguistics, distributional analysis is most commonly associated with the name of Zelig Harris.
Many problems with his approach are well known:
 the neglect of semantic aspects of language and the lack of explicitness of his procedures,
 syntactic rules manifest themselves in distributional patterns,
 distributional analysis is the central concern of linguistics.
In his theory, the analysis of distributional data consists of two steps: „the setting up of elements, and the
statement of the distribution of these elements relative to each otherˮ.
Segments of repetitions of an identical utterance are called free variants of each other. More complicated
entities such as phonemes, morphemes or syntactic categories are then built up from the initial elements
by searching for groups of elements that do not contrast with each other, because they have identical
distributions
For example,
 a and an can be grouped into one class „indefinite articleˮ since they occur in disjoined
environments;
 our and his can be grouped into one class
„ possessive pronoun” since they occur in identical environments.
In its various forms is commonly used nowadays and is treated on the level of not only formal but also
semantic classes or subclasses of lexical units.
In other words, by this term we understand the position which lexical unit occupies or may occupy in the
text or in the flow of speech.
Distributional analysis in lexicology aims to study lexical units in terms of their distribution, i.e. the
immediate environment in the flow of speech.
It is assumed that the meaning of any lexical unit may be viewed as made up by the lexical meaning of
its components and by the meaning of the pattern of their arrangement, i.e. their distributional meaning.
This may perhaps be illustrated by the semantic analysis of polymorphic words. The word singer, e.g.,
has the meaning of ‘one who sings or is singing’ not only due to the lexical meaning of the stem sing-
and the derivational morpheme -er (= active doer), but also because of the meaning of their
distributional pattern. A different pattern of arrangement of the same morphemes *ersing changes the
whole into a meaningless string of sounds.
Thus it can be observed that in a number of cases words have different lexical meanings in different
distributional patterns. e.g., the lexical meaning of the verb to treat in the following:
 to treat somebody well, kindly, etc. — ‘to act or behave towards’ where the verb is followed by
a noun + an adverb
 to treat somebody to ice-cream, champagne , etc. — ‘to supply with food, drink, entertainment,
etc. at one’s own expence’ where the verb is followed by a noun+the preposition to + another
noun.
Compare also the meaning of the adjective ill in different distributional structures, e.g. ill look, ill luck,
ill health, etc. (ill+N — ‘bad’) and fall ill, be ill, etc. (V+ill — ’sick’).
The interdependence of distribution and meaning can be also observed at the level of word-groups. It is
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only the distribution of otherwise completely identical lexical units that accounts for the difference in
the meaning of water tap and tap water. Thus, as far as words are concerned the meaning by distribution
may be defined as an abstraction on the syntagmatic level.
 not only words in word-groups but also whole word-groups may acquire a certain denotational
meaning due to certain distributional pattern to which this particular meaning is habitually
attached.
For example, habitually the word preceding ago denotes a certain period of time (an hour, a month, a
century, etc. ago) and the whole word-group denotes a certain temporal unit. In this particular
distributional pattern any word is bound to acquire an additional lexical meaning of a certain period of
time, e.g. a grief ago (E. Cummings), three cigarettes ago (A. Christie), etc.
Distributional pattern as such seems to possess a component of meaning not to be found in individual
words making up the word-group or the sentence. Thus, the meaning ‘make somebody do smth by
means of something’ cannot be traced back to the lexical meanings of the individual words in ‘to coax
somebody into accepting the suggestion’.
The distributional pattern itself seems to impart this meaning to the whole irrespective of the meaning of
the verb used in this structure, i.e. in the pattern V+N+into+Ving verbs of widely different lexical
meaning may be used. One can say, e.g., to kiss somebody into doing smth, to flatter somebody into
doing smth, to beat somebody into doing something,etc.; in all these word-groups one finds the meaning
‘to make somebody do something’ which is actually imparted by the distributional pattern.
To conclude, distribution defined as the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units can be
interpreted as co-occurrence of lexical items and the two terms can be viewed as synonyms.
It follows that by the term distribution we understand the aptness of a word in one of its meanings to
collocate or to co-occur with a certain group, or certain groups of words having some common
semantic component.
6. Transformational procedures in lexicological studies.
 repatterning of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of
meaning of practically identical distributional patterns .
As distributional patterns are in a number of cases polysemantic, transformational procedures are of help
not only in the analysis of semantic sameness / difference of the lexical units but also in the analysis of
the factors that account for their polysemy . Word-groups of identical distributional structure when
repatterned show that the semantic relations between words and consequently the meaning may be
different . In this analysis linguists proceed from the assumption that the smallest units of meaning are sememes or
 e. g. A pattern "possessive pronoun "+"noun"(his car , his failure , his arrest, his kindness )
According to transformational analysis the meaning of each word-group may be represented as :
 he has a car, he failed, he was arrested, he is kind
 In each of the cases different meaning is revealed : possession , action , passive action , quality
The rules of transformation are rather strict and shouldn't be identified with paraphrasing in the usual
sense of the term There are many restrictions both on syntactic and lexical levels
I. Permutation - the repatterning on condition that the basic subordinative relationships between words
and word-stems of the lexical units are not changed
 e. g. "His work is excellent " may be transformed into " his excellent work , the excellence of his
work , he works excellently “
In the example given the relationships between lexical units and the stems of the notional words are
essentially the same .
II. Replacement - the substitution of a component of the distributional structure by a member of a
certain strictly defined set of lexical units.
 e. g. Replacement of a notional verb by an auxiliary or link verb (he will make a bad mistake and
he will make a good teacher ). The sentences have identical distributional structure but only in the
second one the verb "to make " can be substituted by " become " or " be ".
The fact of impossibility of identical transformations of distributionally identical structures is a formal
proof of the difference in their meaning.
III. Addition (or expansion) may be illustrated by the application of the procedure of addition to the
classification of adjectives into two groups-adjectives denoting inherent and non-inherent qualities.
 e. g. John is happy. John is tall.
If we add a word-group in Moscow, we shall see that "John is happy in Moscow” has meaning while
the second one is senseless .
That is accounted by the difference in the meaning of adjectives denoting inherent (tall) and non-
inherent (happy) qualities .
IV. Deletion - a procedure which shows whether one of the words semantically subordinated to the
other, e. g. the word-group "red flowers " may be deleted and transformed into "flowers " without
making the sentence senseless : I like red flowers or I like flowers.
The other word-group "red tape " can't be deleted and transformed either into " I hate tape " or "I hate
red " because in both transformed sentences the meaning of the phrase "red tape" means "bureaucracy"
and it can't be divided into two parts
7. Componental analysis in lexicological studies.
 an attempt to describe the meaning of words in terms of a universal inventory of semantic
components and their possible combinations.
semes .
 e. g. In the lexical item "woman" several sememes may be singled out , such as human , not an
animal, female , adult.
The analysis of the word "girl" will show the following sememes : human , female , young.
The last component of the two words differentiates them and makes impossible to mix up the words in
the process of communication. It is classical form of revealing the work of componental analysis to
apply them to the so called closed systems of vocabulary , for example , colour terms .
Componental analysis is practically always combined with transformational procedures or statistical
analysis .The combination makes it possible to find out which of the meanings should be represented
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first of all in the dictionaries of different types and how the words should be combined in order to make is allowable for a given structure to appear, he is interested in its frequency, in how often it appears.
your speech sensible It is, however, naive to think that a mere attachment of numbers confers rigour on an argument, that
giving percentage or adopting mathematical terminology automatically makes the study "exact",
Componential approach to meaning has a long history in linguistics. L. Hjelmslev's "objective", "scientific".
commutation test deals with similar relationships and may be illustrated by proportions from which the Computation is useful only if it follows certain rules of mathematical statistics;
distinctive features d1, d2, d3 are obtained by means of the following procedure:  the scholar must be able to state his margin of error and to say in what relationship his data stand
‘boy’ ‘man’ ‘bull’ to the whole body of similar language phenomena.
d1 = ------------- = ---------------- = --------------- There has been a considerable growth of interest and activity in statistical linguistics in the last decades.
'girl' 'woman' 'cow’ Statistical approach is most helpful when we have large masses of data to analyse, and this is precisely
hence the case with vocabulary study.
‘boy’ 'girl' ‘boy’ 'girl' A single observation may not be reliable, whereas a correctly executed statistical study shows trends, the
d2 = ----------- = ------------- d 3 = ----------- = ------------- most typical properties and correlations. It is true that some details are lost because statistical study is
‘man’ 'woman' ‘bull’ 'cow’ necessarily simplifying and abstract. But a general orientation may be gained, provided that the units for
analysis are well chosen and sufficiently defined and that the factors we decide to take into consideration
As the first relationship is that of male to female, the second, of young to adult, and the third, (or disregard) correspond to the purposes of the study
human to animal, the meaning ‘boy’ may be characterized with respect to the distinctive features d 1, d2, Probably the best known result so far achieved in the field of statistical linguistics is the formula known
d3 as containing the semantic elements ‘male’, ‘young’ and ‘human’. The existence of correlated as Zipf’s law. The formula states essentially that if the words in a long text are ranked in order of
oppositions proves that these elements are recognized by the vocabulary. decreasing frequency of occurrence in the text, so that the most frequent word has the rank r=1, the next
In criticising this approach, the English linguist Prof. W.Haas argues that the commutation test frequent has the rank r=2, and so forth, then the product of the rank r for any word in the text will be
looks very plausible if one has carefully selected examples from words entering into clear-cut semantic approximately the same constant c, where c depends on the length of the text. His other formula
groups, such as terms of kinship or words denoting colours. It is less satisfactory in other cases, as there suggests that the number of meanings in any polysemantic word is proportional to the square root of its
is no linguistic framework by which the semantic contrasts can be limited. The commutation test relative frequency.
borrows its restrictions from philosophy.
A very close resemblance to componential analysis is the method of logical definition by Successful efforts have been made to apply certain statistical techniques to the study of problems in
dividing a genus into species and species into subspecies indispensable to dictionary definitions. It is historical lexicology. The statistical study of vocabulary is gaining more impetus every year. Counts are
therefore but natural that lexicographic definitions lend themselves as suitable material for the analysis made for the vocabularies of great writers and average speakers. One of the most prominent
of lexical groups in terms of a finite set of semantic components. Consider the following definitions representatives of statistical linguistics Pierre Guiraud has estimated that the "passive" vocabulary of an
given in Hornby's dictionary: average educated person comprises about 20, 000 words.
Cow— a full grown female of any animal of the ox family. Calf — the young of the cow.
The first definition contains all the elements we have previously obtained from proportional Modern structural ways of analysis are often combined with statistical procedures making the
oppositions. The second is incomplete but we can substitute the missing elements from the previous whole approach more rigorous. Statistics describes how things are on the average. For a modern linguist
definiton. It is possible to describe parts of the vocabulary by formalising these definitions and reducing it is not enough to know that it is allowable for a given structure to appear, he is interested in its
them to some standard form according to a set of rules. The explanatory transformations thus obtained frequency, in how often it appears. It is, however, naive to think that a mere attachment of numbers
constitute an intersection of transformational and componential analysis. The result of this procedure confers rigour on an argument, that giving percentage or adopting mathematical terminology
applied to collective personal nouns may be illustrated by the following. The meaning of which we shall automatically makes the study "exact", "objective", "scientific". Computation is useful only if it follows
denote by S with the subscript N coll. certain rules of mathematical statistics; the scholar must be able to state his margin of error and to say in
body people who V what relationship his data stand to the whole body of similar language phenomena.
SN coll → a { group } of { persons } { V-ing } Every lexicological research is based on collecting linguistic evidence, in other words,
number men V-ed examples. Having, on the basis of preliminary study, determined the object of research, i. e. the problem
e.g. team→ a group of people acting together in a game, piece of work, etc. to be investigated and the set of units or phenomena to be described, the linguist proceeds to choose his
method and collect and classify his data. He must have at hand a sufficiently wide choice of contexts, so
that his results might be statistically reliable. To know how many examples are necessary to make the
8. Statistical methods of analysis in lexicological studies . conclusion valid, one must determine the relative frequency of the phenomenon or unit studied.
Mathematical statistics supplies research workers with formulas showing the necessary scope of material
Modern structural ways of analysis are often combined with statistical procedures making the whole depending on the amount of error they are prepared to tolerate.
approach more rigorous. There has been a considerable growth of interest and activity in statistical linguistics in the
Statistics describes how things are on the average. For a modern linguist it is not enough to know that it present decade. Statistical approach is most helpful when we have large masses of data to analyse, and

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this is precisely the case with vocabulary study. A single observation may not be reliable, whereas a
correctly executed statistical study shows trends, the most typical properties and correlations. It is true
that some details are lost because statistical study is necessarily simplifying and abstract. But a general
orientation may be gained, provided that the units for analysis are well chosen and sufficiently defined
and that the factors we decide to take into consideration (or disregard) correspond to the pur poses of the
study.
Consequently the first requirement for a successful statistical study is the representativeness of
the objects counted for the problem in question, its relevance from the linguistic point of view.
In order to be able to formulate simpler or more general theoretical statements about some
aspects of the vocabulary system, or give new insuights into this domain, more satisfactory than those
offered hitherto, one has to follow very exactly the procedures of mathematical statistics. This will
require a serious mathematical training. Unfortunately, only a small minority of linguists have at present
mathematical knowledge necessary for understanding these methods.
One of the greatest dangers involved in the unskilled introduction of statistics is that they may
lead to misleading results, which bring a dissapointment in these powerful and promising procedures.
Probably the best known result so far achieved in the field of statistical linguistics is the formula
known as Zipf’s law. The formula states essentially that if the words in along text are ranked in order of
decreasing frequency of occurrence in the text, so that the most frequent word has the rank r=1, the next
frequent hhas the rank r=2, and so forth, then the product of the rank r for any word in the text will be
approximately the same constant c, where c depends on the length of the text. His other formula
suggests that the number of meanings in any polysemantic word is proportional to the square root of its
relative frequency. Successful efforts have been made to apply certain statistical techniques to the study
of problems in historical lexicology.The statistical study of vocabulary is gaining more impetus every
year. Counts are made for the vocabularies of great writers and average speakers. One of the most
prominent representatives of statistical linguistics Pierre Guiraud has estimated that the "passive" vocab-
ulary of an average educated person comprises about 20, 000 words.
Only a small part of these is often used; the frequency distribution presents great interest:
The first 100 most frequent words make up 60% of
«« 1000 « « « « « 85% « grammatical meaning of plurality in Ukrainian (хороші/погані новини) but in English we say ‘news is’
«« 4000 « « « « « 97, 5% « Contrastive analysis brings to light the peculiar way in which every language combines and
It follows that the rest of the words (about 15, 000) take only 2, 5% and thus occur very rarely.
The most frequent are form words; on the average they take about 33% of a text and sometimes as much
as 50%. In writing, for instance, the most frequent word is the, in telephone conversations the first
person singular pronoun I.
The figures are of course closely dependent on the type of speech and material analysed. Thus,
some linguists find that in colloquial speech it is only 50 most frequent words that account for about
60°/o. Even with a vocabulary of 20, 000 words one can manage to get along for only 10 or 15 words on
the average, before one repeats oneself.
According to the American scientist G. K. Zipf, a pioneer in linguistic statistics, the majority of
commonly used words are polysemantic monosyllables. When a long word comes to be often used there
is a tendency to abbreviate it: ad < advertisement, fab < fabulous, frig (fridge} < refrigerator, TV <
television.
In appraising the results one must take into consideration that most word counts are based not
on recording words as units of language but as word forms. Make, makes, made, making are counted
separately but their various meanings are not differentiated.Even with these limitations word counts are
highly instructive.
The application of statistical methods in linguistics may help to throw light on the problems of
semantic fields and stylistics, and is also of relevance to certain problems of communication
engineering.
There must be a warning: no procedures or techniques exist that may serve as panaceas for all
the difficult problems — the method of investigation should be always chosen or evolved according to
the particular task with which the investigator is confronted.One more specific feature must, however,
be stressed here. All modern methods aim at being impersonal and objective in the sense that they must
lead to generalizations verifiable by all competent persons. In this effort to find verifiable relationships
concerning typical contrastive shapes and arrangements of linguistic elements, functioning in a system,
the study of vocabulary has turned away from chance observation and made considerable scientific
progress.
9. Contrastive analysis in lexicological studies.
Contrastive analysis is a detailed comparison of the structure of two languages. People proceed from
the assumption that the categories, elements on the semantic as well as on the syntactic and other levels
are valid for both languages .
Contrastive analysis can be carried out at three linguistic levels: phonology, grammar (morphology and
syntax) and lexis. Contrastive analysis is applied to reveal the features of sameness and difference in the
meaning and structure of correlated words in different languages.
Differences in the lexical meaning of correlated words account for the differences of their collocability
in different languages.
Thus, the English adjective “new” and the Ukrainian adjective ”новий” when taken in isolation are felt
as correlated words: a new dress, New Year. In collocation with other nouns however the
Ukrainian adjective cannot be used in the same meaning in which the English word “new” is currently
used : new potatoes , new bread , etc.
Contrastive analysis on the level of the grammatical meaning reveals that co-related words in different
languages may differ in grammatical characteristics. For example a word ‘новини’ has the
not ‘are’(uncountable).
structures in lexical units various concepts to denote extra-linguistic reality
6

