ETHICS – Preliminaries
CHAPTER 1 – ETHICS: An Introduction
Philosophy
 Philia
o love (strong desire for a particular object)
 Sophia
o wisdom (correct application of knowledge)
o Science that studies beings in their ultimate
causes, reasons and principles through the
aid of human reason alone.
o *being/beings: all things that exist:
 material or immaterial
 Philosophy is concerned with basically 4 areas:
o Epistemology
o Metaphysics
o Logic
o Ethics
Epistemology (The Study of Knowledge)
 Epistemology deals with the following
questions:
o What is knowledge?
o What are the truth and falsity, and to what
do they apply?
o What is required for someone to actually
know something?
o What is the nature of perception, and how
reliable is it?
o What are logic and logical reasoning, and
how reliable is it?
o What’s the difference between knowledge
and belief?
o Is there anything such as certain
knowledge?
 All these questions deals with absolutes and
truth.
Metaphysics (The Study of Nature of
Reality)
 Metaphysics deals with the following questions:
o Is there really cause and effect in reality,
and if so, how does it work?
o What is the nature of the physical world,
and is there anything other than the
physical, such as the mental or spiritual?
o What is the nature of human beings?
o Is there freedom in reality or is everything
predetermined?
Logic (The Science of Correct Thinking)
 Logic asks the following questions:
o What is correct reasoning?
o What distinguishes a good argument from a
bad one?
o How can we detect a fallacy in argument?
o What are the criteria in determining the
validity of an argument?
o What are the types of logic?
Ethics (The Study of Morality)
 Ethics deals with what is right or wrong in
human behavior and conduct. It asks such
questions as:
o What constitutes a person or action being
good, bad, right, or wrong, and how do we
know (epistemology)?
o What part does self-interest or the interest
of others play in making moral decisions
and judgments?
o What theories of conduct are valid or invalid
and why?
o Should we use principles or rules or laws, or
should we let each situation decide our
morality?
o Are killing, lying, cheating, stealing, and
sexual acts right or wrong, and why or why
not?
Key Terms
 Ethical – comes from the Greek word “ethos”,
meaning character. Ethics, then seems to
pertain to the individual character of a person
or persons.
 Moral – comes from the Latin word “moralis”,
meaning customs or manners morality seems to
point to the relationships between human
beings.
 Unethical – means wrong.
 Immoral – means bad.
Philosophic Wonder
 Aristotle
o For men were first led study philosophy, as
indeed they are today, by wonder. Now, he
who is perplexed and wonders believes
himself to be ignorant… they took to
philosophy to escape ignorance
Chapter 2 – ETHICS
What is Ethics?
 A branch of Philosophy and a social science and
academic discipline that aids in understanding
and adapting situations that affect lives.
 It is an inquiry into some standard to guide
one’s action, or as a tool to understand a given
condition.
Ethics and Philosophy
 Greece is traditionally considered the birthplace
of philosophy.
 Early Greek thinkers realized they needed more
than what poets and storytellers could tell about
the world around them.
 These Greek wise men were also recognized as
“first natural scientists” because of their efforts
to understand the inner workings of nature
through theoretical experiments.
Noted Greek Philosophers
 Thales of Miletus
o Postulated this primal matter to be water.
 Anaximander
o A student of Thales, said this substance was
unidentifiable and called it “apeiron”
(infinite).
 Anaximenes
o A student of Anaximander said it was air.
 Anaxagoras
o Another Greek philosopher, traced all
natural movements to the ordering power of
a cosmic mind or “nous”.
 Pythagoras
o Described their pursuit as “philosophia”.
 Socrates
o Appeared in 15th century B.C.
o Though not the first one, yet still recognized
for being the first to redirect the focus of
philosophy from natural world to the
human person.
o Roam the street of Athens to teach the
importance of critical inquiry beginning
from his assumptions about human beings.
o He believed that if one knows what the good
is, one will always do what is good.
o Thus, if one truly understands the meaning
of courage, self- control, or justice, one will
act in a courageous, self- controlled, and just
manner.
 Plato
o He took place after his teacher Socrates was
executed.
o Enhanced the ethical orientation of
philosophy, that is, to live according to a
certain idea or form of what life ought to be
o His conception of ethics is happiness or well
–being (eudaimonia) is the highest aim of
moral thought and conduct and the virtues
(arête) are the requisite skills and
dispositions needed to attain it.
 Aristotle
o The student of Plato, who carried on what
Socrates and Plato started as evidenced in
the famous Aristotelian work “Nicomachean
Ethics” – that happiness is the end of
human endeavor.
o For him, a happy life is not just merely an
art of doing particular tasks but also
knowing what are these for.
o Hence, that people should achieve an
excellent character as a pre- condition for
attaining happiness or well-being.
Ethical Dilemma
 Moral dilemma is a problem in the decision-
making between two possible options, neither of
which is absolutely acceptable from the ethical
perspective.
 It is also referred as ethical dilemma.
 Ethical dilemma as a “decision-making problem
between two possible moral imperatives,
neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or
preferable.
 It is sometimes called an ethical paradox in
moral philosophy.
Steps in Dealing Ethical Dilemma
 Identify the ethical problem.
