10.1.

The notion of transformations in translation

Text analysis is an important first step in translator's activity because it determines the tools, which
translator is going to use to perform an equivalent (faithful) text rendering. Therefore translators,
who work professionally, have to know basics of linguistic methodology of text analysis as the macro-sign
of the relevant discourse, which includes structural, semantic, social, cultural and communicative
(pragmatic) aspects.
Broadly speaking it is possible to speak about three stages in analyzing ind translating texts: pre-
translation text analysis (доперекладацький аналіз тексту), translation proper (or rather the process
of translating in which transformations are analytically applied to textual items) and post-translation
analysis (editing the translated text, comparing it with the original and proofreading it in order to get
rid of mistakes) [Алексеева 2004; Комиссаров 2002]. However professional translators do not spend
much time for the pre-translation stage (establishing the type of discourse l he text belongs to, searching
for unknown terminology or other peculiar lexical items). In fact, the most important and time-
consuming stage is the process of translating, which by itself presupposes a good deal of analysis (choosing
the transformation required by the context, looking for the best l ranslation option, i.e. applying all possible
strategies of translating). Editing the translated text is also important and time-consuming stage. It allows
to get rid of mistakes, to minimize translation deformations and ensures і hat the translated text
properly "fits" in the target language and culture. This stage is a kind of feedback and is essential for the
"translation product"
to be equivalent, adequate or faithful - whatever term is preferred by different schools off translation.
Thus, three stages of text analysis in translation or translation-oriented text analysis [Nord 2006]
overlap to a great extent, which gives us all grounds to use Ukrainian term перекладацький аналіз
тексту (Rus. переводческий анализ текста) as the one that covers all three stages [Цатурова,
Каширина 2008; Каширина2005].
Having analysed the text, a translator starts to transform the source language text, changing it so that
it performs the same communicative function in the target language and culture. Therefore the
overall aim of translation as a specific kind of interlingual and interc-ultural communication is in
transforming the text so that the message produced by translator has the same effect upon the target
language reader (listener) as it has upon the source language reader (listener). Translation is an
informational process, which means that translator should transmit information as fully as possible.
However, this can be achieved only if certain structural and semantic changes are introduced. These
changes, which are caused by lexical and grammatical differences between languages, as well as by
the differences between the respective cultures, are called transformations in translation.
We may summarize that translation is a two-stage process of interlingual and intercultural
communication when on the basis of analysed and transformed text in the S L a translator
creates another text in the TL which substitutes the source text in the target language and
culture. We may even argue that translating Is an analytical process of inevitable applying
translation transformations which is predetermined by the very nature of translation.
10.2. Classification of transformations in translation
The term "transformations" was first used by Zellig Sabbetai Harris (1909-1992) in his paper "Co-
occurrence and transformations in linguistic Itructure" [Harris 1957], which put formal syntax on an
entirely new, generative basis.
So far there exists no universal approach to the typology of transformations in translation. Thus,
L.S. Barkhudarov [Бархударов 19751 believed that all transformations in translation may be
confined to lour types: transpositions, replacements, additions and omissions. Ya. I. Retsker [Рецкер
2004: 45-129] distinguished between two broad types of 11 ansformations - lexical and grammatical
ones. V.N. Komissarov [1990] singled out lexical, grammatical and "lexico-grammatical"
transformations. A.D. Shveitser considered translation transformations primarily at the "referential
level of semantic equivalence" [Швейцер 1988 : 123-144]. L. K. Latyshev [ 1981: 131 -137]
subdivides all translation transformations into morphological, syntactic, stylistic, semantic and mixed
("lexico-semantic", syntactic and morphological).
Translation transformations should be separated from translation deformations, which concern, first
of all, the form of text and presume thai there occur certain losses in translation, however certain
semantic і lcformations cannot be excluded [Гарбовский 2004: 507]. Obvious translation mistakes
caused by the lack of linguistic and cultural competence of a translator should be also considered
separately [Гарбовский 2004: 514-536].
Translation transformations are analytical changes of the textual items and arc performed by
translators in the process of translation (not at the pre translation stage).
The overview of the traditional approach to the basic types of translation 11 ansformations
[Селіванова2011: 545] is given below.