10. The word as a fundamental unit of the language.
Approaches to definition of a word is the most complex problem in the analysis of linguistic structure.
 In typologically different groups of languages the criteria employed in establishing the
definition of word are of different types.
 Each group of languages constitutes a separate system with its own patterns of formation and
own types of linguistic units.
Any unit can be considered unit of the language on condition it:
 possesses external (sound) form and semantic content,
 is not created in the process of speech but used as something already existing and only
reproduced in speech.
Each linguistic unit has a constant and specific meaning.
Two possible main directions of linguistic research:
Phonetics - we study the speech event without reference to its meaning.
Semantics - we study the relation of the event to the features of meaning.
The definition should indicate the most essential characteristic features of the notion expressed by the
term, including the features by which this notion is distinguished from other similar notions. In defining
the word one must distinguish it from other linguistic units, such as the phoneme, the morpheme, or the
word-combination.
In Ferdinand de Saussure’s opinion „the notion of the word is not compatible with our idea of a
concrete language unit”.
Charles Bally also considered this notion one of the most ambiguous occurring in linguistics.
Though in different languages words can be singled out of the stream of speech differently and that’s
why it may be difficult to suggest the definition common for all languages but still it is not impossible.
As O.I.Smirnitskiy remarked that the versatility of peculiarities of different languages cannot prevent us
from defining the word as the linguistic unit in general, because despite this versatility there are features
which all words possess, great as the deviations from typical cases may be.
important features of the word
1. The word is a dialectical unity of form and content.
2. The word is internally stable (in terms of the order of the component morphemes).
3. The word is the minimum significant unit capable of functioning alone and characterized by
positional mobility (permutable with other words in the sentence).
This makes the basis for the opposition between the word and the phoneme, and the word and the
morpheme. The phoneme and the morpheme cannot function otherwise than in the word.
11. Criteria of the definition of the word.
syntactic criterion
Dionysius Thrax : the word is the smallest part of the sentence.
With different modifications this criterion has been applied by a lot of scientists. Henry Sweet defined
the word as “a minimum sentence” and Leonard Bloomfield as “minimum free form”.
semantic-logical criterion
W.Humboldt, Е.Zivers, D.Kudriavskyy identified the sentence with the logical statement and
considered the smallest part of the sentence - the word - the sign of a separate notion.
psychological criterion
the word is as the linguistic equivalent of a separate concept.
semantic-phonological criterion
A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its aspect of denoting something which is spoken about
(A.H.Gardiner)
semantic criterion
connected discourse, if analyzed from the semantic point of view, “will fall into a certain number of
meaningful segments which are ultimately composed of meaningful units. These meaningful units are
termed words” (S. Ulmann)
syntactic-semantic criterion
“one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated “meaning” into which the sentence resolves
itself” (Edward Sapir)
A. Meillet
combines the semantic, phonological and grammatical criteria and advances a formula which underlies
many subsequent definitions, both abroad and in our country: “A word is an association of a
particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical
employment”
12. Morphemes, free and bound forms.
A linguistic form which is never spoken alone is a bound form, all others are free forms.
A linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic resemblance to any other form is a simple
form or morpheme. A morpheme can be described phonetically, since it consists of one or more
phonemes.
It is the morpheme that is the smallest meaningful unit of form. The meaning of a
morpheme is a sememe.
The linguists assume that each sememe is a constant and definite unit of meaning,
different from all other meanings in the language.
 The total stock of morphemes in a language is its lexicon.
 According to the role morphemes play in constructing words, morphemes are subdivided into
roots and affixes ( lat. affixus - прикрiплений).
 The latter are further subdivided, according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and
infixes, and according to their function and meaning, into derivational and functional affixes,
the latter also called outer formatives. (The term was suggested by E.Nida as contrasted to
inner formatives which is equivalent to our term derivational affixes.)
Functional affixes (flexion or ending) convey grammatical meaning. They build different forms of one
and the same word. Complete sets of all the various forms of a word when considered as inflectional
patterns are termed paradigms. An inflectional paradigm is therefore defined as the system of
grammatical forms characteristic of a word.
Derivational affixes (suffixes, prefixes, postfixes, infixes) help to form new words with the same root.
Derivational (lexical) paradigm is a number of derivative words.
13. Aims and principles of morphemic analysis.
A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the
analysis into Immediate Constituents (IC).
7
The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in
certain structural correlations.
As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain
the following formula: un+ gentle + -man + -ly
Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the
constituents.
A diagram presenting the three cuts described looks as follows:
1. un- / gentlemanly
2. un- / gentleman / - ly
3. un- / gentle / - man / - ly
A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the
word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.
Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two
principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.
According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the
identification of the affix within a set of words
According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-
morpheme in a word-cluster
As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.
However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases is not always so transparent and
simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into
morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which
naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive,
conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [re], [de] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they
undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes re-, de- as found in words
re-write, reorganize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, the [-tein] or [-si:v] possess any lexical or
functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because
[re] distinguishes retain from detain and [-tain] distinguishes retain from receive.
It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their
order arrangement point to the afflxal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand -tain and
-ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize
these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart
from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes.
As far as the complexity of the morphemic
structure of the word is concerned all English
words fall into two large classes.
To Сlass I belong segmentable words, i.e. those allowing of segmentation into morphemes, e.g.
agreement, information, fearless, quickly, door-handle, etc.
To Сlass II belong non-segmentable words, i.e. those not allowing of such segmentation, e.g. house,
girl, woman, husband, etc.
The operation of breaking a segmentable word into the constituent
morphemes is referred to in present-day linguistic literature as the
analysis of word-structure on t h e m o r p h e m i c l e v e l
The morphemic analysis aims at splitting a segmentable word into its constituent morphemes — the
basic units at this level of word-structure analysis — and at determining their number and types. The
degree of morphemic segment-ability is not the same for different words.
Three types of morphemic segmentability of words are distinguished: c o m p l e t e , c o n d i t i o n a l
and d e f e c t i v e .
The morphemic analysis according to the IC and UC may be carried out on the basis of two
principles: the so-called r o o t p r i n c i p l e and the a f f i x p r i n c i p l e . According to the
affix principle the segmentation of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the
identification of an affixational morpheme within a set of words; for example, the identification of the
suffixational morpheme -less leads to the segmentation of words like useless, hopeless, merciless, etc.,
into the suffixational morpheme –less and the root-morphemes within a word-cluster; the identification
of the root-morpheme agree- in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree makes it possible to split
these words into the root - agree- and the affixational morphemes -able, -ment, dis-. As a rule, the
application of one of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.
14. Criteria for distinguishing between inflectional and derivational affixes.
Functional affixes convey grammatical meaning. They build different forms of one and the same word.
Complete sets of all the various forms of a word when considered as inflectional patterns, such as
declentions or conjugations, are termed paradigms. An inflectional paradigm is therefore defined as the
system of grammatical forms characteristic of a word. e.g. near, nearer, nearest; son, sons, son’s, sons’.
Lexical derivatives make up a derivational or lexical paradigm. Thus, for instance, from the word love a
number of derivative words can be generated: love, lovely, loveliness, loveless, lover, loving, lovingly,
lovable, beloved.
Three criteria are commonly used to help distinguish between inflexional and derivational affixes.
1) Inflexion does not change either the part of speech or the type of meaning found in the word to which
it applies.
2) A second property of inflexional affixes has to do with the order in which they are combined with a
stem relative to derivational affixes.
3) A third criterion for distinguishing between inflexional and derivational affixes has to do with
productivity, the relative freedom with which they can combine with stems of the appropriate category.
Inflexional affixes typically have relatively few exceptions. The suffix -s, for example, can combine
with virtually any noun that allows a plural form. In contrast, derivational affixes characteristically apply
to restricted classes of stems. Thus -ize can combine with only certain adjectives to form a verb.
modern -ize * new-ize
legal-ize * lawful-ize
15. Contrastive analysis of the morphemic structure of English and Ukrainian word.
Morphological analysis
The theoretical foundations of word analysis in terms of its morphological structure apply both to
English and Ukrainian languages. But according to the classification of Indo-European languages
English and Ukrainian belong to different types of flexional languages. English is analytic and
Ukrainian is synthetic.
We never find pure synthesis or analysis in any language. But English is notably analytic. There are only
seven inflectional affixes in it (all suffixes). Ukrainian has dozens of inflectional affixes and encodes
contrasts not represented in English.
8