 Identify the ethical principles involved.
o Principle of Socrates
o Principle of Aristotle
o Principle of Plato
 List all possible course of action.
 Describe the course of action you decide upon
and the rationale for choosing this decision.
Note in Ethical Dilemma
 If confronted with an ethical dilemma, you have
to choose either of the following:
o greater good and less evil;
o do only what you can where you are;
o love and do what you will
CHAPTER 3
Ethics and Morality
 Ethics refers to standards of conduct,
standards that indicate how one should behave
based on moral duties and virtues, which
themselves are derived from principles of right
and wrong.
 Moral is the adjective describing a human act
as either ethically right or wrong, or qualifying a
person, personality, character, as either
ethically good or bad.
Moral Relativism
 Values are determined by the society we grow
up in, and there are no universal values.
 Moral values are simply customs or conventions
that vary from culture to culture.
Moral Consistency
 To what extent do you think the following
individuals are morally inconsistent?
o an anti-abortionist who supports the death
penalty
o a vegetarian who buys leather shoes
o a socialist who educates his children at a
private school
o A politician who advocates family values
and has an affair
o An environmental activist who drives an
SUV
o Someone who thinks stealing is wrong but
makes illegal copies of computer software or
music.
How do I know what to do?
 Can you choose three values which are universal
for all humans? Why do you think so?
 We have clearly made scientific progress over
the last three hundred years. Does it also make
sense that we have made moral progress?
 Are serial killers “bad” or “mad”
 Are people basically good, and corrupted by
society, or are people basically bad and must be
kept in line by society?
 Imagine that you arrive in a “democratic”
country in which adult women have the vote but
men have no political power. When you
interview them, the men tell you that they are
quite happy with the situation, that public life is
for women, and a man’s place is in the home.
To what extent would you accept the situation,
and to what extent would you try to “re-
educate” the men and make them see the extent
to which they have been indoctrinated?
Self Interest Theory
 Human beings are always and everywhere
selfish. Even if there are objective moral values,
we are incapable of living up to them.
o Definitional argument – we are selfish when
we do what we want to do, and we always do
what we want to do.
o Evolutionary argument – humans are
naturally selfish - programmed
(biologically) to survive.
o Hidden benefits argument – selfish benefits
to helping others.
o Fear of punishment argument – what if I get
caught? (Ring of Gyges).
Theories of Ethics
 While it may be that some values are relative
and that people are often selfish, we do not have
to conclude that all values are relative or that
people are always selfish. An ethical theory
attempts to provide a set of fundamental moral
principles in harmony with our moral
intuitions.
o Religious Ethics – an authoritative rule
book to tell us what rules to follow.
o Duty Ethics - Fulfill your obligations.
Duties & rights are two sides of the same
coin
o Utilitarianism – There is one and only
one supreme moral principal – that we
should seek the greatest happiness of the
greatest number. Maximize happiness.
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
(1800).
o Kant’s Approach to Ethics – Can your
actions be consistently generalized? Ask
yourself “What if everyone did that?”.
According to Kant, if something is wrong, it
is always wrong!
Utilitarianism
 We care about morality because we care about
human happiness
 What do you think is the relationship between
pleasure and happiness? Is happiness just the
sum of pleasures, or can you have many
pleasures and still be unhappy?
 Are the richest nations of the world home to the
happiest people in the world?
 According to Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), “To
be without some of the things you want is an
indispensable part of happiness.” What did he
mean? Do you agree?
Kant’s Approach to Ethics
 In Kant’s view, happiness does not equal
morality. Only a good will has ultimate moral
value. Moral rules should be universal.
o Special Pleading – rationalizing to
ourselves
 o The Golden Rule - treat others the way
you wish to be treated
o Veil of Ignorance - imagine the situation
from both points of view
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
 Although it has been questioned as to whether it
applied equally to different genders and
different cultures, Kohlberg’s (1973) stages of
moral development is the most widely cited. It
breaks our development of morality into three
levels, each of which is divided further into two
stages:
o Preconventional Level (up to age nine):
~Self Focused Morality~
 Morality is defined as obeying rules and
avoiding negative consequences. Children in
this stage see rules set, typically by parents,
as defining moral law.
 That which satisfies the child’s needs is seen
as good and moral.
o Conventional Level (age nine to
adolescence): ~Other Focused Morality~
 Children begin to understand what is
expected of them by their parents, teacher,
etc. Morality is seen as achieving these
expectations.
 Fulfilling obligations as well as following
expectations are seen as moral law for
children in this stage.
o Postconventional Level (adulthood):
~Higher Focused Morality~
 As adults, we begin to understand that
people have different opinions about
morality and that rules and laws vary from
group to group and culture to culture.
Morality is seen as upholding the values of
your group or culture.
 Understanding your own personal beliefs
allow adults to judge themselves and others
based upon higher levels of morality. In this
stage what is right and wrong is based upon
the circumstances surrounding an action.
Basics of morality are the foundation with
independent thought playing an important
role.
THE THREE MAIN BRANCHES OF THE
PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY OF ETHICS
 Meta-ethics
 Normative Ethics
 Applied Ethics
Meta-Ethics
Meta-ethics consists in the attempt to answer the
fundamental philosophical questions about the
nature of ethical theory itself.