10.3. Lexical transformations in translation.

Lexical transformations are divided into formal and lexical and semantic ones.
10.3.1. Formal lexical transformations provide for changing the form of the source language unit
by using devices of the target language. Here belong transformations at the phonetic and graphic
levels (sometimes called "transcoding") such as:
1. Practical transcription - reproduction of the S L lexical item phonemes by the TLgraphemes
(letters), e.g., file — файл; interface — інтерфейс; Jack — Джек; Russel — Рассел, etc.
2. Transliteration - reproduction of the letters of the SL lexical item by the TL graphemes (letters),
e.g., broker— брокер; London - Лондон; Disney — Дисней, etc.
3. Traditional phonetic and graphical reproduction, e.g., Texas — Texac; Walter— Вальтер, etc.
4. Combination of the three ways of reproduction described above, e.g. Shakespeare — Шекспір;
Москва — Moscow, etc.
5. Loan translation (калькування), e.g., skyscraper — хмарочос; Merry Monarch — Веселий
Король (nickname of Charles IT), Верховний Суд — Supreme Court; вотум недовіри — non-
confidence vote, etc. '
10.3.2. Lexical and semantic transformations:
1. Generalization of meaning, which is substitution of the SL words (phrases) of a narrow meaning
by the TL words (phrases) of a general (broader) meaning. E.g.: My baby is 18months — Моїй
дитині півтора року. This car costs seventeen hundred pounds — Ця машина коштує тисячу
сімсот фунтів; The soldiers walked in the ankle-deep dust — Солдати йшли по коліно у пилюиі:
wristwatch — наручний годинник, etc.
2. Differentiation of meaning, which is caused by the fact that many English words with broad
meaning do not have direct equivalents in Ukrainian. In such cases dictionaries give a number of
meanings that only partially cover the meaning of the SL word and translators have to choose one of
the options, which suits the context best of all. Thus affection may be rendered as щиросердя but
not obligatory as любов, прихильність, симпатія; challenge — as проблема, нагальне завдання

{питання) but not only as виклик; sustainable — as безперервний, непохитний, придатний,

обгрунтований, остаточно визначений but not only as сталий, усталений, стійкий, etc.
3. Substantiation of meaning is substitution of the source language words (phrases) with a generic
meaning by the target language words (phrases) with a more specific (narrow) meaning.
Substantiation is often combined with differentiation. E.g.: Run for the presidency — Змагання за
посаду президента. Have you had your meal ?—Ви вже поснідали ? Networking — спілкування.
Student — not only студент but also учень, слухач (depending upon the context).
4. Modulation (also called sense or logical development) is replacement of the SL word of phrase
by TL item, which is logically connected with the original item, e.g., Then this girl gets killed,
because she's always speeding — А потім ця дівчина гине, оскільки постійно порушує правила
дорожнього руху.
It's worth mentioning that modulation provides for various metaphoric and metonymic changes
performed on the basis of the notion of intersection, i.e. when a part of the content of one notion is
included into і he content of another notion and vice versa. In conveying the same sense by means of
another language there is often no difference what forms of the word express this content. Thus the
object may be replaced by its feature, і he process — by the object, the feature — by the object or a
process, etc. Ya. I. Retsker [Рецкер 2004: 52] gives the following example of modulation (logical
development): The Liverpool by-election was an acid test for the I abour candidate which can be
hardly translated as Довибори у Ліверпулі були випробуванням на кислотність для кандидата
від лейбористів. І evidently it is necessary to substitute the process by its nominal equivalent - були
лакмусовим папірцем. This presumes substitution of the process by the object and occurs within the
framework of intersection because лакмусовий папірець is only a part of випробування на
кислотність.
When modulation is applied to translation of verb combinations there can be established clear
interrelationships between processes (actions or slates), causes and effects (consequences). Thus the
theory of permutations a I lows singling out six possible variants of modulation (logical
development) [see ibid.]: a) substitution of the process by its cause, b) substitution of the process by
its effect, c) substitution of the cause by the process, (I) substitution of the cause by its effect, e)
substitution of the effect be its cause, f) substitution of the effect by the process.