Derivational affixes
1. Suffixes - realize their meaning only in connection with the root morpheme. For example, suffixes
can express the meaning of generalized property, abstract notion when combined with roots of
adjectives denoting concrete properties or features of objects: добр-от-а - добр-ий, хоробр-iсть -
хоробр-ий, крут-изн-а - крут-ий.
The suffix being combined with the root specifies or changes the content of the word and together with
the ending indicates what part of speech it belongs to. Suffixes can transform the word into another part
of speech.
2. Prefixes - differ from derivational suffixes because they are added to the whole word and not to the
root and can't transform the word into another part of speech, e.g. весна - провесна, давнiй -
прадавнiй, ходити - заходити, звично - незвично.
3. Postfixes - - ся serves to create reflexive verbs: лити - литися, солодкий - насолоджуватися.
4. Infixes - are used to connect two or more roots thus occur within a stem. In Ukrainian this function
can be performed by three vowels : о, е, є, e.g. лiсотундра, першодрукар, працездатний,
життєрадiсний.
Functional affixes
 form-creating (формотворчi) and word-changing (словозмiннi).
Form-creating affixes differ from derivational as they are combined with the stem of one and the same
word while derivational affixes are combined with the stem to create a new word.
Form-creating suffixes are standardized, obligatory for all the words belonging to the part of speech
within which they create a definite system of word-forms (словоформи)
flection or ending
 expresses the connections of words with other words in word-combinations or sentences.
Types of declention (вiдмiнювання) of nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns are differentiated through
the system of endings which reflect grammatical meanings of case, gender and number or only case (in
cardinal numerals).
Verbs have a complicated system of conjugation (дiєвiдмiнювання). Main indicators of the categories
of person, gender and number are endings. Endings are highly abstract. They can be easily attached to
all the words belonging to a certain type of declenation or conjugation and create a definite system of
word-forms.
M.P.Ivchenko
I. Non-derived words:
1. Non-derived words consisting of the root: тепер, тут, там, дуже, мало, завжди, скрiзь, можна,
у, при, вiд, над, до, i, але.
2. Non-derived words consisting of the root and the ending: мов-а, вод-а, вез-у, весел-ий. Here
belong also words with zero affix: вiк, вiз, нiс.
II. Derived words made up of roots, prefixes and suffixes:
1. Words consisting of the root and the suffix: скрип-к-а, iстор-ичн-ий.
Several suffixes can be used.
2. Words consisting of the root and the prefix: до-пис, пере-клад.
3. Combination of the root with prefixes and suffixes: пере-стриб-ну-ти, про-свiт-и-ти, за-пев-ни-
ти.
III. Compound words created by combining two stems with or without infix: лiсостеп, скороход.
16. Definition of the field of word-formation and approaches to the classification of the
principal types of word-formation.
Word-formation is the branch of the science of language which studies the patterns on which a
language forms new lexical units i.e. words. It is said to treat of composites which are analyzable both
formally and semantically.
Principles of classification of the types of word-formation
I. Based upon the morphological structure of the initial word or words . Proceding from this principle we
may distinguish:
A.Derivation - the type where the word has only one semantic centre, the other morphemes
being affixes, e.g. brotherhood.
B. Compounding - the type where the word has at least two semantic centres,e.g. red-hot,
navy-blue walking-stick, newspaper, to whitewash.
II. Based on the relationship of components to the new word. According to this principle we have the
following types:
A.Morphological word-building - creating new words using morphemes and changing the
structure of the existing words after certain linguistic patterns:
 - derivation - suffixation and prefixation, zero-derivation,
 - compounding - joining of two or more stems to form a new unit,
 - shortening - abbreviation or curtailing of the word,
 - sound-interchange- the change of a unit in a morpheme resulting in a new lexical meaning
(life - live),
 - back – formation - creating a new word by removing actual or supposed affixes (edit from
editor)
 - reduplication (to murmur)
B. Morphological-syntactic word-building
- new words appear through transference from one part of speech into another which implies both a
change in morphological and syntactic peculiarities of a word e.g. the unemployed, the poor, молода
тополя i молода запрошувала гостей на весiлля.
C. Lexico-syntactic word-building
The formation of new units by the process of isolation from free word-combinations e.g. forget-me-not,
marry-go-round.
17. Word-formation rules and the notion of productivity in the field of word-formation.
rules of word-formation
 usually differ from a syntactic rules in one important respect: they are of limited productivity: not
all words which result from the application of the rule are acceptable.
 They are freely acceptable only when they have gained an institutional currency in the language.
 there is a line to be drawn between “actual words” (sandstone, unwise), and “potential words”
(*lemonstone, *unexcellent)
 both of these being distinct from “nonEnglish words” like *selfishless, which, because it shows
the suffix -less added to an adjective and not to a noun, does not obey the rules of word-formation
1) are at the intersection of the historical and contemporary (synchronic) study of the language,
9
 providing a constant set of “models” from which new words, ephemeral or permanent, are
created from day to day.
2) on a larger scale, the rules themselves (like grammatical rules) undergo change: affixes and
compounding processes can become productive or lose their productivity; can increase or
decrease their range of meaning or grammatical applicability.
productive rules and “dead’’ processes
For example, the Old Englsh suffix -th, no longer used to form new words, survives in such nouns as
warmth, length, depth, width, breadth.
A corollary [kə'rɒl(ə)rɪ] of this approach is that the historical study of a word is irrelevant to its status as
an illustration of present-day rules: the fact that the word unripe has existed in the English language
since Anglo-Saxon times does not prevent us from using it as an example of a regular process of word-
formation still available in the language.
nonce formations
New formations, invented casually for a particular occasion (as in She needs guidance, and the poor
child is as guidanceless as she is parentless are normally comprehensible, but are used at a certain cost
to acceptibility. They are often referred to as nonce formations and are liable to be criticized if too many
are used.
back-formation
 is a purely historical concept, however of little relevance to the contemporary study of word-formation.
To the present-day speaker of English, the relationship between laze and lazy need be no different from
that between sleep and sleepy.
The process is particularly fruitful in creating denominal verbs.
It should be noted that new formations tend to be used with some hesitation, especially in respect of the
full range of verbal inflections.
 We had the agential baby-sitter before the verb baby-sit and the form “Will you baby-sit for me?”
before пnflected forms “He baby-sat for them”.
 Other back-formations continue to display their lack of established acceptibility: *They sight-saw, *She
housekept.
productivity
Any description of word-formation should obviously be concerned with processes that are productive at
the present time.
The fact that words have resulted from the past operation of word-formation processes is in itself
irrelevant from a synchronic point of view
E.g. the word gospel cannot be seen as a modern English word-formation, though formed in earlier
English from the words good and spell (in the obsolete sense “news”) . Nor, as an English word, can
karate be seen as a ‘formation’, though in Japanese it is clearly a junction of cara ‘empty’ and te ‘hand’.
On the other hand, words like ice-cream, conceptualize, psychosomatic, workaholic, motel, bionic have
all been formed within English sufficiently recently as to be representative of currently productive
processes.
The native speaker operates daily in the implicit knowledge that the meaning of most adjectives can be
negated by prefixing un- and that most adjectives will permit the formation of abstract nouns by
suffixing -ness.
The distinction between productive and nonproductive is by no means straightforward. There is no
simple parallel to the use and non-use of forms:
 * fulgrace-dis [ on syntagmatic grounds: dis- can only prefix]
 * emptyless [ on semantic and grammatical grounds: -less cannot be added to adjectives]
 * thinkledge [-ledge is obsolete]
 * doorleg [pragmatically excluded in present world]
 * snow-cream [a possible but unused compound] etc.
There exists a point of view that productive means are not merely those with the aid of which we can
form new words at a given stage of the development of the language but those that can be used for the
formation of unlimited number of new words. Therefore we can speak of limited productivity and
absolute productivity. There are means of word-formation that cannot be used n o w for word-
formation e.g. lexicalization of grammatical forms, sound-interchange, stress-interchange.
lexicalization of grammatical form
 is a term used to denote the creation of an independent word from one of word-forms
 a number of English nouns in the plural form underwent lexicalization and acquired independent
forms and meaning: bead - коралик, beads - вервечка; colour - колiр, colours - прапор.
Synchronically -s in such words is regarded not as a grammatical inflexion expressing plurality
but as a special case of affixation. It is not used in modern English to coin new words.
Sound-interchange
 includes vowel and consonant inerchange. Both are nonproductive and offer no model to form
new words after, e.g.:
 food - to feed a house - to house
 gold - to gild to speak - speech
 blood - to bleed defence - defend
 present – presence
Stress-interchange formally served as word-formation means and produced pairs like conflict - to
conflict.
back-formation
History provides quite a number of examples where a derived form has preceded the word from which
(formally speaking) it is derived.
Thus editor entered the language before edit, lazy before laze, and television before televize. The
process by which the shorter word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix is known as back-
formation, since it reverses the normal trend of word-formation, which is to add rather than to subtract
constituents.
Affixation
Is defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems. Once formed derived words
become independent lexical items that recieve their own entry in a speaker’s mental dictionary.
Prefixes and suffixes differ significantly in their linguistic status. Prefixes primarily effect a semantic
modification of the stem
Primary function of suffixes being, by contrast, to change the grammatical function (for example the
word class) of the stem.
Classification of derived words
1) according to the root-morpheme (e.g. woman, womanly, womanish, womanized; добро, добрий,
доброта, добряга),

10
2) according to the affix morpheme(e.g. swimmer, speaker, drinker; погонич, пiдпасич, керманич)
The first classification would put derived words into a large number of small groups, while the second
would produce a limited number of very large groups.
We should also note that there are often significant relations between affixes: especially antonymy as
with pre- and post-, -full and -less.
panelling carpeting; (b) activity connected with: cricketing, farming, blackberrying ( fairly freely
made)
8.- ism - doctrine of, practice of : Calvinism, idealism
9.- ocracy - government by: democracy, aristocracy
10.- ship - limitedly productive : membership,dictatorship

suffixes Ukrainian denominal nouns

In order to make a comparative analysis of suffixation in English and Ukrainian we will group affixes 1.-ств(о), цтв(о) - властивiсть, стан: геройство, молодецтво,
according to the word class that results when they are added to a base. We therefore will speak of noun материнство, дитинство, скотарство, бджiльництво
suffixes, verb suffixes etc. 2.- iзм, изм - вчення, iдеологiчнi напрями: реалiзм, натуралiзм
In addition, since particular suffixes are frequently associated with attachment to stems of particular 3.- чина, щина- часовi вiдтiнки, iсторичнi рухи: бувальщина, панщина,
word classes, it is also convinient to speak of them as denominal suffixes, de-adjectival suffixes, etc. 4.-няк - гаї, сади за породою дерев i кущiв: дубняк, вишняк
Suffixation 5.- в(а) - поняття збiрностi : мошва
Can be substabtialized and zero-suffixation. This word-building type is the leading one in Indo- 7.- н(я) - (pejorative): комашня
European languages. The characteristic feature of suffixation is its ability to combine with other means 8.- ор(а) - дiтвора  
of word-building: 9. - ин(а) - agricultural products: садовина, городина
 prefixation, e.g. un-predict-able, по-дорож-ник;
 compounding, e.g. blue-eye-ed, ясновид-ець, English deverbal nouns
 postfixation, e.g. гурт-ув-а-ти-ся 1.- age - action of, instance of: breakage, coverage
2.- ation - the process or state of: exploration, starvation
Can be used to create all principal parts of speech: 3.- al - the action or result of: refusal, revival dismissal
 nouns: teacher, kingdom, difference, вмикач, переселенець, танцюрист; 4.- ing - results from the action: building, opening
 numerals: seventh, семеро; 5.- ment - the result of: arrangement, management, amazement
 adjectives: readable, денний, капроновий;
 verbs: threaten, страхати, гикати; Ukrainian deverbal nouns
 adverbs: quickly, швидко, пішки, тричі 1.- анн(я), енн(я), iнн(я) - широке узагальнення процесу дii чи стану: споживання, благання,
зазiхання, терпiння
Suffixes can be added to stems of all parts of speech: 2.- к(а) опредмечена дiя, результат процесу : розробка, перевозка
 noun : man-ly, україн-ець, хат-инк-а 3.- б(а), -от(а) процес, стан: боротьба, слiпота, турбота
 adjective: black-ish, нов-ин-а 4.- ин(а) - метушливi, безладнi дiї: бiганина, мiшанина
 numeral: тр-ійк-а 5.- тв(а) – (nonproductive): битва, клятва,
 pronoun: ти-ка-ти, сам-ець 6.- iзацi(я), изацi(я) - заходи: класифiкацiя
 verb: чита-льн-я, спів-ець,promot-er
 adverb: вчора-шн-ій, тут-ешн-ій 18. Compounding as the type of word-formation: formal characteristics and types of
 conjunction: але-ка-ти compounds.
 exclamation: ох-а-ти, му-ка-ти, ну-ка-ти
Compounding:
English and Ukrainian suffixes  Is one of the most productive means of word-formation both in English and in Ukrainian
English denominal nouns:  is characterized by the ease with which compound words are formed when need arises without
1.-age - measure of, collection of : baggage, frontage, mileage becoming permanent units of the vocabulary
2.-dom - not very productive, tends to convey pejorative [pɪ'ʤɒrətɪv] overtones: officialdom but not in  can be studied both diachronically and synchronically
stardom or kingdom) Compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and
3.-ery, -ry -(a) the condition of behaviour associated with: drudgery, slavery, (b) location of: nursery, semantically as a single word.
refinery,bakery, (c) concrete aggragate: machinery, rocketry, d) nouns rather freely formed: gadgetry Aspects of compounding:
4.- ful - the amount contained in: spoonful, glassful (freely formed)  Semantic
5.- hood –state (only midely productive): boyhood, brotherhood, widowhood  Structural
7.- ing - (a) noncount concrete aggregates ( fairly freely formed with reference to the material): tubing, o Neutral

11
 o Morphological (few in number, non-productive, two stems are combined by a
linking vowel or consonant: Anglo-Saxon)
o Syntactic (formed from segments of speech preserving in their structure numerous
traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: Jack-of-all-trades, mother-in-law)
 Functional
Neutral
 process of compounding is realized without any linking element red-hot
3 types:
1. simple neutral compounds: they consist of affixless stems
2. derivational compounds: contain affixes absent-mindedness
3. contracted compounds: have a shortened stem in their structure: TV-set
In Ukrainian
Stem-combining with the help of interfixes о, е (доброзичливий, працездатний) or without them
(триповерховий, всюдихiд)
Word-combining or juxtaposition combining several words or word-forms in one complex word (салон-
перукарня)
Compounds usually comprise two stems only
Compounds can have their meaning as the sum of meanings of their components (classroom), we can
trace some change the meaning but still it is transparent (blackboard, football), meaning of compound
doesn’t correspond to the separate meaning of its components (ladybird)
Compounds can be open, closed or hyphenated (post office, firefly, son-in-law) – formal acpect
In English compounds are usually verbs, nouns or adjective
In Ukrainian – nouns, adjectives or adverbs
19. Contrastive analysis of noun compounds in English and Ukrainian.
 Subject + action : вода спадає – водоспад this type is represented by the following ways of
combining of structural components:
 noun (subject) + deverbal noun e.g.
English: sunrise, rainfall, headache, bee-sting, frostbite, daybreak, heartbeat, rainfall
Ukrainian: небосхил, серцебиття, зорепад, сонцестояння, снігопад
This type is rather productive in both contrasted languages.
 deverbal noun + noun (subject)
In English we refer to this type those compounds where the first component is a verbal noun in –ing, e.g,
flying machine, firing squad, investigating committee and it is very productive. In Ukrainian examples
are few: падолист (арх.), трясогузка.
 verb + noun (subject)
This type can be found only in English: watchdog, playboy.
 Object + action: вказує дорогу – дороговказ
 noun (object) + deverbal noun
This is a moderately productive type in English but very common in Ukrainian, e.g.
English: birth-control, handshake. Ukrainian: душогуб, сінокіс, гречкосій, родовід.
In Eng. we can single out a subtype noun (object) + verbal noun in – ing: book-keeping, town-planning.
In Ukr. compounds of that subtype correspond to compounds in –ння: сироваріння, містобудування.
 noun (object) + agent noun
In English this is a very productive type and designates concrete (usually human) agents: mathmaker,
stockholder, hairsplitter. Note, however, dishwasher, lawn-mover. All compounds of this type in English
are nouns with –er suffix. As in Ukrainian there is a wide range of suffixes forming agent nouns, so
examples of compounds reflect this diversity: м’ясорубка, законодавець, користолюбець,
квартиронаймач, містобудівник.
 verb + noun (object)
Eng.: call-girl, push-button, drawbridge. In Ukr. the first component of these compounds is a verb in
imperative: голиборода, крути- вус, пройдисвіт, дурисвіт. This type is often encountered in plant-
names as дери- літ, ломикамінь, ломиніс and for poetic characterization of people as Вернигора,
Перетанцюйбіс, Непийвода. This type of compounds belongs to the ancient layer of Ukr. vocabulary,
for example, the God of Sun in ancient Ukrainian religion was named Дажбог : imperative form of the
verb dadjú – дай and noun bogú – щастя, добробут.
 Action + adverbial: ходить пішки – пішохід.
In English this type of noun compounds has the following subtypes:
 verbal noun in – ing + noun (adverbial component which can be transformed into prepositional
phrase), e.g. writing-desk (write at a desk), hiding place (hide in a place), walking stick (walk with
a stick).
 noun (adverbial component) + agent noun, e.g. city-dweller (dwell in the city), babysitter (sit with
the baby)
 noun (adverbial component ) + verbal noun in –ing, sunbathing (bathe in the sun), handwriting
(write by hand),
 noun (adverbial component) + noun (converted from verb), homework (work at home), gunfight
(fight with a gun).
In Eng. the 2) and the 4) subtypes can actually be combined and this combined type occurs in Ukr.:
місцеперебування, праце-здатність, світогляд. Besides, In Ukr. there exists another productive type
of compounds formation: adverb (adverbial component) + deverbal noun, e.g. скоропис, марнослів’я,
пішохід.
Summing up
Contrastive analysis of compound nouns in Eng. and in Ukr. with syntactic paraphrase as tertium
comparationis reveals both isomorphic and allomorphic features in contrasted languages.
12
 20. Referential vs functional approach to meaning. culturally biased words
the English
Referential - seeks to formulate the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between  farthing,
the words and things or concepts they denote.  shilling,
The referential model of meaning is the so-called basic semantic triangle. It consists of:  haggis
1. The sound - form of the word: [bз:d]. the Ukrainian
2. The referent – the object which the word names: the actual bird.  кутя,
3. The concept – the essential properties of this object which are reflected in human mind: “a feathered  думи,
animal with wings“.  кобзар,
Meaning is closely connected with all parts of the semantic triangle but cannot be equated with any of  січовики
them. Generally speaking, meaning can be described as a component of the word through which a
concept is communicated, in this way endowing the word with the ability of denoting real objects, typologically relevant groups
qualities, actions and abstract notions.  universal lexicon
Functional - studies the functions of a word in speech and is concerned with how the meaning works.
The functional approach assumes that the meaning of a linguistic unit can be studied only through its
relation to other linguistic units and not through its relation to concept or referent. Analyzing various
contexts in which the words are used we can observe that they have different distribution. As the
distribution of the two words is different, their meanings are different too.