Examples:
 Are ethical statements such as "lying is wrong",
or "friendship is good" true or false?
o Cognitivism: the view that moral
judgments are capable of being true or false
o Non-Cognitivism: the view that moral
judgments are not capable of being true or
false (instead they are like commands or
interjections)
o Debate limited to statements like examples
above NOT statements like “Most Catholics
oppose abortion”
 Assuming there are truths of morality, what
sorts of facts make them true?
o Subjectivism: the view that moral truths
are subjective, i.e., dependent upon the
subjective attitudes, values, desires and
beliefs of individuals, not on anything
external to these things.
o Objectivism: the view that moral truths
are objective, i.e., based on facts that are
independent of the attitudes, values, desires
and beliefs of any individual.
 What makes ethical discourse meaningful? Is it
different from what makes other sorts of
discourse meaningful?
 How do the rules of logic apply to ethical
arguments and ethical reasoning? Is it possible
to validly infer a moral conclusion based on
non-moral premises?
 Assuming we have any, what is the source of our
knowledge of moral truths? Is it based on
reason, intuition, scientific experimentation or
something else?
 What is the connection (if any) between
morality and religion? If God exists, is God's
will the basis of morality? Can there be morality
if God doesn't exist?
Normative Ethics
Normative ethics is the study of what makes actions
right or wrong, what makes situations or events
good or bad and what makes people virtuous or
vicious.
Examples:
 Axiology: the study of goodness and badness.
Some theories:
o Hedonism: the theory that pleasure and
the absence of pain are the only things that
are good in and of themselves
 o Desire Satisfactionism: the theory that
the satisfaction of someone’s desire is the
only sort of thing that is good in and of itself
o Non-Naturalism: the theory that being
good is a simple property that is irreducible
or indefinable in terms of anything else
 Normative ethics of behavior: the study of right
and wrong. Some theories:
o Egoism: the theory that an action is right if
an only if it has the best consequences for
the person doing it
o Utilitarianism: the theory that an action is
right if and only if its consequences are
optimal, i.e., it produces the best balance of
goodness over badness for everyone
involved
o Kantian Deontology: the theory that an
action is right if and only if the person
performing the act could consistently will
that the act become a universal law
 Virtue theory, the study of what makes a
person’s character morally praiseworthy
Applied Ethics
 Applied ethics consists in the attempt to answer
difficult moral questions actual people face in
their lives.
Example:
 Is abortion always morally wrong?
 Is euthanasia always morally wrong?
 What about the death penalty? Sex before
marriage? So-called "white lies"? ETC.
The difference between normative ethics
and applied ethics:
 Normative ethics studies what features make an
action right or wrong. Applied ethics attempts
to figure out, in actual cases, whether or not
certain acts have those features.
 If we agree that slavery is wrong... but disagree
about what makes it wrong... ...then our
disagreement is a matter of normative ethics.
 If we agree that morality is whatever produces
the best consequences... but disagree about
whether the death penalty produces the best
consequences... ...then our disagreement is a
matter of applied ethics.
The Goal of Axiology
 Axiology studies what makes things good (or
have value) or bad (or have disvalue)
 A distinction is made between:
o Intrinsic good: good in and of itself
(inherently good)
o Extrinsic good: good because it can be used
to obtain other things that are good
(instrumentally good)
 E.g., having money is extrinsically good
 If money could not be used to obtain
other things, money would have no
value
 Much of axiology investigates what things are
intrinsically good
o Many believe that pleasure has intrinsic valu
o It is good whether or not it leads to anything
else
o Does anything else have intrinsic value?
Knowledge? Friendship? Love?
o Some things might be both intrinsically and
extrinsically good.
 A distinction can also be made between things
that are intrinsically bad or extrinsically bad
o pain is intrinsically bad
o Drug use is probably only extrinsically bad;
if it didn’t have bad consequences it
wouldn’t be bad
 Some things can be both intrinsically good but
extrinsically bad (e.g., the pleasure taken in
unprotected sex)
 Other things can be both intrinsically bad but
extrinsically good. (e.g., pain from exercise)
o Is there a fact of the matter as to which is
worse: my headache or your toothache?
o Are certain kinds of pleasure better than
others?
o What is the relationship between goodness
and badness? Is badness just the absence of
goodness, or is it something distinct?
The Goal of the Normative Ethics of
Behavior
 Primary question: What makes actions right or
wrong?
 An important distinction: an act type is a
category of actions an act token is a specific
action performed by a specific person on a
specific occasion
o Jaywalking is an act type
o My act of jaywalking across North Pleasant
Street on my way to campus this morning at
10:37am is an act token
o Two different people can each perform
actions of the same type
 I can jaywalk at the same time that you
jaywalk
o a given act token will be an instance of many
different kinds of act types
  The same act token can be an instance
of:
 jaywalking
 walking
 crossing the street
 doing something before noon
 doing something wearing pants
 breaking the law, etc.
 Most theories focus on the conditions under
which an act token is morally right or morally
wrong
o The conditions may refer to what type or
types the token is an instance of
o However, focusing on tokens makes the
theory more flexible:
 At least it makes it possible to hold that
one token of a certain type is right while
others are wrong.
