Control Gasçflowrate Orifice

The Use of Orifices to Control the Flow Rate of Gases
Author(s): K. J. Parkinson and W. Day

Source: Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Aug., 1979), pp. 623-632
Published by: British Ecological Society
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Journal of Applied Ecology (1979), 16, 623-632
THE USE OF ORIFICES TO CONTROL THE FLOW RATE

OF GASES
BY K. J. PARKINSON AND W. DAY
Physics Department, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts.
SUMMARY
(1) The flow rates of gases, at constant volume, that are commonly used in studies
of photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration, can be obtained by using small
orifices that are commercially available.
(2) When the ratio of the absolute pressure downstream of the orifice to that
upstream of the orifice is less than 0-47 (the critical pressure ratio), the volume flow
rate is independent of downstream pressure. A slight non-linearity in the relation-
ship between volume flow rate and the absolute upstream pressure is due to deviation
of the gas from ideal gas behaviour, and to the fact that the theoretical relationship
between flow pressure is not followed until the Reynolds' number for flow through
the orifice exceeds 30 000. The volume flow rate is proportional to the square root of
the absolute temperature.
(3) The expected relationship between volume flow rate and orifice diameter
(50-175 pm) is here derived for orifices discharging to atmosphere, with upstream
absolute pressures between 0.24 and 0-9 MPa.
INTRODUCTION
Small controlled flows of gases (typically 1.0 to 20 cm3 s-1) are often required in the
measurement of photosynthesis (Sestak, Catsky & Jarvis 1971), and stomatal resistance
(Parkinson & Legg 1972). They are usually obtained from a gas cylinder using a pressure
regulator followed by a needle valve and a flowmeter. Such apparatus is bulky for field
use, and the type of flowmeter generally used has to be carefully levelled for accurate
readings.
A more convenient system can be made if the needle valve and flowmeter are replaced
by a small orifice. The flow rate can then be adjusted by varying the pressure upstream
of the orifice and, provided the ratio of downstream to upstream pressure is less than a
certain critical value, the flow through the orifice will be supersonic and independent of
downstream pressure (Ower & Pankhurst 1966).
A field gas supply thus consists of a gas cylinder, a pressure regulator and the orifice.
After a laboratory calibration at the required upstream pressure and known temperature,
the volume flow is reproducible with a precision dependent only upon the reproducibility
of the upstream pressure, which is easily controlled, and upon temperature and atmos-
pheric pressure to a small extent.
This paper describes studies on the relationships between orifice size, gas pressure and
flow rate for air and carbon dioxide. It also reports corrections that may be applied for
changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature.
0021-8901/79/0800-0623 $02-00 (C1979 Blackwell Scientific Publications
623
624 Control of gas flow using orifices
THEORY
When the ratio (?) of the absolute pressure (P2) downstream of an orifice to that upstream
(P1) is smaller than a critical value (ti), then the velocity of flow through the orifice will
be greater than the local speed of sound. Since this is the speed at which downstream
pressure changes would be propagated upstream, the downstream flow rate will be
independent of the downstream pressure and will relate only to the absolute upstream
pressure (Ower & Pankhurst 1966; Brain & Reid 1973).
For critical flow
c =-P2P1 = (2/(y + 1))/(y - 1) (1)

where y is the ratio for the gas of the specific heats at constant pressure and constant
volume. At 293 K, y is 1.401 for air and 1.303 for C02, and oc is, respectively, 0*528 and
0.545. Brain & Reid (1973) have shown experimentally that oc has a slight dependence on
orifice and pipe geometry.
Above the critical pressure, the theoretical mass flow rate (W0) is:
W0 = aPlM1"2(ZiTiR)- 1/2yl"2(2/(y + 1))(Y+ 1)/2(y- 1) (2)
where a = orifice area, T1 = upstream gas temperature, M = molecular weight of the

gas, R = gas constant, and Z1 = empirical compressibility factor for the gas at pressure
P1 and temperature T1, representing the deviation from an ideal gas behaviour.
For our purposes, we require the volume flow rate, V0, at the downstream pressure
and temperature (usually atmospheric pressure, PA, and ambient temperature, TA), but
VO = W01PA,
where PA is the density of the gas at PA and TA, given by
PA = PAMI(ZARTA).
P1 is controlled by the gas cylinder reducing valve and pressure regulator. The regu-
lator is a differential pressure controller, thus P1 = PA + PR, where PR is the regulator
set pressure. Furthermore, at the low flow rates involved with small orifices, T1 = TA,
thus
Vo = a((PA + PR)IPA)(RTA)112(ZAZ- 112)M-1l2y1l2(2/(y + 1))(Y+ 1)/2(V-1) (3)