As an illustration, Ya.I. Retsker [Реикер 2004: 53] gives quite a straightforward example from
A.Christie's book: "I don't thinkshe's living here at the moment. Her bed wasn't slept in". It is quite
appropriate in translation to substitute the process by its effect: instead оївона не спала у своєму
ліжку to use її ліжко не зім 'яте.
10.4. Grammatical translation transformations
1. Word for word reproduction of syntactic structures, which is regarded as a "zero
transformation".
2. Transposition is a change in the order of words in phrases and sentences, which is often caused
by the structural differences in expressing the theme and the rheme in different languages. E.g.: A
girl entered the room
— У кімнату увійшла дівчина; An old man was sitting by the side of the road — Біля краю дороги
сидів старий; A column 185feet high with a statue of Admiral Nelson on top was erected in
Trafalgar Square in 1867
— У 1867році на Трафальгарській площі була споруджена колона 185 футів заввишки, на
верхівці якої була встановлена статуя адмірала Нельсона.
3. Replacement is substitution of a word belonging to one part of speech by a word belonging to
another part of speech (morphological replacement) or substitution of one syntactical construction by
another one (syntactical replacement). E.g.: He is a good runner — Він гарно бігає; Isaw her
standing there — Я бачив, що вона там стояла; The Times wrote editorially (...) — У передовій
статті газета Тайме писала (...).
4. Addition is used to compensate for semantic or grammatical losses and often goes along with
transposition and grammatical replacement. E.g.: His wife had been beautiful — Його дружина
колись (або у молодості) була красунею. Workers of all industries — робітники всіх галузей
промисловості. Candidates will purchase a logbook listing all the modules — Бажаючі прийняти
участь у програмі купують облікову книжку учасника курсів, яка містить перелік всіх
навчальних модулів.
5. Omission is a transformation opposite to addition and is used with the aim to avoid redundant
information. E.g.: the right to rest and leisure — право на відпочинок. Equality in trade and
commerce — рівні права у галузі торгівлі. (...) regardless of age, education, experience or
background — незалежно від віку, освіти та досвіду роботи.

10.5. Lexical and grammatical transformations in translation

The transformations listed below have been labelled as lexical and grammatical because lexical
changes often are caused by the need to adapt l he meaning to the grammatical peculiarities of the
target culture. Most of the scholars single out the following transformations of this kind:
1. Antonymic translation is the substitution of the source language notion by its opposite in
translation with the relevant restructuring of the utterance aimed at faithful rendering of its content.
Here belong such techniques as the use of an affirmative construction instead of a negative one or the
use of semantic antonyms. E.g.: Lei a sleeping dog lie - He чіпай лиха, коли воно спить. The
woman on the other end asked him to hang on - Жінка на іншому кінці проводу сказала, щоб він
не вішав трубку. Keep foreign goods out — He допускати імпорту іноземних товарів or
підтримувати вітчизняного виробника.
2. Total reorganization of the text segment (Rus. целостное преобразо-вание) [Рецкер 2004:59-
68]. This transformation rearranges the inner form of any segment of the text: starting with a word, a
phrase and ending up with a complete sentence. Such reorganization is of an integral nature, so that
visible structural relationships between the inner form of the source and target languages segments
cannot be traced any more. However, total reorganization does not mean that logical and semantic
relationships between the two segments disappear. If it were so, translation would not be equivalent.
On the contrary - total reorganization presumes that equivalence of the content is retained in
translation, though it is achieved by different means. Total reorganization is very often used in
rendering colloquial set expressions and idioms. Examples are: be my guest—ласкаво прошу;
bottleneck — вузьке (слабке) місце; don't move!, freeze! — ані руш!; I'll be damned! —
провалитися мені на цьому місці, хай йому чорт!; out of the blue — несподівано, раптом, як
грім серед ясного неба, як сніг на голову; shut up! — заткни рота!; to sort things out —
ставити все на свої місця.
3. Compensation for the losses in translating. According to A.V. Fedorov ІФедоров 2002: 169-
170] in the practice of translation there are instances when a word or another element of the source
text is not rendered at all or is substituted by a formally different one. However I his omission does
not contradict the principle of translatability because