21. The notion of polysemy.

There are more senses than words, so a word, at least potentially, is polysemous, possesses some degree
of semantic uncertainty.
Polysemy is the ability of words to have more than one meaning. It is a semantic universal inherent in
the fundamental structure of language. The wealth of expressive resources of a language depends on the
degree to which polysemy is developed. A well-developed polysemy is a great advantage in a language.
The number of sound combinations is limited and polysemy becomes increasingly important im
providing the means for enriching the vocabulary system.
Both in English and in Ukrainian polysemy is widespread but is more characteristic of English due to
the predominance of root words. The greater the relative frequency of the word, the greater the number
of elements that constitute its semantic structure, i.e. the more polysemantic it is.

22. Systemic organization of lexicon.

 conditioned in all languages by lingual as well as by extralingual factors which are of universal
nature
The most important extralingual factors, predetermining the systemic organization of lexicon are:
a) physical and mental factors,
b) environmental factors,
c) social factors.

common notions
 the physical needs of human beings
 mental activity of man
 natural environment of human beings
 social phenomena as well as relationships and activities of man

13
nationally specific lexicon

14

23. Semantic change: metaphor.
Metaphor (from Greek μεταφορά – transposition ) is the result of the semantic process when a form of
a linguistic unit or expressing of a linguistic category is transposed from one object of designation to
another on the basis of a certain similarity between these objects as reflected in the speaker’s mind.
Metaphor is actually based on comparison.
Semasiological approach: lexical meanings are considered to be psychological entities, thoughts and
ideas, and meaning changes are explained as resulting from psychological processes. It is considered to
be one of the principal ways of the semantic change of linguistic units.
Onomasiological approach: is treated as the general principle of nomination, e.g. in the process of
lingual reflection of the cognition of the surrounding world in the designation of:
 relief by names of dishes (котел, жолоб),
 sea flora and fauna by names of land and river creatures and plants ( морські заяць, окунь,
капуста),
 means of transport – from water to air (летючий корабель, повітряний флот) and from land
to water (річковий трамвай, водні лижі).
Stylistic approach: metaphor is considered to be one of the tropes.
Linguaphilosophic and ethnolinguistic approaches: metaphor is presented as the way of world
perception, simulation of the world and creating of the lingual picture of the world.
Metaphorisation is most vividly represented on the lexical level and we can discover a lot of common
features while analyzing linguistic metaphors in English and Ukrainian. Thus, the character of similarity
making the basis of metaphors is basically the same:
 1) Similarity by physical features:
 form and sight (стріла крана, гірський хребет)
 position (Ukr.: голова колони,Eng.: foot of the mountain, a page)
 sounding (Ukr.: барабанити у двері, Eng.: drum fingers)
 peculiarities of movement (Ukr.: коник – комаха, супутник – небесне тіло)
 peculiarities of functioning (Ukr.: повітряний флот, English: leg of the chair)
 2) Similarity by physiological and psychological impressions from the perception of
different objects:
Synesthetic. Synesthesy (from Greek συναίσΰησις – simultaneous perception) is treated in
linguistics as the reflection of the semantic structure of physiological associations between
different types of senses. Synesthetic metaphors can be based on the perception of hearing,
sight, touch, taste, for example, Ukr.: крикливий (одяг), високий/низький (звук), солодкий
(запах, голос, обійми),Eng.: soft (voice)
Transference from the sphere of the physical world to psychological and social spheres,
to some abstract relations, for example, Ukr.:горіти (завзяттям), гострий (розум),
дрібний (урядовець), Eng.: , in particular, from space to time, for example, довгий(день)
Transference through actualization of a relatively indistinctive semantic feature, often of
emotional-evaluative character, for example, горить (взуття), прірва (безліч)
 3) Similarity which exists only in the imagination of the speaker and is only desirable for
him, for example, to give intimate colouring to communication one can address a person, who
is not a good acquaintance or a relative, as друже, брате.
S.Ullmann suggests the following types of transference:
a) anthropomorphic,
b) zoomorphic,
c) from concrete to abstract,
d) synesthetic,
e) from lexical units that attract a special attention of the society in that or other period.
The last type reflects the position of some lexical units on the scale of the social values of the society.
24. Semantic change: metonymy.
Metonymy – (from Greek μετωνυμία – renaming) is the result of the semantic process when a form of a
linguistic unit or expressing of a linguistic category is transferred from one object of designation to
another on the basis of a certain contiguity of these objects conditioned by spatial, temporal, causal,
symbolic, instrumental, functional and other relations as reflected in the speaker’s mind.
Approaches to metonymy treatment
 1. Semasiological approach. It is considered to be one of the principal ways of the semantic
change of linguistic units.
 2. Onomasiological approach. It is treated as the general principle of nomination, for
example naming of psychological phenomena on the basis of their external physiological
expression, mimic, jests, for example, тремтіти – to be afraid, червоніти – to be ashamed, рвати
на собі волосся – to be in despair.
 3. Stylistic approach. Metonymy is considered to be one of the tropes.
Metonymy occurs quite regularly, in comparison to other types of semantic change, within some
semantic groups.
for nouns:
The container for the thing contained, for example, Ukr.: склянка (випив склянку), зал (аплодував),
місто (зустрічає гостя), Eng.:a cup (drank a cup), a kettle (is boiling)
The material for the thing made of it, for example, Ukr.: чай, салат (рослина – страва), золото
(вироби з нього) Eng.: marble (the statue made of marble), silver (coin), glass(articles made of glass)
The object for what is on it, for example, Ukr.:стіл (їжа), лікті (протерлися), Eng.: dish
The object for a certain activity, for example, Ukr.:гкорона, скіпетр, трон (влада монарха),
булава(гетьманство), Eng.:
The sign for the thing signified, for example, Ukr.:номер (окремий примірник газети, журналу,
окрема кімната в готелі, окремий виступ артиста), трійка (гральна карта, трамвай №3), Eng.: from
the cradle to the grave (from childhood to death), arena (Lat. Sand – a reminder that sand was used to
strew the floors of the ancient amphitheatres)
The feature (quality, action etc.) for its subject. Here metonymy can reflect the transference from
abstract to concrete, from action to object etc. For example, Ukr.: магістр, граф (про носія титулу),
талант (він талант),симпатія(про людину), весілля(святкування) Eng.: the authorities (were greeted)
The action for its time, place, result, object or subject, for example, Ukr.: косовиця, прохід, набір,
випуск, шиття, креслення, рада), Eng.: pass
for verbs:
Process the object in a way and obtain, extract or liquidate something as the result , for example, Ukr.:
копати (землю/яму), доїти (корову/молоко), полоти (город/бур’ян), штопати (одяг/дірку), Eng.: to
milk
The action of the subject and the state of the object, for example, Ukr.: протікає (вода/стеля), облазить
(шкіра/спина)
Metonymy frequently occurs in phraseological units, for example Ukr.: до сивого волосся (до
старості), піднімати руки (здаватися в полон), English: to put one’s foot down.
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 25. Semantic change: hyperbole, litotes, irony.
Hyperbole (from Greek ύπερβολή – overexaggeration) is based on intentional exaggeration of the
quantity and size of objects, intensity of a feature or an act aimed at making the image of an object more
distinct and thus, the utterance- more convincing.
For example, Ukr.: півтора чоловіка (дуже мало людей), скажу два слова, море крові,
черепашача швидкість; Eng.: haven’t seen you for ages, I hate troubling you, a thousand thanks.
Litotes (from Greek λιτότης – simplicity) is aimed at making the statement less categorical through the
use of indirect designation of a certain notion, namely through the negation of the notion that is opposite
to the given. Litotes can be based on
 negation, for example, Ukr.: не заперечую (погоджуюсь), неважко (легко); Eng.: no
coward, not bad;
 double negation, for example, Ukr.: така подія не видається неможливою. Not
characteristic of English.;
 without negation, for example, Eng.: I could do with a cup of coffee. Not characteristic of
Ukrainian.
Irony (from Greek είρωνεία – mockery) is the type of the semantic change which occurs when a word
with a positive or assertive connotation (in a wide sense) is used to denote opposite characteristics. It is
usually pronounced with a specific intonation, which in written form can be marked by inverted
commas. For example, Ukr.: святий та божий, частувати (палицею), нагородити (стусаном),
Eng.: a pretty mess.
26. Euphemisms and politically correct terms.
Euphemism (Greek εύφημισμός – mild expression, from εϋ – well and φημίζω – praise, glorify) is a
word or phrase used for indirect, particularly, mild and polite designation of some objects, phenomena
or actions to avoid using their already existing primary names which would be better logically
motivated. The sources of euphemisms are the taboo phenomena and the desire to substitute some names
by their neutral, “positive” or “negative” equivalents. For example, Ukr.: нерозумний (замість
дурний), на заслужений відпочинок (на пенсію), пішов з життя (помер), знайтися (народитися);
Eng.: queer (mad), deceased (dead),elevated (drunk).
Political correctness is a term that refers to language, ideas, or policies that address perceived or actual
discrimination against or alienation of politically, socially or economically disadvantaged groups.
“Intellectually disabled” in place of mentally retarded“African American” in place of Black and Negro,
in the United States“Native American” in place of Indian, in the United States“First Nations” in place
of Indian, in CanadaGender-neutral terms such as “firefighter” in place of fireman and firewoman,
“police officer” in place of policeman and policewomanValue-free terms describing physical
disabilities, such as “visually impaired” in place of blind and “hearing impaired” in place of deaf Value-
free cultural terms, such as “Holiday season” and “Winter holiday”, in place of Christmas
27. Types of varieties of a language.
 region,
 social group,
 field of discourse,
 medium,
 attitude
The first two types of variation relate primarily to the language users and are relatively permanent for
them.
 people use a regional variety because they live in a region or have once lived in a region
 people use a social variety because of their affiliation with a social group
Many people can communicate in more than one regional or social variety and can therefore switch
varieties according to the situation. People can move to other regions or change their social affiliations,
and may then adopt a new regional of social variety.
The last three types of variation relate to language use. People select the varieties according to the
situation and the purpose of the communication.
 the field of discourse relates to the activity in which they are engaged
 the medium may be spoken or written
 the attitude expressed through language is conditioned by the relationship of the participants
in the particular situation.
Varieties according to region have a well-established label: dialects.
Geographical dispersion is in fact the classic basis for linguistic variation, and in the course of time such
dispersion may result in dialects becoming so distinct that we regard them as different languages.
Regional variation seems to be realized predominantly in phonology. We generally recognize a different
dialect from a speaker’s pronunciation or accent before we notice that the vocabulary or LEXICON is
also distinctive.
Social variation is variation in speech according to educational and social status (sometimes - age and
sex differences).
There is an important polarity between uneducated and educated speech. Educated language naturally
tends to be given the additional prestige of government agencies, the professions, the political parties,
the press, the law court, and the pulpit – any institution which has to address itself to a public. It is
codified in dictionaries and grammars and is taught at all levels of schooling. It is almost exclusively the
language of printed matter. It comes to be referred to as standard English or literary Ukrainian.
The field of discourse is the type of activity engaged in through language.
A speaker of a language has a repertoire of varieties according to field and switches to the appropriate
one as occasion requires. The number of varieties that speakers command depends upon their profession,
training and interests.
Varieties according to medium conditioned by speaking and writing respectively.
Since speech is the primary or natural medium for linguistic communication, it is reasonable to focus on
the differences imposed on language when it has to be expressed in a graphic medium instead.
As with varieties according to the field we are dealing here with two varieties that are in principle at the
disposal of any user of a language as occasion may demand, irrespective of the variety of language they
use as a result of region and education.
 some field varieties are difficult to compose except in writing (legal statutes especially)
 other varieties are restricted to speech (a radio commentary on a football match will be
phrased very differently from a newspaper report of the same game)
Varieties according to attitude constitute, like field and medium varieties, a range of a language any
section of which is in principle available at will to any individual speaker of a language, irrespective of
the regional variant or national standard he may habitually use.
In lexicology we are concerned with the choice of words that proceeds from our attitude to the hearer or
reader, to the topic and to the purpose of our communication.
We recognize a gradient in attitude between FORMAL (relatively stiff, cold, polite, impersonal) on the
one hand and INFORMAL (relatively relaxed, warm, rude, friendly) on the other.
16
Many sentences like the foregoing can be rated ‘more formal’ or ‘more informal’ in relation to each
other, but it is useful to acknowledge unmarked variety of English or Ukrainian, bearing no obvious
colouring that has been induced by attitude. On each side of NEUTRAL language we may usually
distinguish words that are markedly formal or informal.
The three-way contrast of formal-neutral-informal is not quite adequate to describe the full range of
linguistic varieties. We should add at least one category at each end of the scale. On the one hand, we
need to account for the extremely ‘frozen’ variety of a language some times found in written
instructions.
But we must account also for the intimate, casual or hearty – often slangy – language used between very
close friends especially of a similar age or members of a family, or used when speakers feel for any
other reason that they do not need to bother about what the listener or reader thinks of their choice of
language.
Now we have a potential five-term distinction:
Very formal –formal – neutral – informal – very informal
28. Stylistically marked classes of words.
Stylistically marked words are subdivided into literary-bookish (“learned”) and colloquial
words.
Literary-bookish words (“learned” words):
 belong to the formal style, to the formal category of communication.
 are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of speech
 are used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts, radio and television
announcements, official talks and documents, business correspondence, etc.
They are not stylistically homogeneous:
Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e.g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out
various specific subgroups, namely:
 1) terms or scientific words – words or nominal groups which convey specialized concepts
used in science, technology, art, etc. (gerontology, phoneme, radar, kneejoint, common
denominator, periodic table, still life, choreography)
 2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g. whilome - ‘formerly’, aught - ‘anything’, ere -
‘before’, albeit - ‘although’,  fare - ‘walk’, tarry - ‘remain’, nay - ‘no’; etc.;
Archaism is the deliberate use of an older form that has fallen out of current use.
They are most frequently encountered in poetry, law and ritual writing and speech.
Their deliberate use can be subdivided into:
1. literary archaisms, which seeks to evoke the style of older speech and writing;
2. lexical archaisms, the use of words no longer in common use.
 3) barbarisms and foreign words
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin and not entirely assimilated. They bear the appearance of a
borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue (chic [ʃiːk] – ‘stylish’).
It is very important for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish between barbarisms and foreign
words proper.
Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language. They are part and
parcel of the word-stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary.
Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the vocabulary. They
are not registered by dictionaries.
 4) neologisms are newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense.
Neologism is any word which is formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed
from another language and felt by the speakers as something new.
They may be divided into:
1) Root words: Ex: jeep – a small light motor vehicle, zebra – street crossing place etc;
2) Derived words: Ex: collaborationist – one in occupied territory works helpfully with the enemy, to
accessorize – to provide with dress accessories;
3) Compound: Ex: air-drop, microfilm-reader. 
New words are as a rule monosemantic. Terms, used in various fields of science and technology make
the greater part of neologisms. New words belong only to the notional parts of speech: to nouns, verbs,
adjectives etc. 
Colloquial words are characteristic of the informal style of spoken English.
Colloquialisms are common sayings that people use in everyday speech and some are very old
expressions. These expressions appropriate to informal, conversational occasions. One should
distinguish between:
 literary colloquial words (which are used in every day conversations both by educated and
non-educated people)
 non-literary colloquialisms which include:
 slang,
 jargonisms,
 professionalisms
 vulgarisms
Slang refers to informal lexical items used by a specific social group, for instance teenagers, soldiers,
prisoners, or surfers ( attic (“head”), beans (“money”), saucers (“eyes”), etc.) Slangisms are often
used in colloquial speech but not all colloquialisms are slangisms.
Slang functions in two ways:
 1) the creation of new language and new usage by a process of creative informal use and
adaptation,
 2) the creation of a secret language understood only by those within a group intended to
understand it.
Slang functions as a way to recognize members of the same group, and to differentiate that group from
the society at large. Slang terms are often particular to a certain subculture, such as musicians,
skateboarders, and drug users.
Jargon – words or phrases used by people in a particular job or group that can be difficult for others to
understand (grass, tea, weed (“narcotic”) ). Jargon is often referred to as “technical language”. It makes
communication quicker and easier among members of a group who understand it. 
 ecobabble –using the technical language of ecology to make the user seem ecologically aware
 Eeurobabble - the jargon of European community documents and regulations
 gobbledygook - incomprehensible or pompous jargon of specialists
 psychbabble - using language loaded with psychological terminology
 technobabble - technical jargon from computing and other high-tech subjects
Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by
common interests both at work and at home. Professionalisms are correlated to terms.
Professional words name anew already-existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical
properties of a special code. The main feature of a professionalism is its technicality. Professionalisms
17
are special words in the non-literary layer of the English vocabulary, whereas terms are a specialized
group belonging to the literary layer of words. Professionalisms are not known to simple people.
Vulgar words or vulgarisms are:
1)  expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like 'damn', 'bloody', 'to hell', 'goddam'
and, as some dictionaries state, used now, as general exclamations;
2)  obscene words.
The function of expletives is almost the same as that of interjections, that is to express strong emotions,
mainly annoyance, anger, vexation and the like. They are not to be found in any functional style of
language except emotive prose, and here only in the direct speech of the characters.
29. Types of literary-bookish words.
Literary-bookish words (“learned” words):
 belong to the formal style, to the formal category of communication.
 are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of speech
 are used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts, radio and television
announcements, official talks and documents, business correspondence, etc.
They are not stylistically homogeneous:
Besides general-literary (bookish) words, e.g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc., we may single out
various specific subgroups, namely:
 1) terms or scientific words – words or nominal groups which convey specialized concepts
used in science, technology, art, etc. (gerontology, phoneme, radar, kneejoint, common
denominator, periodic table, still life, choreography)
 2) poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g. whilome - ‘formerly’, aught - ‘anything’, ere -
‘before’, albeit - ‘although’,  fare - ‘walk’, tarry - ‘remain’, nay - ‘no’; etc.;
Archaism is the deliberate use of an older form that has fallen out of current use.
They are most frequently encountered in poetry, law and ritual writing and speech.
Their deliberate use can be subdivided into:
1. literary archaisms, which seeks to evoke the style of older speech and writing;
2. lexical archaisms, the use of words no longer in common use.
 3) barbarisms and foreign words
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin and not entirely assimilated. They bear the appearance of a
borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue (chic [ʃiːk] – ‘stylish’).
It is very important for purely stylistic purposes to distinguish between barbarisms and foreign
words proper.
Barbarisms are words which have already become facts of the English language. They are part and
parcel of the word-stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary.
Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the vocabulary. They
are not registered by dictionaries.
 4) neologisms are newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense.
Neologism is any word which is formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed
from another language and felt by the speakers as something new.
They may be divided into:
1) Root words: Ex: jeep – a small light motor vehicle, zebra – street crossing place etc;
2) Derived words: Ex: collaborationist – one in occupied territory works helpfully with the enemy, to
accessorize – to provide with dress accessories;
3) Compound: Ex: air-drop, microfilm-reader. 
New words are as a rule monosemantic. Terms, used in various fields of science and technology make
the greater part of neologisms. New words belong only to the notional parts of speech: to nouns, verbs,
adjectives etc. 
30. Neologisms: problems of defining and classification.
Neologisms are newly coined lexical units or existing lexical units that acquire a new sense.
Neologism is any word which is formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed
from another language and felt by the speakers as something new.
They may be divided into:
1) Root words: Ex: jeep – a small light motor vehicle, zebra – street crossing place etc;
2) Derived words: Ex: collaborationist – one in occupied territory works helpfully with the enemy, to
accessorize – to provide with dress accessories;
3) Compound: Ex: air-drop, microfilm-reader. 
New words are as a rule monosemantic. Terms, used in various fields of science and technology make
the greater part of neologisms. New words belong only to the notional parts of speech: to nouns, verbs,
adjectives etc.
31. Non-literary colloquialisms.
slang
 refers to informal (and often transient) lexical items used by a specific social group, for instance
teenagers, soldiers, prisoners, or surfers.
 is not considered the same as colloquial speech, which is informal, relaxed speech used on
occasion by any speaker
Slangisms are often used in colloquial speech but not all colloquialisms are slangisms.
One method of distinguishing between a slangism and a colloquialism is to ask whether most native
speakers know the word (and use it); if they do, it is a colloquialism.
Slang functions in two ways:
1) the creation of new language and new usage by a process of creative informal use and adaptation,
2) the creation of a secret language understood only by those within a group intended to understand it.
 is a type of sociolect aimed at excluding certain people from the conversation. Slang initially
functions as encryption, so that the non-initiate cannot understand the conversation, or as a further
way to communicate with those who understand it. Slang functions as a way to recognize
members of the same group, and to differentiate that group from the society at large. Slang terms
are often particular to a certain subculture, such as musicians, skateboarders, and drug users.
As a rule, their meanings are based on metaphor and often have ironic colouring,
e.g. attic (“head”), beans (“money”),
 saucers (“eyes”), etc.
Such words are easily understood by all native speakers, if they are not specific for any social or
professional group.
jargon
 words or phrases used by people in a particular job or group that can be difficult for others to
18
 understand
 are usually motivated and, like slang words, have metaphoric character, e.g. bird (“spacecraft”)
/astronauts’ jargon/; to grab (“to make an impression on smb.”) /newspaper jargon/; grass, tea,
weed (“narcotic”) / drug addicts’ jargon/, etc. Words such as “backup”, “chatroom” and “browser”
are computer jargon. Jargon is often referred to as “technical language”. It makes communication
quicker and easier among members of a group who understand it.  The essential difference between them lies in the degree of systematization and completeness:
 ecobabble –using the technical language of ecology to make the user seem ecologically aware
 Eeurobabble - the jargon of European community documents and regulations
 gobbledygook - incomprehensible or pompous jargon of specialists
 psychbabble - using language loaded with psychological terminology
 technobabble - technical jargon from computing and other high-tech subjects
Professionalisms are the words used in different trades, professions or within a group of people
connected by common interests. They designate some working process, tools or instruments.
Professionalisms should not be mixed with jargonisms. Like slang, professionalisms do not aim at
secrecy.
          Professionalisms are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character, his or her
education, breeding, environment and psychology.
          The difference between the terms and professionalisms is that terms belong to the literary layer of
words and professionalisms belong to the non-literary layer. Professionalisms remain within a definite
community, lined to a definite occupation:
A midder case= (a midwifery case-акушерский чемоданчик)
Tin-fish=submarine
Vulgarism
 derives from Latin vulgus, the "common folk", and has carried into English its original
connotations linking it with the low and coarse motivations that were supposed to be natural to the
commons, who were not moved by higher motives like fame for posterity and honor among peers
— motives that were alleged to move the literate classes. Thus the concept of vulgarism carries
cultural freight from the outset, and from some social perspectives it does not genuinely exist, or
— ought not to exist.
Although most dictionaries offer "obscene word or language" as a definition for vulgarism, others have
insisted that a vulgarism in English usage is different from obscenity or profanity, cultural concepts
which connote offenses against the community.
One kind of vulgarism, defined by the OED as "a colloquialism of a low or unrefined character,"
substitutes a coarse word where the context might lead the reader to expect a more refined expression:
"the tits on Botticelli's Venus" is a vulgarism
32. Definition and subject-matter of lexicography.
Lexicography is divided into two separate but equally important groups:
 Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries.
 Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly discipline of analyzing and describing the semantic,
syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships within the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language,
developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries,
the needs for information by users in specific types of situations, and how users may best
access the data incorporated in printed and electronic dictionaries. This is sometimes referred
to as 'metalexicography'.
Lexicography and lexicology have a common object of study for they describe the vocabulary
of a language.
 1) Lexicology aims at systematization revealing characteristic features of words.
2) The field of lexicography is the semantic, formal, and functional description of all individual words.
Dictionaries aim at a more or less complete description
Subject-matter of Lexicography:
 the structure of dictionaries;
 the compilation of dictionaries (i.e. lexicography in the actual sense of the word);
 the use of dictionaries (including aspects of didactics of dictionary use);
 dictionary criticism;
 the history of lexicography.
33. Dictionary: definition and types.
Dictionary – a generic name for a kind of reference book listing words of a language.
Dictionary:
 is regarded as the prototypical work of reference
 classifies and stores information in print or electronic form and has an access system or
systems designed to allow users to retrieve the information in full or in part as readily as
possible
 the information is essentially linguistic and may include material on the form, meaning, use,
origin, and history of words and other lexical items.
 phonetic and grammatical information is word-related and thus essentially lexical. Put very
simply, a dictionary is a book or bank about words.
Encyclopaedic dictionaries (the biggest ones are called encyclopaedias)
 Provide the information about the extralingual world, dealing with concepts of a designative
character (terms, events in history, names etc.)
 Deal with notions rather than words covering the given conceptual area
The subject-matter of linguistic dictionaries is lexical units and their linguistic properties: list of
words, with definition, pronunciation, etymology , grammar as well as semantic and pragmatic
characteristics or with their equivalents in another language (languages).
34. Criteria of linguistic dictionaries classification.
The first criterion:
1) Diachronic dictionaries – are primarily concerned with the history of a language and the
development of words in the course of time.
Among the diachronic dictionaries two types are distinguished: historical (dictionaries that register the
changes that occur in the form and meaning of a word) and etymological (that concentrate their
attention on the origin of a word). 
2) Synchronic dictionaries – deal with language vocabulary at one stage of its development.
19
The second criterion: language coverage: 35. Corpus and corpus linguistics. Parallel corpora.
1) General dictionaries - represent the vocabulary as a whole with a degree of completeness depending
on the scope of the book. These include all kind of unabridged, semi-abridged, abridged dictionaries Corpus linguistics The study of language based on examples of "real life" language use stored in
depending on the amounr of items. The Oxford Dictionary is one of the largest dictionaries of this type. corpora  - computerized databases created for linguistic research.
2) Restricted dictionaries – confined to a given type or variety of words, e.g. dictionaries of dialects,  Although the term corpus linguistics was apparently not in use until the 1980s, it is generally
synonyms, idioms etc. agreed that this sub-discipline of linguistics has been in existence longer - at least since the early
 The third criterion: number of languages: 1960s"
 Monolingual (unilingual) dictionaries – the lexicon is described and defined by means of the  A collection of texts assumed to be representative of a given language, dialect, or other subset
same language of a language to be used for linguistic analysis
 Bilingual (interlingual) dictionaries  A collection of linguistic  data (usually contained in a computer database) used for research,
 Multilingual dictionaries scholarship, and teaching.
 The first systematically organized computer corpus was the Brown University Standard
Corpus of Present-Day American English(commonly known as the Brown Corpus), compiled in
the 1960s by linguists Henry Kučera and W. Nelson Francis.
Characteristic features of corpora
 Collection of texts
 Naturally occurring/authentic texts
 Representative of a given language
 Collected according to specific criteria
 Stored in machine-readable format
 Used for linguistic analysis
Types: language, size, purpose
Communication acts
 Corpus linguistics assumes that language is a social phenomenon, to be observed and
described above all in accessible empirical data (communication acts).
Corpora are cross-sections through a universe of discourse which incorporates virtually all
communication acts of any selected language community, be it monolingual, bilingual or
multilingual.
 When looking towards language as a social phenomenon, we assume that meaning is
expressed in texts.
 the language community sets the conventions on the formal correctness of sentences and on
their meaning. Those conventions are both implicit and dynamic; they are not engraved in stone
like commandments.
 Language as a social phenomenon manifests itself only in texts that can be observed, recorded,
described and analyzed.
 Most texts happen to be communication acts, that is, interactions between members of a
language community.
 An ideal universe of discourse would be the sum of all communication acts ever uttered
by members of a language community. Therefore, it has an inherent diachronic dimension and
sets the conventions on the formal correctness of utterances
Conventions and modifications
 Any communication act may utilize syntactic structures in a new way, create new collocations,
introduce new words or redefine existing ones. If those modifications are used in a sufficient
number of other communication acts or texts, they may well result in the modification or
amendment of an existing convention.
 Corpus linguistics aims to reveal the conventions of a certain language community and their
modifications on the basis of a relevant corpus.