Hence, apart from small effects of pressure on Z and y, the theoretical relationship
between V0 and PR is linear. Table 1 gives values for the constants for air and CO2 at
several temperatures and pressures, after Kaye & Laby (1973) and Gray (1972). Changes
in atmospheric pressure principally affect V0 through the term ((PA + PR)IPA). The effect
will be greatest at the lowest value of PR, which occurs when P1 is at critical pressure. PR
is then of comparable magnitude to PA and the fractional change in V0 will be about one
half of the fractional change in PA. At higher values of PR changes in PA have less effect
on V0, in proportion to PAIPR-
There is an explicit relationship between volume flow and temperature (VoaTA1/2);
in addition, a, Z, and y all depend slightly on temperature. The orifices are made from
corundum (white sapphire), and the hole area has an expansion coefficient of +0.002%
K- 1. The effects of temperature on Z increase with pressure, and are larger for CO2 than
air, but for CO2 at 1.0 MPa and 290 K, the temperature dependence of the product
(ZAZ- 1/2) is only -0.003 o K-1. For air, y changes with temperature by -0.006 % K-1
K. J. PARKINSON AND W. DAY 625
a'II
cl
,0
. aa00 C
o or--
.uzQ . ,F 00a'f
00 00 00
> 0
en ftn r- *- 00
+ A 0
Y Y O ~~~~~~~o o It CN Oc
o _4 U _m?
=O * o-iaoo oovmo
'0 c
oE >~1* r-r- 00 ?r- C

c70 a-,~ aN a-ar
*- s, ; c~ ,oo~ roo oo
r~~~~~~~~C
d 000 IN CNCNCN 000
000 t m 00 0
v +0 CN CN en at 0
<3 11 <t * o o o 000

cd bo en eq eq eno
*C) W- O A A
- Cd 000 000
en co CN Q
&q >% ~
Cd
'0
0 00
t: 6
00
> _
o 0
eq V,: V $4
0 A~~~~0
uz
at 290 K; for CO2 there is a larger change: - 0.0230% K-1. However, changes in y affect
V0 through (y112(2/(y + 1))(y + 1)12(y -1), which has a temperature sensitivity only one third
that of y. The term T1k2 changes with temperature by + 0. 17% K- 1 at 293 K; in compari-
son, the changes in a, y and Z are small and will be ignored. In the analysis of the perform-
ance of the orifices, all the results quoted have been corrected to 293 K and 0.1 MPa
atmospheric pressure.
The actual volume flow rate, VA, is always smaller than the theoretical, V0. The ratio,
(= VA!VO), is the discharge coefficient and varies with orifice shape and geometry and
with the Reynolds number, Re, for the orifice flow. The form of the relationship is
usually determined by experiment.
For the orifice,
Re = 4(VA X PA)I(T dI ),
where d is the orifice diameter and ju the dynamic viscosity of the gas at the orifice
diameter and tz the dynamic viscosity of the gas at the orifice throat. The dynamic
viscosity depends on the temperature T3 at the throat and, because of the adiabatic
expansion within the throat, T3 is less than T1.
At the critical pressure
T3 = 2T1/(y + 1)
and
t= (,4V(T +? 1I14)/(T3 + 114)) (T3ITB)312,
where FLB is the dynamic viscosity at a reference temperature TB. For air and CO2 at
293 K, Re = 9.7 VA/d and 17.7 VA/d respectively, where VA is in cm3 s- 1 and d is in cm.
The objectives of the experiments were to determine, for the small orifices used, the
following:
(a) the actual value of the critical pressure ratio, ?;