 The primary words used are interconnected:
o Our primary word is right:
 An act token is right if and only if it is
morally permissible, OK, allowable, "all
right", or acceptable from the point of
view of morality.
o By definition, a morally wrong action is one
that is not morally right.
o By definition, a morally obligatory action is
that it is morally wrong not to do.
 Obligatory acts are ones that we morally should
perform. This notion of "should" must be
distinguished from other notions of "should".
o things we should or are obligated to do by
the law
o by etiquette
o by prudence
o by the rules or strategy of some game we
play, etc.
 N.E.B. looks for a criterion of moral rightness:
something that is both a necessary and
sufficient condition of a morally right act
o X is a sufficient condition of Y: this means
that something or someone cannot be or do
X without being or doing Y
 being a thief is a sufficient condition for
being a criminal (the reverse, however,
is not true)
 getting an A on all assignments and
exams is a sufficient condition for
passing the course
o X is a necessary condition of Y: this means
that something cannot be or do Y without
being/doing X
 being made in France is a necessary
condition for being Champagne
 being 35 years or older is a necessary
condition of becoming US President
o we are looking for traits of an act that are
both necessary and sufficient for it being
right
 Some example attempts to specify a criterion
for rightness:
o 10C: An act is morally right if and only if it
does not violate any of the Ten
Commandments.
o GR: An act is morally right if and only if the
person performing it, by performing it,
treats others as he/she would have others
treat him/herself.
o GHP: An act is morally right if and only if it
leads to the greatest happiness for the
greatest number.
 Two possible ways a criterion may not be
adequate:
o The criterion may not be a sufficient
condition for morality.
 An act may have the trait(s) in question
and yet not be morally right.
o The criterion may not be a necessary
condition for morality:
 An act may not have the trait(s) in
question and still be morally right
o Either sort of problem is called a
counterexample, an action that shows
problems for a given criterion
CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and
rationally. It includes the ability to engage in
reflective and independent thinking. Someone with
critical thinking skills is able to do the following:
 understand the logical connections bw ideas
 identify, construct and evaluate arguments
 detect inconsistencies and mistakes in
reasoning
 solve problems systematically
 identify the relevance and importance of ideas
 reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs
and values
A Critical Thinker:
 asks pertinent questions
 assesses statements and arguments
 is able to admit a lack of understanding or
information
 has a sense of curiosity
 is interested in finding new solutions
 is able to clearly define a set of criteria for
analyzing ideas
 examines beliefs, assumptions, and opinions
and weighs them against facts
 listens carefully to others and is able to give
feedback
 suspends judgment until all facts have been
gathered and considered
 looks for evidence to support assumption and
beliefs
 is able to adjust opinions when new facts are
found
 examines problems closely
 is able to reject information that is incorrect or
irrelevant
Writing a Critical Thinking Question (CTQ)
 CTQ's are incisive and penetrating questions
that get beneath the surface of a topic and revel
its complexity and subtlety
Socratic Questions
 Questions for clarification
 Questions that probe assumptions
 Questions that probe reasons and evidence
 Questions about Viewpoints and Perspectives
 Questions that probe implications and
consequences
 Questions about the question
Questions for Clarification
 Why do you say that?
 How does this relate to our discussion?
Questions that Probe Assumptions?
 What could we assume instead?
 How can you verify or disapprove that
assumption?
Questions that Probe Reasons and Evidence
 What would be an example?
 What is....analogous to? What do you think
causes to happen...? Why?
Questions about Viewpoints and
Perspectives
 What would be an alternative?
 What is another way to look at it?
 Would you explain why it is necessary or
beneficial, and who benefits? Why is the best?
 What are the strengths and weaknesses of...?
 How are...and ...similar?
 What is a counterargument for...?
Questions that Probe Implications and
Consequences
 What generalizations can you make?
 What are the consequences of that assumption?
 What are you implying?
 How does...affect...?
 How does...tie in with what we learned before?
Questions about the Question
 What was the point of this question?
 Why do you think I asked this question?
 What does...mean?
 How does...apply to everyday life?
Bloom’s Taxonomy
 Bottom two levels are factual questions and
NOT considered critical thinking.
 The upper levels of the triangle represent
critical thinking
Not Critical Thinking!
Knowledge
 cite, label, name, reproduce, define, list, Quote,
pronounce, identify, match, recite, state
Comprehension
 alter, discover, manage, relate, change, explain,
rephrase, substitute, convert, give examples,
represent, summarize, depict, give main idea,
restate, translate, describe, illustrate, reword,
vary, interpret, paraphrase
Summary and Definition Questions
 what is (are)...? who...? when...? how
much...? how many...? what is an example
of...?
Beginning of Critical Thinking
Application
 apply, discover, manage, relate, classify,
employ, predict, show, compute, evidence,
prepare, solve, demonstrate, manifest,
present, utilize, direct
Analysis
 ascertain, diagnose, distinguish, outline,
analyze, diagram, divide, point out,
associate, differentiate, examine, reduce,
conclude, discriminate, find, separate,
designate, dissect, infer, determine
(continuation at the last page)
ETHICS AND CRITICAL THINKING
 Critical – refer to something alarming or
threatening.
o Does it?
 Critical – in relation to the thinking process
 Critical thinking is used in this context to refer
to the challenge of making individuals critics of
their own thoughts.