20
 In a corpus, words are embedded in their context. Corpus linguistics is, therefore, especially
suited to describe the gradual changes in meaning: it is the context which determines the concrete
meaning in most areas of the vocabulary.
manageable corpus
The ideal universe of discourse would be far too large for linguistics to explore it in its entirety. It would
have to be broken down into cross-sections with regard to the phenomena that we want to describe.
There is no such thing as a ‘one-size-fits-all’-corpus. It is the responsibility of the linguist to limit the
scope of the universe of discourse in such a way that it may be reduced to a manageable corpus, by
means of parameters such as language (sociolect, terminology, jargon), time, region, situation,
external and internal textual characteristics
parallel corpora
 A parallel corpus is a corpus that contains a collection of original texts in language L 1 and
their translations into a set of languages L 2 ... Ln. In most cases, parallel corpora contain data from
only two languages.
 Closely related to parallel corpora are comparable corpora, which consists of texts from two or
more languages which are similar in genre, topic, register etc. without, however, containing the
same content.
 Parallel corpora (i.e. multilingual corpora) – a valuable source of data: a principal reason for
the revival of contrastive linguistics that has taken place in 1990s
 Give new insights into the languages compared that are likely to be unnoticed in the studies of
monolingual corpora
 can be used for a range of comparative purposes and increase our understanding of language-
specific, typological and cultural differences, as well as of universal features;
 illuminate differences between source texts and translations;
 can be used for a number of practical applications, e.g. in lexicography, language teaching and
translation
Parallel corpora may:
 help translators to find translation equivalents between the source and the target language;
 provide information on the frequency of words, specific uses of lexical items as well as
collocational and syntactic patterns;
 may help translators to develop systematic translation strategies for words or phrases which
have no direct equivalent in the target language;
sets of possible translations can be identified and the translator can choose a translation strategy
according to the specific register, topic and genre.
36. Notable English and Ukrainian language corpora
Notable English language corpora
 include the following:
 British National Corpus (BNC)
 The American National Corpus (ANC)
 The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)
 The International Corpus of English (ICE)
What is the BNC?
 a 100 million word collection of samples of written and spoken language from a wide range of
sources, designed to represent a wide cross-section of British English from the later part of the
20th century, both spoken and written.
The latest edition is the BNC XML Edition
What sort of corpus is the BNC?
 Monolingual:  deals with modern British English, not other languages used in Britain. However
non-British English and foreign language words do occur in the corpus.
 Synchronic: covers British English of the late 20 th century, rather than the historical development
which produced it.
 General: includes different styles and varieties, and is not limited to any particular subject field,
genre or register; contains examples of both spoken and written language; avoids over-
representing idiosyncratic texts.
The written part of the BNC
 90% of the corpus
 includes extracts from regional and national newspapers, specialist periodicals and journals for all
ages and interests, academic books and popular fiction, published and unpublished letters and
memoranda, school and university essays, among many other kinds of text
Sample: For written sources, samples of 45,000 words are taken from various parts of single-author
texts. Shorter texts up to a maximum of 45,000 words, or multi-author texts such as magazines and
newspapers, are included in full.
The spoken part of the BNC
  10% of the corpus
 consists of orthographic transcriptions of unscripted informal conversations (recorded by
volunteers selected from different age, region and social classes in a demographically balanced
way) and spoken language collected in different contexts, ranging from formal business or
government meetings to radio shows and phone-ins
BNC
 Work on building the corpus began in 1991
 the second edition BNC World (2001)
 the third edition BNC XML Edition (2007)
 two sub-corpora with material from the BNC have been released separately:
 the BNC Sampler (a general collection of one million written words, one million spoken)
 the BNC Baby (four one-million word samples from four different genres).
The Open American National Corpus (OANC)
 a massive electronic collection of American English, including texts of all genres and transcripts
of spoken data produced from 1990 onward. All data and annotations are fully open and
unrestricted for any use.
 Available Data and Annotations
OANC: 15 million words of contemporary American English with automatically-produced annotations
for a variety of linguistic phenomena
The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA)
 is the largest freely-available corpus of American English. The corpus was created by Mark Davis
and it is used by tens of thousands of users every month (linguists, teachers, translators, and other
21
 researchers). COCA is also related to other large corpora Funny: Humorous, Comical, Hilarious, Hysterical;
The corpus contains more than 450 million words of text and is equally divided among spoken, fiction, проживати — мешкати,
popular magazines, newspapers, and academic texts. It includes 20 million words each year from 1990 - бажати — хотіти, 
2012 and the corpus is also updated regularly. башта — вежа.