(b) the discharge coefficient, a;
(c) the dependence of a on Reynolds number.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The orifices (Seitz S. A., Switzerland), with nominal diameters from 50 to 175 ,um, were
mounted between sintered metal filters in brass fittings (A.D.C. Ltd., Hoddesdon, Herts.,
U.K.). Air or CO2 was supplied to them from cylinders through a 0-4 MPa pressure
regulator. The upstream pressure was measured with a pressure gauge calibrated on a
dead weight tester accurate to 0.300. The gas volume flow rate was measured using a
'soap bubble' flowmeter (Barr 1934). The readings were corrected for water vapour taken
up in the flowmeter (assuming 100% saturation) and for temperature and atmospheric
pressure deviations from 293 K and 0.10 MPa.
The first experiment determined the critical pressure ratio (0,) by measuring the effects
of downstream pressure on the volume flow rate of air, VA, through a single 130 ,um
diameter orifice. A needle valve was inserted between the orifice and the flowmeter; a
pressure gauge between the orifice and the needle valve measured the downstream
pressure. At several set valves of upstream pressure, that ranged between 0.12 and 1.60
MPa, the volume flow rate was measured as the downstream pressure was increased, in
steps, until the flow declined to less than 5000 of its maximum value.
In the second experiment, orifices of various diameters were used, and the volume
flow rates were measured for each at various values of upstream pressure, and hence
Reynolds number, for both air and CO2. Also, for a larger number of orifices of various
diameters, flow rates were measured with a constant upstream pressure (0.24 MPa) and
with discharge to the atmosphere.
Finally, the orifice diameters were measured using a scanning electron microscope
calibrated with a precision ruled grating with 19.7 lines mm-1. Discharge coefficients
could then be calculated from actual, rather than nominal orifice dimensions.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Effects of downstream pressure, P2, on the volume flow rate of air

For each combination of P1 and P2, VA was expressed as a fraction of the VA measured
when the orifice discharged to the atmosphere (i.e. when P2 = 0. 10 MPa). These fractions
were plotted against + (= P2/P1) (Fig. 1). The results for all values of P1 were similar: as
P2 increased, the volume flow rate decreased first at 0 = 0.47, and at the theoretical
value of Xc (0.528 for air), the volume flow had decreased by 1%. In practical terms: at a
regulator pressure of 0.14 MPa (1 .4 bar), the flow rate will be constant for all back
pressures less than 0.013 MPa. A back pressure as high as 0.044 MPa will decrease the
flow rate by only 30.
1-0
0-8 _-X
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0-6 0
,< 0-4 _-S0
0-2 -
0 0-2 0-4 0.6 0-8 1.0
FIG. 1. The relationship between the volume flow rate of air, expressed as a fraction of that
measured when P2 = 0-10 MPa, and the ratio, of P2 to P1, b.
70
50~~~~~~~~~
7 0 _-*
50
~~$30 ~~
10 I
0 1l0 2.0 3-0
P. MPa
FIG. 2. The relationship between the volume flow rate (VA) of air (@) and carbon dioxide
(A) and the absolute pressure, P1, upstream of a 130 pm nominal diameter orifice;
P2 = 0-10 MPa.
2. Variation of volume flow rate with upstream pressure, orifice diameter, and
type of gas
The relationship between VA and P1 was predicted to be linear by eqn (2) and (3), but
was not so for any of the orifices; the non-linearity, which was greater for CO2 (Fig. 2),
arises through changes of Z1 with pressure; also the measured flow rate approaches the
theoretical as Re increases (i.e. a increases with increasing flow rate). At the same value of
P1, the flow rate for CO2 is always less than that for air.
The change of a with Re, for each orifice, was estimated by calculating the theoretical
flow rate (VO) for each value of P1, using the nominal orifice diameter. The value of a,
obtained from the measured and theoretical flow, was then plotted against Re (Fig. 3(a),
air, and 3(b), C02). The relationship between a and Re for the various orifices is different:
(0) (b)
* O 4 s _ * * r~~~~~~~~~~ ; I=*
'.0 u
0 0~~~~~~~bo/
0 1.0 20 3-0 40 0 1.0 20 30 40
Re X 10-4
FIG. 3. The relationship between the discharge coefficient (az) based on nominal orifice
diameter and the Reynolds number for the orifice flows, for air (a) and carbon dioxide
(b). Orifice diameters are 50 ,um (A\), 70 ,um (I),and (Oi), I110 ,um (0), and 130 ,um (M).
TABLE 2. The mean discharge coefficients (? S.E.) for air and carbon dioxide at
various Reynolds numbers, and the ratio between them
Reynolds Mean discharge