 A critical thinker is someone who has acquired
the disposition and the skills to be his or her
own critic.
 Critical thinking is not confined to the ability to
analyze a given issue.
 It can be used as a tool that can provide better
understanding of the close connection between
acting and thinking.
 Richard Paul and Lina Elder (2014).
o they defined critical thinking as a mode of
thinking, about any subject, content or
problem – in which the thinker improves
the quality of his or her thinking skills by
skillfully taking charge of the structures
inherent in thinking and imposing
intellectual standards upon them.
 Thinking in ordinary mode –such as when one
thinks of what to eat or what to include in a
schedule for the next morning is described as
first-order thinking.
 It is the kind of thinking that makes people
aware of a particular object of thought.
o Examples:
 “Drug addiction is wrong”
 “Murder is against the law”
 The moment a person turns his or her attention
to how he or she is thinking instead of simply
what he or she is thinking, then he or she is
ready to engage in the second – order thinking.
 To think about the how and not just what is to
engage in reflection, assessment and
interpretation.
 Therefore, it is not enough to simply state that,
“Drug addiction is wrong”, or “Murder is
illegal’’. One must be able to understand as well
as the thought processes that lead to this
conclusion.
 “Unless one commits himself or herself to the
practice of constantly improving the way he or
she thinks, one cannot yet consider himself or
herself a critical thinker”
ETHICS AND POLITICS
 Politics is derived from the Greek word polis or
city-state which means a political community
whose membership is restricted mainly to its
citizens.
 According to Aristotle, he described human
being as political animals. He meant that every
human being is always born into a community
that requires interaction with fellow human
agents to achieve personal fulfillment.
What Does It Mean When One Says There Is
a Close Connection between Ethics And
Politics?
 Ethics is taken up in school to help students
understand themselves and to guide them how
to live their lives well.
 A well-lived life is a life fulfilled. Each
fulfillment is an outcome of cooperative
activities with other human persons.
 To achieve and sustain this cooperation is the
main task of politics.
 When Aristotle described human as being
political, he underscored a fundamental aspect
of human experience: the fullness of life
depends on an individual’s association and
cooperation with others.
 Attaining happiness is a group effort and is
never a private enterprise.
 Being political means connecting with others in
pursuit of solidarity.
SOLIDARITY
 Solidarity means union or fellowship arising
from common responsibilities and interests, as
between members of a group or between
classes, peoples, etc.
 Inclusion means the practice or policy of
providing equal access to opportunities and
resources for people who might otherwise be
excluded or marginalized, such as those who
have physical or mental disabilities and
members of other minority groups.
 Discrimination means the disqualification of an
individual from exercising his or her rights for
failing to meet some imposed criteria.
 For example, the prohibition against the right of
women to vote in the 1930s.
 Participation is the consequence of inclusion.
 For example, Gawad Kalinga or GK is an
advocacy organization initially established to
offer socialized housing programs for depressed
communities.
 This project help by transforming individuals
from passive recipients of charity to active
participants of the enterprise.
 A space is inclusive of different people and is
conducive to empowerment if each individual at
the outset is recognized worthy of respect and is
identified capable of transforming his or her
situation.
 For example, from disabled person to person
with disability to differently-abled persons
POLITICAL SYSTEM
 Government plays a significant role in politics.
However, it is wrong to think that all political
tasks belong to the government alone.
 A political system in which politics is
monopolized by the government is called
 dictatorial or tyrannical. Citizens do not enjoy
their full civil and political liberties, instead the
government arrogates power unto itself to
perpetuate its rule.
 For example, North Korea
 A government to be taken over a few individuals
whose only interest is to advance their own
agenda is called aristocracy.
 The consequence of such control to the socio-
political life of the citizens can be as disastrous
as that of the tyrannical rule.
 History shows that citizens have greater
chances of attaining well-being when people are
in charge of their own affairs, when people
organize their lives according to their own will
which is called self-rule or sovereignty.
 Society is the domain of politics and the center
stage of a citizen’s political life.
 It is important for a given society to experience
the freedom of attaining his or her fulfillment
that allows each citizen to experience the
freedom of attaining his or her fulfillment
whether as an individual or as a member of a
larger community.
 The political climate in a given society is as good
as the amount of freedom its citizens enjoy such
as democracy.
 Freedom is the conditio sine qua non or the
condition without which politics is impossible.
ETHICS AND SOCIETY
 George Wilhelm Friedric Hegel maintained that
one needs to be grafted in a political community
to experience freedom.
 He said that membership in such community is
not an impediment to freedom but leads to the
perfection of freedom.
 Inclusion in a society entails certain
restrictions, which may be construed as
limitations of one’s freedom.
 Laws or ethical obligations to the other member
of the community may impose these
restrictions.
 According to Hegel, these limitations or
restriction must be reasonable.
 For example, speed limit enforced along
expressways and class schedules
HOW DOES ONE BECOME A CITIZEN OF A
SOCIETY?
 To better understand the relationship between
citizenship and society, we need to explore the
definition of society as a political organization
and as an ethical domain.
 Society as a political organization, is a system
characterized by formal structures such as
institutions, laws, and other regulations, shared
processes and practices.
 Its member possess a constitutionally
guaranteed identity.