such elements belong to the text as a whole unit of language. These elements are essential for
understandi ng of the text fragments as parts of a system, which are formed by their
interrelationships and links, thus ensuring cohesion of the text. Within this coherent system there is a
room for replacements and compensations. Therefore if a separate element, which doesn't play a key
role in text organization, is lost in translating, it may be of no importance for the text as a whole
because this element is dissolved in the general context or substituted by other elements, which
sometimes do not exist in the source text.
1. Therefore compensation for losses in translation should be understood as substitution of the
"untranslatable" source element by a different target language element in compliance with the
general contents of the source text and in the place, which is in line with the rules of the target text.
2. Compensation is often applied to rendering of such "untranslatable" elements as culture-specific
units of the source language culture and specific national idioms but not only to them. Mona Baker
[1992:78] writes that the strategy of compensation "means that one may either omit or play down a
feature such as idiomaticity at the point where it occurs in the source text and introduce it elsewhere
in the target text. This strategy is not restricted to idiomaticity or fixed expressions and may be used
to make up for any loss of meaning, emotional force, or stylistic effect which may not be possible to
reproduce directly at a given point in the target text".
3. If it is necessary to sacrifice either stylistic colouring or expressiveness of the text element in
translation, it is worthwhile to retain at least its expressive characteristics. However, if stylistic
colouring is essential for the source text, it should be by all means rendered in translation at least in
some other "place" of the target text, which the technique of compensation is aimed at. The
following example from "Life and adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit" by Ch. Dickens illustrates an
attempt to compensate for certain losses in translation: The education of Mr. Jonas had been
conducted on the strictest principles of the main chance. The very first word he learned to spell was
gain, and the second (when he got into two syllables), money Виховання пана Джонаса було саме
суворе та із народження мало на увазі передусім користь. Перше слово, яке він навчився
складати, було «гроші», а друге (коли він дійшов до трискладових слів) — «нажива».
In the original text Ch. Dickens writes not about the strictness of education as such but about "the
strictest principles of the main cliance", i.e. about"'чіткі принципи не втратити свій шанс'' or
"чіткі принципи отримати наживу". Unfortunately this hypocritical idiomaticity has not been
rendered in translation. However, the translator tries to compensate for this loss by increasing the
level of irony further on in translation. Translation of the words gain and money also illustrates the
technique of compensation: in the source text the first word Mr. Jonas learned to spell is gain and the
second - money. In the Ukrainian translation гроші appears to be the first and нажива — the second
due to the different number of syllables in the target language. Correspondingly the translator
substitutes the phrase when he got into two syllables by коли він дійшов до трискладових слів І
Контекстуальні заміни при перекладі].
10.6. Buzzwords, weasel words and textspeak items as translation challenges
Further on it seems worthwhile to discuss briefly the problem of rendering the so-called "buzzwords"
in translation. Ways of rendering
I MI //words can be in the most general terms viewed as specific kinds of lexical and semantic
transformations. A buzzword (also a vogue word, catch phrase or «слово сьогодення») is a
vague idiom, usually a neologism (often an abbreviation or acronym), that is common to the mass
media, managerial, technical and administrative discourse. Although meant to
II npress the listener with the speaker's pretence to knowledge, buzzwords often make speech
messages difficult to understand, translate or interpret 11 Іалажченко 2006: 255; Buzzword].
Traditional linguistics uses the term neologism (from Greek neo "new" і logos "word") with
reference to a "newly coined word that may be in the process of entering common use, but has not
yet been accepted into the 11 її і і nst ream language. Neologisms are often directly attributable to a
specific person, publication, period, or event. According to the Oxford English І Hctionary the term
neologism was first used in print in 1772" [Neologism]. Quite a lot of academic literature deals with
neologisms, however the focus la I icing made mainly on the structural and semantic models of
coining (building up) new words [see, e:g., Английские неологизмьі 1983], though lately some
new English-Ukrainian dictionaries of neologisms and I mzzwords started to come to the agenda
[Запний, Янков 2008].