number coefficient a a air/a CO2
AIR CO2
2000 0.88 + 0.03
4000 091 0.03 -
5000 0-92 + 0.03 0.93 + 0.03 0.99 ? 0.05
8000 0 94 ? 0.03 095 ? 003 0.99 ? 0.05
10000 094 + 0 03 0.95 + 003 0.99 + 0.05
15000 O.95 ? 0.03 0*97 ? 0.03 0.98 ? 0.04
20000 0-96 + 0.03 0.98 ? 003 0.98 ? 0.04
25000 0-96 + 0.03 0.98 ? 0-03 0-98 ? 0.04
30000 0.96 + 0.04 0.98 ? 0.03 0.98 ? 0.05
this is because the actual orifice dimensions differ from the nominal, and also because of
differences in cleanliness of the orifices and in their positions relative to the gas stream.
All the relationships show an initial rapid increase of a with Re and a plateau for Re >
30 000. For air and CO2 separately, an average dependence of a on Re was derived by
taking the mean of the values of a measured at specific Re values for all orifices. These
means are shown in Table 2. The ratio of the means for air to those for CO2 is, for all
values of Re, close to the expected 10. The mean values of aoair were then normalized
relative to their value at Re > 30 000, and the normalized values were plotted against Re
(Fig. 4).
The expected volume flow rate, for different orifice diameters at various values of P1,
can be predicted if the value of a at large Re is accurately determined.
Many measurements were made on differing diameter orifices at P1 = 0.24 MPa and
and P2 = 0. 10 MPa, and the measured volume flow rates were corrected to Re > 30 000,
using Fig. 4 (Table 3). They were then plotted against the theoretical volume flow rate
calculated from eqn (3) (Fig. 5). The slope of the line gives the average discharge co-
efficient of 0.92 for Re > 30 000. This is not significantly different from the values of 0.96
at large Re (Table 2), which were based on fewer data than Fig. 4.
Taking a as 0*92 for Re > 30 000, and less for smaller Re, in conformity with the
curve of Fig. 4 (referred to right-hand axis scale), flow rates (a V0) may be calculated using
10 _
0*9
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
08
0 1 0 2-0 3-0
Re x 10-4
FIG. 4. The relationship between the mean discharge coefficient for air (a) and Reynolds
number (Re). The left-hand axis assumes a discharge coefficient of 1-0 at Re = 3 x 104
and is obtained directly from the data in Figure 3(a): the right hand axis is the actual
discharge coefficient based on nominal orifice diameters.
TABLE 3. Measured and theoretical volume flow rates for various orifices
Measured
volume flow rate Measured
at P1 = 0-24 MPa volume flow Theoretical
Nominal and P2 = 0.10 MPa Reynolds rate corrected volume flow
orifice diameter and 293 K number to Re >30000 rate
(Pm) (cm3 s-1) (Re) (cm3 s-1) (cm3 s-x)
50 0*83 + 0.05 1610 0-91 0-94
80 2-09 ? 0-04 2570 2.25 2.39
100 3.31 ? 0.10 3190 3.53 3-75
130 5.52 ? 0.11 4140 5.83 6-33
160 8-11 ? 0-29 4880 8-51 9-58
175 10.14 ? 0.36 5590 10-54 11.47
eqn (3) for any combination of P1, P2 and d. Figure 6 shows flow rates thus calculated
for various d and P1, with P2constant at 0-10 MPa, and this may be used to select a
suitable orifice for a given flow rate.
The discharge coefficient so far obtained is based on the nominal orifice diameter. The
true discharge coefficient can only be calculated if the actual orifice diameter, d, and
hence area, a, is known (eqn (3)). Measurements of the diameter were made using a
scanning electron microscope, on eight 80 /im (nominal) orifices. The measured diameter
was 80.19 + 0 13 jkm which when applied to the average corrected flow rate through them
of 2.25 cm3 s - 1, gave a true discharge coefficient of 0.936. This value is smaller than that
given by Ower & Pankhurst (1966) but is similar to that found for larger orifices by Brain
& Reid (1973).
100 _
5-0
0 5-0 10.0
VO cm3
FIG. 5. Measured volume flow rates with P1 = 0-24 MPa and P2 = 0.10 MPa at 293 K
corrected to Re > 3 x 104, compared with the flow predicted by theory. Orifices are of
nominal diameters, 50, 80, 100, 130, 160, and 175 jim.
CONCLUSIONS
Small orifices can precisely control gas flow rates. Flow rates through them depend only
on the absolute upstream pressure, provided the ratio of downstream to upstream
absolute pressure is smaller than 0*47. The discharge coefficient (the ratio of actual to
theoretical flow) is constant at large Re; it has a value of 0.92 when derived from nominal
40 -
A
30 -
B
10 -
0
10
0 100 200 300