Because of its design, it is perhaps the only corpus of English that is suitable for looking at current
ongoing changes in the language
You can easily carry out semantically-based queries of the corpus. For example, you can contrast and
compare the collocates of  two related words (little/small, democrats/republicans, men/women), to
determine the difference in meaning or use between these words.
You can find the frequency and distribution of synonyms for nearly 60,000 words and compare their  E.g.
frequency in different genres, and also use these word lists as part of other queries. Finally, you can
easily create your own lists of semantically-related words, and then use them directly as part of the
query.
The International Corpus of English (ICE)
 began in 1990 with the primary aim of collecting material for comparative studies of English
worldwide. Twenty-six research teams around the world are preparing electronic corpora of their
own national or regional variety of English. Each ICE corpus consists of one million words of
spoken and written English  produced after 1989. For most participating countries, the ICE project
is stimulating the first systematic investigation of the national variety.  2. Stylistic synonymy are used in different communicative styles: insane (formal) and loony
Corpora of Ukrainian
  тестова версія корпусу текстів української мови, розроблена співробітниками торії
комп’ютерної лінгвістики Інституту філології Київського національного університету імені
Тараса Шевченка Н.П.Дарчук (керівник проекту), В.М.Сорокіним (програміст), О.Б.Сірук,
Я.В.Ходаківською, Н.Г.Чейлитко, М.О.Лангенбах.  (standard) and butty (technical); картопля (standard), бульба, біб (dialect); дорога,
 КОРПУС ТЕКСТІВ УКРАЇНСЬКОЇ МОВИ кафедри української мови та прикладної
лінгвістики Донецького національного універитету
Корпус текстів є частиною науково-дослідної роботи "Категорійно-лексикографічна і
трансформаційно-аналогійна граматика службовості“
http://corpora.pp.ua/bonito/
 Український мовно-інформаційний фонд НАН України: УКРАЇНСЬКИЙ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ
ЛІНГВІСТИЧНИЙ КОРПУС
http://lcorp.ulif.org.ua/virt_unlc/
37. The notion of synonymy. Types of synonyms.
Approaches to the research of synonym:
1. The equivalence of meaning
2. A full or partial ability of the synonyms to interchange
3. The evaluative, stylistic qualities of the synonyms.
Full synonyms - semantic contents coincide completely.
cat, feline.
шофер, водій.
Partial synonyms – only some meanings coincide, they become synonyms when used in one
of their meanings or in certain combinations. For instance, the words student and pupil are
synonyms only in the meaning a person who is being taught.
Semantic (ideographic) synonymy
 Describe different quality of the object donated (ex. mistake - error -slip – lapse; помилка,
хиба, провина, похибка, неточність, блуд, недогляд).
 Show different degree of the same quality or phenomena (ex. mistake - blunder).
(informal); salt (everyday speech) and sodium chloride (technical).
Stylistic synonyms may have different evaluative quality (compare horse and steed).
Stylistic synonyms differ in both semantic content and stylistic coloring, like to eat and to pig
(i.e. to eat greedily)
 A dialect difference between words: autumn (British English) and fall (American); sandwich
алфальт, гостинець; рискаль, заступ, городник, лопатка; Штани, гачі. Фотографія,
знимка
A collocational difference: rancid (is used only of butter) and rotten (of bacon)
A difference in connotation: youth (less pleasant) and youngster.
Semantic function of synonyms:
 Substitution can be observed in the text parts which follow each other. Semantically adequate
lexical units interchange in order to avoid monotony.
 Specification serves to unfold the qualities and various characteristic features of the denoted
objects or phenomena. There are two possible contexts in this case:
In the neutralizing context, the differences between synonyms are not crucial for the content
of the utterance.
In the differenciating context the differences in the semantic content of the synonyms are in
the center of attention.

Synonyms (from Greek syn – plus and onoma – name) are words whose meaning coincide either fully Functions of stylistic synonymy
or partially. Synonyms can also be described as words and word-combinations that have the same  Emotional evaluation is based upon different stylistic colouring of the maked synonyms:
meaning in some or in any contexts. 1. Higher than neutral (high, poetic, bookish, etc);
e.g. Beautiful: Attractive, Pretty, Lovely, Stunning;
22
 2. Lower than neutral (colloquial, jargon, etc).
 The function of the stylistic organization of the text is realized, when stylistically marked
synonyms coordinate stylistically and semantically with the whole text.
Synonym paradigm
Synonymic words form synonym paradigm that consists of number o words with similar or
identical meaning. Every synonym paradigm has a central member, whose meaning is the
simplest semantically, the most neutral stylistically
For instance, in the paradigm big, large, sizeable, colossal, giant, enormous, gigantic, great, huges,
immense, vast, large-scale the word big is evidently the central member.
38. The notion of idiomaticity and criteria of singling out phraseological units.
(i) nativelike selection of expression (inspired by Pawley and Syder (1983))
(ii) that which one has to know over an d above rules and words (inspired by Fillmore et al
(1988))
Shakhmatov and Fortunatov singled out the following criteria of distinguishing them from free word
groups: stability, idiomaticity, function and context.
Criterion of stability means that the components of phraseological units follow each other in the
definite constant order, there can be no substitution for them. This view point has been criticized, since
many phraseological units lack absolute stability and admit variations.
Criterion of idiomaticity is based on the lack of motivation. Vinogradov singled out the degrees of
idiomaticity:
1) Phraseological fusions (фразеологічні зрощення) – stable, indivisible word combinations the
meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meaning of the words which make up a combination, e.g.
пекти раків, собаку з’їсти, скакати в гречку, розводити антимонії, дати драла, врізати дуба, не
до солі, точити ляси
2) Phraseological unities (фразеологічні єдності) – semantically indivisible combinations but their
semantic content is partially motivated by the meaning of words that make up this phraseological unit,
e.g.,закинути вудку, тягнути лямку, мілко плавати, покласти зуби на полицю, товкти воду у
ступі
3) Phraseological combinations (фразеологічні сполучення) – stable phrases in which one of the
components has an independent meaning, which is concretized in permanent use with other words. For
example, брати preserves its lexical meaning in combination with different nouns reveals the meaning
of the phraseological unit, e.g. нічого в рот не брати, брати рушники, брати гору, брати близько
до серця, боати на глум
This view point has been criticized, for there is no distinct boarder line between phraseological units and
word groups on one hand and word groups and phraseological collocations – on the other.
Criterion of function presupposes that phraseological units are grammatically and stylistically
inseparable, in a sentence they behave like a single syntactic form, i.g. He wrote it in a long run. This
view point has been criticized, as the same phraseological units may be inseparable in 1 type of syntactic
context, but quite separable in another, i.g. take care - care was taken. According to the criterion of
context phraseological units have a fixed meaning (unlike free word groups).
39. Classification of phraseological units.
The turning point in the classification of the phraseological units was V. Vinogradov’s research.
According to the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units can be classified into three big groups:
1) Phraseological fusions (фразеологічні зрощення) – stable, indivisible word combinations the
meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meaning of the words which make up a combination, e.g.
пекти раків, собаку з’їсти, скакати в гречку, розводити антимонії, дати драла, врізати дуба, не до
солі, точити ляси
2) Phraseological unities (фразеологічні єдності) – semantically indivisible combinations but their
semantic content is partially motivated by the meaning of words that make up this phraseological unit,
e.g.,закинути вудку, тягнути лямку, мілко плавати, покласти зуби на полицю, товкти воду у
ступі.
3) Phraseological combinations (фразеологічні сполучення) – stable phrases in which one of the
components has an independent meaning, which is concretized in permanent use with other words. For
example, брати preserves its lexical meaning in combination with different nouns reveals the meaning
of the phraseological unit, e.g. нічого в рот не брати, брати рушники, брати гору, брати близько
до серця, боати на глум.
Charles Bally presents the following four groups of word-combinations:
1) free phrases – word combinations which are not stable and disintegrate after being formed,
2) usual phrases – word-combinations with relatively free connection of their components, where some
changes are admittable;
3) phraseological fusions – word-groups, in which the two concepts blend together;
4) phraseological unities  – the combinations in which the words lose their  meaning and express only
one concept
Contextological approach was pointed out by N. Amosova and A. Kunin that this classification being
developed for the Russian phraseology does not fit the peculiar English features. 
N. Amosova’s approach is contextological. She defines phraseological units as units of fixed context.
Fixed context is defined as the context characterized by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite
lexical components. Units of fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms.
Phrasemes are binary – one component has
phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as a determining context.
For instance:
  small talk, small hours
In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole, though every element may have its original meaning
weakened or even completely lost. For instance:
 in the nick of time – at the exact moment, red tape, to play with fire
R. Zorivchak
 every phraseological unit as a polylexeme construction consists of a combination of lexemes with
a certain structure and grammatical features (the first sense layer).
23
 The verbal image appears on the basis of the first sense layer and then is shaped into the phraseological 40. Main sources of phraseological units.
meaning (the second sense layer).
The general meaning is one semantic whole, which is the result of interrelationship of all individual Phraseological units originate from various sources:
semes. The verbal image is sometimes latent. This semantic structure is enriched by connotations 1) legends, traditions,religions, narrations and beliefs of the folk. For example: 
Suggested classification  to beat the wind – to waste time, to be busy with vain work;
 word combination - a unity of at least two notional words that do not present a structure of  To  show the white feather – to show timidity (a white feather in a tail of fighting cock was a
predication and come to life as the result of a realization of the compatible semantic components sign of  bad breed);
of these words.  to leap apes in hell – to die as an unmarried woman (according to old English narrations old
 word-sense combinations - if the study of the corresponding dictionary entries shows that unmarried women were intended to leap apes after their death);
the cumulative sense of a word combination is formed as the result of combining of the components 2) realias:
senses  blue stocking – learned woman (one of English admiral Boscawen’s literary meetings in the
 quasi-idiomatic combinations (QIC) - the communicative sense of the combination is not 18th century in London was called “the meeting of blue
the sum of the communicative senses of the components, but the sense of the combination reflects some stockings”, because scientist Benjamin Spellingflete came in blue stockings);
semantic features which can be discovered in the original word-sense combination  blue book – reference book that contains surnames of persons who occupy state posts in
 idiomatic combinations (IC) - in order to find an explanation of the idiomatic sense the USA;
formation we can turn to the history of the language  to carry coals to Newcastle – to do something absurd (Newcastle is the centre of English coal
industry);
3)  personalities of writers, kings and scholars:
  King Charles’ head – obsessive idea (according to Charles Dickens’ novel “David
Copperfield”);
 Queen Anne is dead – nothing new;
 a Sherlock  Holmes – a detective;
 a Sally Lunn – sweet roll; 
4) historical  facts:
 As well be hanged for a sheep as for a lamb – if one is to be executed because of stealing a
sheep, so why not steal a lamb (an old English law according to which one who steals a sheep
is executed);
 the curse of Scotland – nine of diamonds in cards (the card is called in honor of the
resemblance with the blazon (герб) of Duke Stair, who hated Scotland)
5)  fables and fairy-tales:
   Fortunate’s purse – purse full of money;
 the whole bag of tricks – very sly;
6)  family relations:
  henpecked husband – a man habitually subdued by his wife;
 a marriage portion – a bride’s dowry (посаг),
 to marry a fortune – to take as a husband a rich and well-respected man,
  Miss Right – smb.’s future wife,
  Mr. Right – smb.’s future husband;
7)  seasons and weather:
 rush season – period when people are especially busy doing something;
 out of season – not available for sale, out of point, not in a proper place;
  settled weather – period of calm weather, free from storms and extremes;
under the weather – ill

24
 Words must be combined into larger units, and grammar encompasses a complex set of rules specifying
such combinations. Therefore, alongside with their lexical meaning words possess some grammatical
41. The notion of homonymy. Sources and types of homonyms. meaning.
Certain grammatical functions and meanings are possible only for the words whose lexical meaning
A homonym is a word that has the same pronunciation and spelling as another word, but a different makes them fit for these functions, and, on the other hand, some lexical meanings in some words occur
meaning only in definite grammatical functions and forms and in the definite grammatical patterns.
For example: For example, the verb go when in the continuous tenses, followed by to and infinitive serves to express
ray 1) narrow beam of light; an action in the near or immediate future, or an intention of future action: I am going to be very strict.
2) a sea fish with a large flat body; And participle II of the same verb following the link verb be denotes absence: The house is gone.
3) in music the second note of a major scale.
Syntagmatic and paradygmatic relations
Origin of homonyms  the former are based on the linear character of speech i.e. on the influence of context.
 context is defined as the minimum stretch of speech necessary and sufficient to determine which of
 Result of a coincidence of phonetic change in two semantically unrelated words (sea and see); the possible meanings of a word is used., e.g. blue eyes − to feel blue; вiльна краiна − вiльне
 Borrowings: мiсце.
Mail (the system of delivery) was borrowed from Old French mail (bag) Syntagmatic relationships are studied by means of contextual, valency, distributional, transformational
 Onomatopoeic origin or exclamation: and other types of analysis. Paradygmatic relationships carry our attention to: (a) the interdependence of
Hey (an exclamation used to draw attention); elements within words, (b) the interdependence of words within the vocabulary.
Hey (a kind of country dance).
 Semantic cleft:
in bank
Check verification 43. Lexicology and Stylistics: points of intersection.