 For example, OFW working in Hong Kong,
Saudi Arabia or Singapore and Rohingya crisis
 Society as a ethical domain, is to recognize and
accept that all people are bound by a shared
humanity despite differences in cultures and
ethnicities
 Martha Nussbaum said one’s sense of humanity
can be taught, enhanced and regained through
exposure to the humanities like the arts,
literature, and philosophy.
 These are the very disciplines that comprise
what in general may be described as citizenship
education.
 Ethics is also informed by citizenship education
as it induces the cultivation of the students’
creative, imaginative, and critical abilities, the
same abilities needed to be fully human and
humane.
CONCLUSION
 The world today is indeed a complex frontier.
The human society has evolved into an
environment marked by conflicts and various
forms of alienation. The task of being political
has never been as urgent as before. Everyone is
compelled to be ethically minded and to be
more responsive and responsible citizens of our
localities and of the world.
FORMATION/ TRANSFORMATION OF SELF
Socrates – “Know Thyself”
In Ancient Greece, the philosopher Socrates
famously declared that the unexamined life was not
worth living. Asked to sum up what all
philosophical commandments could be reduced to,
he replied: 'Know yourself. ‘Knowing yourself has
extraordinary prestige in our culture.’
Plato
They assembled together and dedicated these as the
first-fruits of their love to Apollo in his Delphic
temple, inscribing there those maxims which are on
every tongue- 'know thyself and 'Nothing
overmuch. '
Thales – “The most difficult thing in life is to know
yourself.”
It's a strange thing feeling vulnerable to yourself. To
be placed in a moment that goes on for what seems
like a lifetime where your innermost truth is
exposed, not to people around you, but to your
greatest critic and strongest motivation- yourself
Understanding the Self
 The eastern philosophical traditions, such as in
China and India, also place a high regard for
understanding the self.
 Yuch (Psyche) Greek meaning human soul,
mind, and spirit
 Anima Latin meaning mind or soul
 The study of the self and all its components:
 Emotions
 Intelligence
 Aptitude
 Stress Level
 Mental Health
This has been the main concern of psychology.
 In the past, the task of examining and
explaining the structure, activity, and
complexity of the self-belonged to the
philosophers. Their approach, however, while
significantly influential, was rather abstract and
quite limited in its appreciation of the complex
workings of human nature.
 With the birth of modern sciences, a new
discipline dedicated to the empirical and
experimental study of the self as embodied by
human mind emerged. The term “psyche”,
proponents of this new science now call this
undertaking psychology.
Sigmund Freud
 Made, probably, one of the most controversial
assumptions about the self
 He postulated that what people always thought
of as self might not be what it is.
 The father of psychology.
 Human behavior, emotions, and thoughts that
comprise the self are but masks of that part of
the human person which always remain hidden
and unknown. That hidden and unknown
dimension underlies human personality is what
Freud referred to as the unconscious.
Unconscious
 Every now and then, however, the unconscious
may manifest itself through instincts, impulses,
mannerisms, random expressions, or the
proverbial slip of tongue.
Implication (Case of Victoria)
 If one subscribes to Freud, Victoria’s
predicament was a product of her perception
that she was the person she thought she knew
before boarding the ship. She did not realize
that her concept of self, one that is already
made and intact is a work of fiction according to
Freud’s point of view. Therefore, she should not
trouble herself anymore about reconciling who
she was before and after her cruise stint.
 For Freud, this conflict itself is what makes
Victoria who she is. The internal struggle of
knowing who one really was is a burden from
which he or she cannot escape.
 Freud’s concept of the self-attracted disciples
and detractors like. Many found his theory
outrageous. However, a number saw in it a good
starting point for re-thinking traditional notions
about the self.
 People are accustomed to thinking that the self
is something which can be placed under their
control. It turns out that this is a bubble. It took
a Freud to disclose to the world that what
appears as self is but the tip of the iceberg – the
rest of who people actually are is an
unchartered territory.
Jean Piaget
 As a psychologist, he focused on the human
subject’s cognitive development or the
development of his or her ability to know.
 Piaget theorized that the human ability to know
evolves in stages and has distinct peculiarities
appropriate for each particular stage.
 This is the different from the notion of pre-
modern thinkers who presumed that the human
ability to know is good to go right from the
start.
 Pre-modern thinkers took for granted that the
human person, along with his or her abilities, is
subject to a developmental process.
 This development is always from simple to
complex, from the very few to multiple.
 Piaget’s theory, while centered on knowing, has
important implications for understanding the
self. It suggests that self- knowledge happens as
a process and is integral to the history of a
person.
His View:
 An individual like Victoria is not expected to
know herself right away. She needs to acquire
first the necessary capacities for her to gain
insights about herself, capacities that are
likewise evolving.
 For Piaget, what she underwent is not a crisis
but is a normal course of human development.
 There is no maturity; neither does it happen
overnight: it is a process that unfolds though
time. The mature person is the individual who
can bear with himself or herself as he or she
undergoes the whole experience.
Lawrence Kohlberg
 His theory is directly and closely related to
ethics
 While Piaget highlighted a person’s cognitive
development, he concentrated on a person’s
moral development.
 Like Piaget, he believed that a person proceeds
to moral maturity in gradual stages. In other
words, one does not become a moral person at
once.
 The moral quality of a person depends on the
quality of his or her moral reasoning which
itself undergoes transformation.
 Therefore, one is not expected to resolve a
particular dilemma if it involves a level of
complexity that is not appropriate for his or her
moral stage.
His View:
 Another crucial insight from Kohlberg is that
moral reasoning can be shaped by education. In
Kohlberg’s theory, one can find balance
between nature and nurture, between reality
and possibility.
 In Victoria’s case, Kohlberg would probably
state that her dilemma should not be a cause of
worry for it is well within the appropriate stage,
the conventional stage – the point in which one
struggles to fit in a larger community.
 The main issue for a person introduced to a new
environment is accord and conformity.
A person in Victoria’s situation, for instance, is
tasked to decide the limit and extent of what one
can retain and what one is willing to compromise.
George Herbert Mead
 One of the influences of Kohlberg’s theory of
development.
 Mead studied psychology and sociology, and
traces of these disciplines are notable in his
work
 Social experience is central to Mead’s concept of
the development of the self.
 It requires an environment where interactions
with other selves are possible, particularly,
interactions that allow shared meanings.
Immersion in such a world enables the self to
create itself and, in doing so, motivates an
individual to shape his or her world for the
better.
His View:
 Following Mead’s theory of moral development,
Victoria’s new environment aboard a ship does
not negate her process of growth. In fact, her
experience is further extension of widening
environment that can provide her impetus to
assert and create who she is.
 Life on the ship revolves around a rather
artificial environment. It then depends on the
ability of an individual like Victoria to act
constructively in the midst of what seems to be
a fantasy world.
ETHICS AND RELIGION
The Relationship between Ethics and Religion
 Ethics what is good and bad, moral and
immoral through the light of reason.
 Religion determines what is moral and immoral
based on revelation.
 Therefore, religion is not contrary to ethics.
Religion is in support of ethics.
 To an Asian author Sim Kwang Yang, the
question is, “Is ethics possible without
religion?”
 Yes, because two great philosophers namely
Socrates and Confucius, “expounded their
ethics without recourse to any supernatural
being.”
 Moreover, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart
Mill, two modern period philosophers, also
dealt with their ethical theories without
appealing to the existence of God.
 “Can ethics without religion be justified,
ultimately?” Answer is NO.
 According to Dostoevsky again, “If God does
not exist, then everything is permissible. But
not everything is permitted. Therefore, God
exist.”
 Immanuel Kant reasoned that if there is no God
then there are objective moral requirements
that are not possibly met that the moral good of
virtue and the natural good of happiness
embrace and become perfect in a “highest
good.”
 C.S. Lewis argued that conscience reveals to us
a moral law whose source cannot be found in
the natural world, thus pointing to a
supernatural Lawgiver.
 Philosopher Robert Adams has argued that
moral obligation is best explained by appeal to
the command of a loving God.
 It may be said that this life of “not permitting
oneself to do anything” that is living a moral or
ethical life, is attributed not only to him/her
who openly professes his/her faith in God.
 It can also be attributed even to those who claim
to deny the existence of God but actually affirm
Him in their actual life.
 Hence, one should not feel so much sorry for
people whom we think live a atheistic life. The
ultimate assessment of one’s life should be
based on what one does, his/her love for his/her
fellowman.
Role of Religion in Ethics
 Religion is the foundation of ethics, for theists.
 Religion makes clear and concrete what is
ethical through revelation.
 Theists draw their ethical views from their
religion.
 Ethics and religion are naturally connected with
each other as shown by traditions of the major
religions such as Islam, Judaism and
Christianity.
 For example, in India revolves around
customary ritual practices and the performance
of religious laws.
 In most Arab countries, they impose Islamic
customs on all individual in their territories.
 For example, Christians are prohibited from
carrying a Bible, a crucifix, or any religious
objects.
 Clothing style and guidelines for social
interactions among members of opposite sex
are also strictly observed.
 Non-compliance with these ordinances is not
treated as ordinary infractions of the law but an
affront to Islamic religion that is meted with
severe penalty.
Extremism: A Global Concern
 What gives rise to problematic issues is not so
much the close relation between ethics and
religion but a person’s or a group’s penchant to
subject religion to an extremist interpretation.
 According Merriam-Webster dictionary defines
extremisms as the “belief and support for ideas
that are very far from what most people
consider correct or reasonable.”
 It defies the limits of what is commonly
accepted or publicly defended, it breeds
intolerance and antagonism toward those who
espouse an opposite views.
 What is worshipped in an extremist religion is
neither a god nor a deity but an idea mistaken
for a divinity.
 The net effect of this misconception is the
detachment of religion from the life of its
believers and the further alienation of the
believers themselves from the fulfillment of
their basic human desires.
 What happened to Malala Yousafzai in Pakistan
is a story that illustrates this point.
 The harrowing experiences women and children
suffer under the Taliban rule in Pakistan are
reasons why some thinkers doubt the viability
of considering religion as an ethical norm.
 There are other instances in some part of the
world where the extremist observance of
religion seem to contradict the generally
accepted norms of basic civilization.
 While this practice may appear more of an
exception rather than the rule, this extreme
observance put religion in a bad light.
 Therefore, Christian, Jewish or Islamic must
continue to sustain a healthy balance between
demands of their creedal commitments and the
challenges posed by their inclusion in the
secular world.