 FULL homonyms coincide in spelling and pronunciation in all grammatical forms (farmer’s
bull and a papal bull)
 PARTIAL homonyms coincide only in separate forms: saw – the Past Simple form of the
verb to see,
saw – a tool that has a long blade with sharp points used for cutting wood or metal.
Stylistics as a branch of linguistic study is concerned not with the elements of language as such but with
their expressive potential.
“Stylistics of the word” explores the expressive resources available in the vocabulary of a language,
investigates the stylistic implications of such phenomena as word-formation, synonymy, ambiguity, or
the contrast between vague and precise, abstract and concrete, rare and common terms etc.

Stylistics studies many problems treated in lexicology. These are the problems of meaning,
Types of partial homonyms:
connotations, synonymy, functional differentiation of vocabulary according to the sphere of
A homograph – word that has the same spelling, but a different meaning and pronunciation (lead –
[led] heavy soft grey metal and [li:d] – to go with showing the way ) communication and some other issues. For a reader without some awareness of the connotations and
A homophone is a word that has the same pronunciation as another word, but those meaning and history of words, the images hidden in their root and their stylistic properties, a substantial part of the
spelling are different: meaning of a literary text, whether prosaic or poetic, may be lost. Thus, for instance, the mood of
e.g. to, too, two; there and their; despair in O. Wilde’s poem "Taedium Vitae” (Weariness of Life) is felt due to an accumulation of
week and weak. epithets expressed by words with negative, derogatory connotations, such as: desperate, paltry, gaudy,
Capytonyms are words that are spelled in the same way but have different meanings when capitalised: base, lackeyed, slanderous, lowliest, meanest. An awareness of all the characteristic features of words is
e.g. polish (to make shiny) - Polish (from Poland)
not only rewarded because one can feel the effect of hidden connotations and imagery, but because
The interpreter’s false friends – words in different languages that have the same spelling and/ or
pronunciation but have different meaning (artist – артист, magazine - магазин) without it one cannot grasp the whole essence of the message the poem has to convey.

42. The connections of lexicology and grammar.

- is conditioned by the manifold ties between the object of their study.

Even isolated words as presented in a dictionary bear a definite relation to the grammatical system of the
language because they belong to some part of speech and conform to some lexico-grammatical
characteristic of the word class to which they belong.

25
 A. Secondary words, containing free forms:
44. Etymological structure of the English language. 1. Compound words, containing more than one free form: door-knob, wild-animal-tamer. The
included free forms are the members of the compound word: in our examples, the members are
Etymology - a branch of lexicology which deals with different processes of assimilation and adaptation the words door, knob, tamer, and the phrase wild animal.
of foreign words and examines the history of words, their origins, and how their forms and meanings 2. Derived secondary words, containing one free form: boyish, old-maidish. The included free form is
have changed over time. called the underlying form; in our examples the underlying forms are the word boy and the phrase
From the point of view of etymology, English language can be divided into two parts: old maid.
70% of borrowings in English B. Primary words, not containing a free form:
 Latin (pound, kitchen) 1. Derived primary words, containing more than one bound form: re-ceive, de-ceive, con-ceive, re-
 Greek (church, angel) tain, de-tain, con-tain.
 French (cuisine, ballet) 2. Morpheme-words, consisting of a single (free) morpheme: man, boy, cut, run, red, big.
 Spanish (tomato, guitar)
 Scandinavian (knife, window) M.P.Ivchenko
 German (iceberg, rucksack) I. Non-derived words:
 Dutch (dock, luck) 1. Non-derived words consisting of the root: тепер, тут, там, дуже, мало, завжди, скрiзь,
 Russian (steppe, collectivisation) можна, у, при, вiд, над, до, i, але.
30% native English words 2. Non-derived words consisting of the root and the ending: мов-а, вод-а, вез-у, весел-ий. Here
 Words common for Indo-European languages (father, mother) belong also words with zero affix: вiк, вiз, нiс.
 Common for Germanic group (house, green) II. Derived words made up of roots, prefixes and suffixes:
 English proper (bird, lord) 1. Words consisting of the root and the suffix: скрип-к-а, iстор-ичн-ий.
Several suffixes can be used.
1. Morphological types of words: approaches to classification. 2. Words consisting of the root and the prefix: до-пис, пере-клад.
3. Combination of the root with prefixes and suffixes: пере-стриб-ну-ти, про-свiт-и-ти, за-пев-
The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its ни-ти.
constituent morphemes. III. Compound words created by combining two stems with or without infix: лiсостеп, скороход.
The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types
of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of 45. Conversion and shortening as productive types of word-formation in English.
word building.
According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Conversion is a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word
Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. class without any change of form, either in pronunciation or spelling (work – to work)
All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups: derived words and compound words – according to the  Prof. Smirnitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when one part of
number of root-morphemes they have. speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm, e.g. to form the verb
Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. «to dial» from the noun «dial» we change the paradigm of the noun (a dial,dials) for the
acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. paradigm of a regular verb (I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing).
Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes. There can be both root- and  Marchand, Zhluktenko, Arnold treat conversion as a morphological-syntactical word-building
derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as because we have not only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactic
in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc. function, e.g. I need some good paper for my room. (The noun «paper» is an object in the
These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their sentence). I paper my room every year. (The verb «paper» is the predicate in the sentence)
comparative value lies in a careful consideration of:  Conversion may involve a change within the same word class as in the change from one type
1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock,and of noun to another or one type of verb to another. For example, the use of uncountable nouns
2) their frequency value in actual speech. as countable and vice-versa (some coffee, some beer – two coffees, two beers)
Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in different The major kinds of conversion are:
parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the  noun to verb: to bottle, to commission, to e-mail, to databank
existing wordstock; Root words are characterized by a high degree of collocability. Root-words also  verb to noun: a call, a command, a guess, a spy, a doubt
serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.
 adjective to noun: the poor, the rich, a daily, a convertible
 adjective to verb: to better, to empty, to wrong, to dirty
L. Bloomfield
In Ukrainian two main processes of conversion:
26
Substantivization - nouns converted from different parts of speech (most frequently from adjectives
майбутнє, бобові, вихідні)
Adverbialization - adverbs converted from other parts of speech, e.g. часом, стрілою, бігом, літом,
спідлоба, натроє
Not very productive in Ukrainian
Shortening of words is a type of morphological word-building.
the term "shortening of words" is regarded as conventional, as it involves the shortening of both words
and word-groups.
Shortenings are produced in 2 ways:
 to make a new word from a syllable (rarer two) of the original words. The latter may lose it’s
beginning (telephone – phone, defence - fence), it’s ending (holidays – hols, advertisement-
ad), or both the beginning and the ending (influenza – flu, refrigerator - fridge)
 to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: U.N.O – United Nation
Organization, B.B.C.
2 types of shortening:
 Contraction (clipping)
 Abbreviation
The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Ukrainian this type of
abbreviation is not typical (e.g. for example, i.e. – that is)
Types of abbreviations:
 Acronym (has to be pronounced as a word: UNESCO)
 Initialism (retains alphabetical pronunciation FBI)
In Ukrainian:
 Initialisms
o Alphabetic СБУ
o Sound ЧАЕС
 Compound (made up of the truncation of the stems of two or more words) Бенілюкс, нардеп
 Blend (a part of one word combined with a full word) медсестра
 Combined АвтоЗаЗ (Автомобільний Запорізький завод)
Types of contraction:
 Aphaeresis - omission of the initial part of the word (telephone – phone)
 Syncope - omission of an unstressed middle syllable (fantasy – fancy)
 Apocope - omission of the final part of the word (gymnasium – gym)
 These types can also be combined (refrigerator – fridge (aphaeresis + apocope)
Apocope and syncope are not characteristic of Ukrainian
Though apocope is often used with compounding: генпрокуратура, міськрада
Most shortenings are nouns. Verbs (rev – from revolve) and adjectives (awk from awkward) are very
rare.
46. The notion of semantic indivisibility in phraseological studies.
Sense indivisibility can be defined as the impossibility to single out those semantic features in the
semantic structures of separate components which can be singled out for the whole combination.
Sense indivisibility being the crucial factor for defining a phraseological unit, this factor can be viewed
as a key one for understanding of the mechanism of phraseologisation. The process of phraseologisation
of free phrases is based on the possibility of singling out a semantic feature or features of a word
combination which cannot be found in its separate components.
47. Neologisms vs occasionalisms
Under the term ‘neologisms’ we understand new words, new meanings or new word combinations that
appeared in certain period of time in language, text or act of communication.
The notion of ‘occasionalisms’ is connected with the frequency of their usage. Such words are usually
referred to as ‘occasional’ or ‘nonce-words’. Most of them do not live long. The given word or meaning
holds only in the given context and is meant only to ‘serve the occasion’.Sometimes occasionalisms are
called ‘authors neologisms’
Let us look at the features that distinguish occasionalisms from neologisms. They are:
1. Occasional words are created in speech directly for particular situation.
2. The novelty of neologisms disappears in some time and extraordinary and unfamiliar perception of
occasional elements is their distinctive feature.
3. The appearance of occasionalisms in language is always unpredictable. They have so called
facultative function.
4. Occasional elements are very expressive because of unaccustomed perception and because of special
concentration of content.
It is important to admit that every neologism has its own author. Therefore, under neologisms we admit
some stable innovative elements, which entered into communication of some group of people; while
occasionalisms are understood as words, meanings of words, which are used once in any text, or process
of communication.
ADDITIONAL
I. How to compare vocabulary systems (‘Linguistics across cultures’ Robert Lado).
In the comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease or difficulty in foreign
language learning." The book outlines methods for comparing two systems of sound, grammar,
vocabulary, writing and culture.
A limited vocabulary~ we can limit the size of the vocabulary to something less than the entire
vocabulary range of a language~ Fries:” in the matter of vocabulary items this stage of learning must
include the chief items of the first three kinds: 1. function words 2. substitute words 3. neg & affirmative
distribution~ what is your purpose? Speaking vocabulary:
1. 2,000 words or less
2.decide what meanings of these words will include within that vocabulary.
3. decide what contextual areas is your concern
4. Decide what grammatical patterns will be included within the range of our sample. 5. Decide what
age groups our vocabulary is intended Specific suggestions on comparing vocabularies~ compare form,
meaning, distribution and connotation with the NL.~ it can be done with the following steps:
1st step: comparison of form~ reading aloud each word~deciding quickly whether it resembles a NL
word or not. 2nd step: comparing meaning~ check the similarity in form against the similar words in
NL.~ take the words that are not similar in form to words in the NL3rd step: comparing distribution and
connotation~ find words that show wide differences in distribution and/or connotation~ words that may
not be used as verbs in the FL will constitute Problems if it is used in NL~ words that are restricted in
27
 geographic distribution in the FL will Be listed as problems.~ words that show wide differences in
connotation will constitute problem
II. Approaches to contrastive lexicology (Yu. Zhluktenko).
The main goal of contrastive lexical analysis is to determine qualitative characteristics of units, which
are being compared, and the level of their functional correspondence.
He distinguishes 5 approaches to research:
1. Characterological – comparison of synchronic language systems for characteristic of the one
of them (detailed linguistic description)
2. Typological – aims to identify common features in compared languages, determine language
type and language universals.
3. Translation Studies’ (перекладознавчий) – determines functional-semantic correspondence
and the level of means of equivalence of two languages.
4. Didactical (pedagogic) – provides the base for methodology of teaching of foreign language,
revealing the similarity and difference between two languages.
5. Bilingual – explores the relationships between languages in situations of language contact and
bilingualism.
Also contrastive researches differ by the language level, to which the studied language means belong:
phonetic, phonological, grammatical, lexical and semantic etc.
Relation among some object of the external word, its concept and word is schematically transferred by
‘semiotic triangle’ designed by Ogden and Richards.
Any of these essences can be selected as the base for comparison, so different aspects of comparison of
these means of language can be used in researches.
Yu. Zhluktenko distinguishes 4 approaches to contrastive research:
1. Onomasiological aspect is based on unity or identity of the referents. The aim is to determine
which words are selected in both languages to denote the same object. The main problem is to
prove that referents coincide. Four cases:
 full equivalence (terminology, place names, proper names);
 when unambiguous term in one language stands for polysemous term in other
language (social science: capital – капитал, фонды, капиталисты);
 lexical lacuna (absence of reference in other language);
 level asymmetry of means of designation (the reference exists in other language, but
has no one-word notation: pre-decision – попереднє рішення)
2. Semasiological is also based on proximity of meaning, but is interested in the corespondence
in the level of content only: the scope and nature of the semantic structure of words, the
hierarchy of lexical-semantic variants, stylistic features and connotations.
FIRE – ВОГОНЬ
 coincides:
A. горіння, полум’я (she is afraid of fire);
B. запал (full of fire and courage);
C. стрілянина (to direct one’s fire agains smb.)
 English meanings, alien to Ukrainian:
A. багаття (they sat round the fire);
B. піч, камін (he lit the kitchen fire);
C. пожежа (forest fire);
 Ukrainian meanings, alien to English:
A. сигнальний вогонь (signal fire)
B. вогні погасли (lights are out).
3. Paradigmatic approach is based on similarities in the functioning of lexical units within certain
verbal microsystems - lexical-semantic groups, thematic groups and synonymous antonymic
series, structural word paradigms etc.
Problem: How each of the compared lexical-semantic system is divided into separate systems
and what internal connections exist in these microsystems, i.e. relationship of a single word
with other parts of this complex.
4. Syntagmatic is based on the idea, that even words with the equivalent denotative meaning in
different languages have distinctive lexical relations with other units of dictionary as a part of
a phrase.
LONG – ДОВГИЙ
 long face – похмуре обличчя;
 the long view – далека перспектива;
 довга промова – lengthy speech.
He summarizes that is difficult to find in language such interlingual lexical correspondences, which
would have each completely identical lexical relations.
III. Technique of componential development (Yu. Nida)
In the lexical item "woman" several sememes may be singled out , such as human , not an animal,
female , adult.
The analysis of the word "girl" will show the following sememes : human , female , young.
The last component of the two words differentiates them and makes impossible to mix up the words in
the process of communication
1. Types of relations between related meanings of different terms.
a. Inclusion: One word includes the meanings of another: eg. poodle is included in dog.
b. Overlap: Commonly there is an overlap of meanings: ill/sick. These are treated as synonyms, but
almost never substitute for one another in all contexts.
c. Complementation: Words that involve a number of shared features of meaning but show certain
marked contrasts and often opposite meanings:
 opposites: polar contrasts: good/bad, high/low
 reversives: reversal of events: tie/untie
 conversives: reciprocal or opposite view: buy/sell
2. Analytical vs. psychological validity of components of meanings. We sometimes ‘feel’ that the basic
meaning is x while analytically it turns to be y. Eg. feel ‘running’ has to do with speed, but in fact on
analysis it turns out to be having no foot of the ground at a given instance in a certain type of activities.
3. Approaches to meaning
 extensionalist: see words in their contexts
 intensionalist: analyse the contour of words as in componential analysis.
IV. Statistical analysis.
Modern structural ways of analysis are often combined with statistical procedures making the whole
approach more rigorous.
28
 Statistics describes how things are on the average. For a modern linguist it is not enough to know that it Productive suffixes are ones, which take partin deriving new words in particular period of language
is allowable for a given structure to appear, he is interested in its frequency, in how often it appears. development
It is, however, naive to think that a mere attachment of numbers confers rigour on an argument, that ( e.g. –er, -ing, -ness, -y, -ish, -able, -ate, etc.);
giving percentage or adopting mathematical terminology automatically makes the study "exact", Non-productive suffixes are not able to form new words in particular period of language development;
"objective", "scientific". (-th (truth), -hood (childhood), -ship (scholarship))
Statistical approach is most helpful when we have large masses of data to analyse, and this is precisely Productivity ≠ frequency of occurrence
the case with vocabulary study. (E.g. suffixes –ful, -ly, -ant, -ent, -al
Probably the best known result so far achieved in the field of statistical linguistics is the formula known are frequent but non-productive)
as Zipf’s law. The formula states essentially that if the words in a long text are ranked in order of
decreasing frequency of occurrence in the text, so that the most frequent word has the rank r=1, the next Degrees of productivity:
frequent has the rank r=2, and so forth, then the product of the rank r for any word in the text will be Productive affixes have different degrees of productivity
approximately the same constant c, where c depends on the length of the text. They have differing ranges of bases they can attach to.
Among suffixes forming nouns, for example, -ness is highly productive, -ity somewhat less so, while –
V. Distributional and transformational analysis. dom is of very low productivity.
Words couldn’t be formed with their present meaning by means of operations still productive in the
Distributional analysis grammar today are said to be lexicalized: they absolutely have to be included in a dictionary.
the position which lexical unit occupies or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech.
Distributional analysis in lexicology aims to study lexical units in terms of their distribution, Suffix -ist [ist], which is used in the same function as the Ukrainian suffix -іст (-ист) in the following
i.e. the immediate environment in the flow of speech words: соціаліст, пропагандист, that is the one who belongs to a particular party, social group,
 to treat somebody well, kindly , etc. — ‘to act or behave towards’ where the verb is followed profession: social (суспільний) — socialist;
by capital (капітал) — capitalist;
a noun + an adverb piano (піаніно) — pianist;
 to treat somebody to ice-cream, champagne , etc. — ‘to supply with food, drink, geology (геологія) — geologist
entertainment, etc. at one’s own expence’ where the verb is followed by Suffix -ation,which forms abstract nouns from the verbs(namely with the -ize suffix):
a noun+the preposition to + another noun to organize — organization, to collectivize — collectivization, to nationalize — nationalization
Transformational analysis: Suffix -ness, which forms abstract
- repatterning of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness nouns from adjectives:
of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns great — greatness, empty – emptiness
I.Permutation - the repatterning on condition that the basic subordinative relationships between Suffix -ing, which forms nouns from verbs. Nouns with such suffix are, commonly, actions but they can
words and word-stems of the lexical units are not changed also have another meaning:
e. g. "His work is excellent " may be transformed into " his excellent work , the excellence of to begin — beginning, to be — being, to build — building, to land — landing,to fire — firing
his work , he works excellently “ Besides the suffixes mentioned above, the nouns in the English language are characterized by a number
II. Replacement - the substitution of a component of the distributional structure by a member of other suffixes, in particular:
of a certain strictly defined set of lexical units. -tion, -sion (action, translation, education, revolution, division, pension)
e. g. Replacement of a notional verb by an auxiliary or link verb (he will make a bad mistake -ment (development, fulfilment, movement)
and he will make a good teacher ). -th (depth, width, length, growth)
III. Addition (or expansion) may be illustrated by the application of the procedure of addition -ie (-у, -ey) — зменшувальний суфікс (Annie, Charley, mammy, daddy — татусь, granny — бабуся,
to the classification of adjectives into two groups-adjectives denoting inherent and non-inherent sonny — синок, birdie — пташка)
qualities. У словотвірних типах відсубстантивних іменників на позначення людей за родом діяльності,
e. g. John is happy. John is tall. фахом продуктивними є суфікси: -ар (-яр), -ець (-івець, -овець), -ник, -ік (-їк), -ир, -ист (-іст)
IV. Deletion - a procedure which shows whether one of the words semantically subordinated (шахтар, килимар, ковзаняр, олійник, кулеметник, прозаїк, таксист, шахіст).
to the other, e. g. the word-group "red flowers " may be deleted and transformed into "flowers " without Найпродуктивнішими є суфікси: 
making the sentence senseless : I like red flowers or I like flowers -ник (-івник),-льник: 
(пасічник, рільник, рятівник, веслувальник)
VI. Morpheme as a linguistic unit. -ч (ач/ яч): ткач, заспівувач,перекладач, збирач, діяч; 
VII. Productive suffixes in English and Ukrainian languages. -ець, (-нець): співець, борець, знавець, продавець, переможець
-ар (-яр), що приєднується до усіченної основи:

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  лікар, бунтар, маляр, кресляр nocebo noun a harmless substance that creates harmful side effects in patients (as a result of the patient
believing it to be harmful)
VIII. Shortening in English and Ukrainian earthscraper noun - a pyramid-shaped multi-storey building which is constructed underground, with its
IX. Conversion in English and Ukrainian ‘roof’ at ground level
X. Euphemisms and politically correct words. boatel noun - a boat that is a hotel
XI. Neologisms (+ examples in English and Ukrainian)
XII. American territory variety of American English (USA + Canada).
Ukrainian:
Абрикосень – another name for July Social scientists estimate the number of U.S. dialects range from a basic three - New England,
Айс бакет челендж - Ice Bucket Challenge, is an activity involving dumping a bucket of ice water on Southern and Western/General America - to 24 or more . Some researchers go so far as to suggest it's
someone's head to promote awareness of the disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and encourage actually impossible to count the number of dialects in the United States because under a loose definition
donations to research. of the term, thousands of cities, towns and groups have their own varieties or dialects.
Антикафе – a new kind of public places where the visitors pay not for food, but for time. In addition,
some candies and coffee are free. New England dialect is spoken from the Connecticut River north and eastward through Rhode Island,
артхаус - an art film is typically a serious, independent film aimed at a niche market rather than a mass Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.
market audience. Some of its characteristics are:
Безплатка – a free advertisement on the Internet, in newspapers or magazines, on TV. 1) pronouncing the a in such words as ask, brass, can't, class, fast, grass, half, last, and path somewhat
Бро – a shortened version of an English word “brother” meaning “friend”. like the broad a in father, and lengthening the a sound in such words as bar, dark, far, farm, and heart to
Буккросинг – an English word . BookCrossing is defined as "the practice of leaving a book in a public a sound somewhat between the sound the rest of us pronounce in hat and father (this last a sound is also
place to be picked up and read by others, who then do likewise." found in eastern Virginia and elsewhere in the tidewater region). Thus we tease Bostonians for saying
Видограй – a Ukrainian word for «відеокліп». "ahnt" (aunt) and "vahz" (vase).
Гуглити – to look for some information on the Internet using a search engine “Google”. 2) pronouncing the o in such words as box, hot, not, pot, and top with the lips rounded, forming an open
Консьюмерізм - as a social and economic order and ideology encourages the acquisition of goods and o sound. The rest of us tend to pronounce this o more as the broad a sound of father.
services in ever-increasing amounts. 3) omitting, slighting, or shortening some r sounds, thus car, dear, and door sound like "cah," "deah,"
Лайфхак - Life hacking refers to any trick, shortcut, skill, or novelty method that increases productivity and "doah" to the rest of us. The broad a sound and the slighted r cause the rest of us to hear "pahk the
and efficiency, in all walks of life. cah in Hahvahd yahd" (park the car in Harvard yard).
Уггі - Ugg boots (sometimes called uggs) are known in Australia and New Zealand as sheepskin boots.
Фрісбі - a disc-shaped gliding toy or sporting item that is generally plastic, used recreationally and Southern dialect is used south and east of a line drawn along the northern boundary of Maryland and
competitively for throwing and catching, for example, in flying disc games. Virginia and the southern boundary of West Virginia,the southern part of Missouri and down through
Фрілансер - A freelancer or freelance worker is a term commonly used for a person who is self- southeastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas.
employed and is not necessarily committed to a particular employer long-term. Some of its characteristics are:
Читалка – a device, created for reading e-books; also a programme that enables opening of a certain 1) the Southern drawl: a slower enunciation than used in the rest of the country, combined with a slow
book. breaking, gliding, or diphthongization of stressed vowels. Thus to the rest of us the Southern class
sounds like "clae-is"; yes like "yea-is" or "yea-yis"; fine, I, ride, and time like "fi-ahn," "I-ah," "ri-ahd,"
English: and ti-ahm" (these all being long i sounds).
Brangelina: used to refer to supercouple Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie. 2) some of this slow dwelling on the vowel sounds weakens the following final consonants, especially
Staycation: A vacation at home or in the immediate local area. d's, Vs, r's, and t's, giving southerners such pronunciations as fin(d), he(l)p, se(l)f, flo(or), mo(re),
Negligent (adj.), describes a condition in which you absentmindedly answer the door in your nightgown. po(or), yo(ur), bes(t), kep(t).
dumbwalking noun - walking slowly, without paying attention to the world around you because you are
consulting a smartphone General American dialect is heard in western Connecticut, New York State, New Jersey, and
ped-text verb to text someone while walking Pennsylvania, then broadens out to include West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and
bio-inspiration noun the adoption of patterns and structures found in nature for the purposes of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, northern Missouri, northwestern Oklahoma and west Texas, and finally
engineering, manufacturing, science, etc. encompasses the entire western half of the country.
drought shaming noun the public shaming, often through social media, of people or companies guilty of Some of its characteristics are:
wasting water 1) using the short flat a in such words as ask, brass, can't, class, dance, fast, grass, half, last, and path.
plastisphere noun the discarded plastic that is now a part of our seas, rivers and lakes and, for better or 2) sounding the unrounded o in such words as box, hot, lot, not, pot, and top almost as the broad a in
worse, is developing its own ecosystem father.

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 3) the retention of a strong r sound in all positions, as caR, haRd, etc. XV. BNC

XIII. Online dictionaries. The British National Corpus (BNC) is a 100-million-word text corpus of samples of written and spoken
English from a wide range of sources.( text corpus is a large and structured set of texts )
An online dictionary is a dictionary that is accessible via the Internet through a web browser. History
They can be made available in a number of ways: The project to create the BNC involved the collaboration of three publishers Oxford University Press,
- free; Longman and W.R Chambers, two universities (the University of Oxford and Lancaster University and
- free with a paid subscription for extended or more professional content; the British library
- a paid-only service. The creation of the BNC started in 1991 and the project was finished by 1994. There have been no
English Language online encyclopeadias additions of new samples after 1994 but the BNC underwent slight revisions before the release of the
-Encyclopaedia Britannica second edition BNC World (2001) and the third edition BNC XML ( Extensible Markup Language )
-World Book Encyclopedia Edition (2007)
-Encyclopedia.com Background
-Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine The BNC was the vision of computer linguists whose goal was a corpus (collection of texts) of modern
English-language explanatory dictionaries online: (at the time of building the corpus), naturally occurring language in the form of speech and text or
-Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary writing that could be analyzed by a computer.
-Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary The corpus was restricted to just British English and was not extended to cover World Englishes, partly
-Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English because the cost of the project was being funded by the British government which was logically
-Merriam-Webster Dictionary interested in supporting documentation of its own linguistic variety.
Ukrainian-language explanatory dictionaries online: Description
-Великий тлумачний словник сучасної української мови The BNC is a monolingual corpus, although occasionally words and phrases from other languages may
-Словник української мови also be present.
Multilingual dictionaries which provide online translation It is a Synchronic corpus : It covers British English of the late twentieth century, rather than the
-Google Translate historical development which produced it.
-Glosbe General: It includes many different styles and is not limited to any particular subject field, genre.
-Bing Translator The written part of the BNC (90%) includes, for example, extracts from regional and national
-Multitran newspapers, specialist periodicals and journals for all ages and interests, academic books and popular
fiction, published and unpublished letters , school and university essays.
XIV. Wikipedia as online encyclopedia. The remaining 10% of the BNC is samples of spoken language use. These are presented and recorded in
the form of orthographic transcriptions. There are the transcriptions of spontaneous natural
This is a multilingual, web-based, free-content encyclopedia project based on a model of openly editable conversations produced by volunteers of various age groups, social classes and originating from
content. different regions. These conversations were produced in different situations, including formal business
Wikipedia is written collaboratively by largely anonymous volunteers who write without pay. Anyone or government meetings to conversations on radio shows.
with Internet access can write and make changes to Wikipedia articles, except in limited cases where All the original recordings transcribed in the BNC have been deposited at the British Library Sound
editing is restricted to prevent disruption or vandalism. Archive. The majority of the recordings are freely available
There are more than 76,000 active contributors working on more than 34,000,000 articles in 285 Sub-corpora
languages. As of today, there are 4,855,982 articles in English. Every day, hundreds of thousands of Two sub-corpora (subsets of the BNC data) have been released: BNC Baby and BNC Sampler. Both
visitors from around the world collectively make tens of thousands of edits and create thousands of new these sub-corpora may be ordered online via the BNC webpage
articles to augment the knowledge held by the Wikipedia encyclopedia BNC Baby is a sub-corpus that consists of four sets of samples, each containing one million words
tagged as they are in BNC itself. One sample set contains spoken conversation and the other three
sample sets contain written text: academic writing, fiction and newspapers.
The BNC Sampler comprises two samples of written and spoken material of one million words each.
The BNC corpus has been tagged for grammatical information

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