Religion and the Secular World
 The secular world described as “earthly”
concerns such as health, wealth, shelter, food,
education, and relationships, among others.
 In the latter resides values such as spiritual
values and moral values which aid in forming
the character of an individual and his or her
relationship with others.
 Spiritual values are developed through prayers,
sacrifices, love of God, observance of
sacraments and religious rites.
 Moral values are values like charity, humility,
perseverance and etc.
 The secular and the religious domains were
previously thought to oppose each other.
 Thomas Aquinas, a Catholic philosopher, once
taught that religion and secular life are not
mutually exclusive.
 He advocated the conjunction of between
heaven and earth, spirit and matter, body and
soul and ethics and religion.
 His work, Summa Theologue, envisioned
human existence as a journey of the coming
from and returning to God.
 The human person must strive to live a life of
virtues so that he or she can grow steadily in
increasing stages of perfection until one attains
ultimate happiness through and with God
 Aquinas theorizing is the attempt to portray
human existence as a unity between life on
earth and life beyond it.
 Life in heaven and earth is a single continuous
experience with no gap or conflict in between.
 His notion of human existence is consistent
with his understanding of nature of the human
 person as one integral whole or a union of body
and soul.
 For example, praying for a person to suffering
from hunger without actually feeding him or her
will not really help the person.
 Similarly, a person who claims to have a great
faith in God but nonetheless acts unjustly in his
or her day-to-day dealings with others makes a
huge mockery of what religion is all about.
Conclusion
 Religion can function as an effective ethical
norm only if perceived as an influence well
integrated into every facet of human life.
 It loses its claim to authenticity once constricted
within purely sectarian agenda and can become
a tool of oppression by those who seek to
impose themselves in the name of religion.
 Everyone should be cautious of those who use
religion not to advance religious or
humanitarian causes but merely to secure their
own agenda for power.
Cont.
Analysis Questions
 how...?
 why...?
 what are the reasons for...?
 what the types of..?
 What are the functions of...?
 what is the process of...?
 what other examples of...?
 what evidence or proof or support is offered...?
 what are other theories arguments from other
authors...?
 what are the causes/ results of...?
 what is the relationship between ...and ...?
 what is the similarity or difference between...
and...?
 how does ...apply to ...?
 what is (are) the problems or conflicts or
issues...?
 what are possible solutions/ resolutions to these
problems or conflicts or issues...?
 what is the main argument or thesis of...?
 how is this argument developed...?
High Level Critical Thinking!
Synthesis
 combine, devise, originate, revise, compile,
expand, plan, rewrite, compose, extend,
pose, synthesize, conceive, generalize,
propose, theorize, create, integrate, project,
write, design, invent, rearrange, develop,
modify
Evaluation
 appraise, conclude, critique, judge, assess,
contrast, deduce, weigh, compare, criticize,
evaluate
Examples of Critical Thinking
Application
 Create a song that an Ancient Egyptian
might have sung in church.
 If you were an ancient Egyptian teenager,
tell what your day would be like.
Analysis
 Compare the social structure in Ancient
Egypt to the social structure of our nation
today.
 Compare and contrast a tool used by the
Ancient Egyptians to one used in your
home.
Hypothesis Questions
 if...occurs, then what happens...?
 if...had happened, then what would be
different...?
 what does theory x predict will happen...?
High Level Critical Thinking!
Synthesis
 Describe an environmental problem the Ancient
Egyptians might have faced in meeting their
basic needs of food, clothing, or shelter and use
modern technology to solve it.
 If you were an ancient Egyptian teen ager, what
types of clothing could you design to wear to a
dance. Keep in mind the types of material
available at that time.
Evaluation
 Compare the game Senet to a game you play
with your friends and tell which you like better
and why.

Evaluation Questions
 is...good or bad...?
 correct or incorrect...?
 effective or ineffective...?
 relevant or irrelevant...?
 clear or unclear...?
 logical or illogical...?
 applicable or not applicable...?
 proven or not proven...?
 ethical or unethical...?
 what are the advantages or disadvantages of...?
 what are the pros or cons of..?
 what is the best solution to the problem /
conflict / issue...?
 what should or should not happen...?
 do I agree or disagree ...?
 what is my opinion...?
 what is my support for my opinion...?

Writing a CTQ?
 The first step in writing a CTQ is finding
something you truly have a question about.
 Socratic Questions are good for literary analysis
and political debates. Questions using Bloom's
 Taxonomy are good for analyzing non-fiction
texts.

CTQ for Historical Significance

 Identify a major event, person or concept from
the reading. Narrow the topic until it is
manageable.
o Example Topic - Greek Gods
o Narrowing of topic - Zeus
 Formulate a question regarding the significance
of the topic.
 Begin your question with how or why or what
combined with a key word.
 Key words — affect, cause, signify, start, end,
 Example — Why did Zeus have more
significance in the Greek culture than other
Gods?

CTQ for Literary Analysis

Steps
 Choose a literary element (motif, figurative
language, irony, hyperbole, symbols)
 Relate the element to the text or theme
 Formulate a question using steps one and two.
 Example: How did the author's use of the motif
of birds accentuate the character's emotions?