(Orifice diameter /,m)2
5 10 15
Orifice diameter /um
FIG. 6. The expected relationship between volume flow rate of air and orifice diameter at
P1 = 0-24 (A), 0-5 (B), 0-9 Mpa (C), and P2 = 0-10 MPa, at 293 K.
orifice diameters, and 0.936 when calculated from measured diameters. For Re < 30 000
empirical corrections must be applied.
The orifices can be used in any equipment requiring constant gas flow rates, and in
applications where gases need to be mixed in accurate proportions. They have been used
successfully to give the gas supply to a continuous flow porometer (after Parkinson & Legg
1972). Parkinson (1978) has used orifice flow controllers as the key components in a
portable gas mixing apparatus. Using one gas cylinder that contains CO2 of known
concentration, the apparatus can be set to produce a constant gas flow rate at any one of
sixteen different, but known, CO2 concentrations up to a maximum equal to the supply
cylinder concentration. The apparatus uses four orifices connected in parallel, together
with two-way valves and a CO2 absorber; similar systems, with appropriate absorbers,
can be constructed for carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and other gases, (ADC Ltd.,
Hoddesdon, Herts., U.K.). Complete details of the system will be described in a later
paper.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank Mr R. H. Turner of the Plant Pathology Department, Rotham-
sted Experimental Station, for taking the scanning electron micrographs.
REFERENCES
Barr, G. (1934). Two designs of flowmeters and a method of calibration. Journal of Scientific Instru-
ments, 11, 321-324.
Brain, T. J. S. & Reid, J. (1973). Performance of small diameter cylindrical critical-flow nozzles.
Department of Trade and Industry, National Engineering Laboratory, Report No. 546.
Gray, D. E. (Ed.) (1972). American Institute of Physics Handbook. 3rd Edn. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York.
Kaye, G. W. C. & Laby, T. H. (1973). Tables of Physical and Chemical Constants. 14th Edn. Longman,
London.
Ower, E. & Pankhurst, R. D. (1966). The Measurement of Air Flow. 4th Edn. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Parkinson, K. J. (1978). Photosynthesis: field studies. Report of Rothamsted Experimental Station for
1977, 201-220.
Parkinson, K. J. & Legg, B. J. (1972). A continuous flow porometer. Journal of Applied Ecology, 9,
669-675.
SestAk, tatsky, J. & Jarvis, P. G. (Eds.). (1971). Plant Photosynthetic Production, Manual of Methods.
Dr W. Junk N. V., The Hague.
(Received 26 March 1978)

Control Gasçflowrate Orifice

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The Use of Orifices to Control the Flow Rate of Gases

Author(s): K. J. Parkinson and W. Day

THE USE OF ORIFICES TO CONTROL THE FLOW RATE

BY K. J. PARKINSON AND W. DAY

Physics Department, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Herts.

c =-P2P1 = (2/(y + 1))/(y - 1) (1)

W0 = aPlM1"2(ZiTiR)- 1/2yl"2(2/(y + 1))(Y+ 1)/2(y- 1) (2)

where a = orifice area, T1 = upstream gas temperature, M = molecular weight of the

where PA is the density of the gas at PA and TA, given by

Vo = a((PA + PR)IPA)(RTA)112(ZAZ- 112)M-1l2y1l2(2/(y + 1))(Y+ 1)/2(V-1) (3)

oE >~1* r-r- 00 ?r- C

<3 11 <t * o o o 000

t= (,4V(T +? 1I14)/(T3 + 114)) (T3ITB)312,

(a) the actual value of the critical pressure ratio, ?;

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Effects of downstream pressure, P2, on the volume flow rate of air

,< 0-4 _-S0

0 0-2 0-4 0.6 0-8 1.0

0 1l0 2.0 3-0

0 1.0 20 3-0 40 0 1.0 20 30 40

Reynolds Mean discharge

0 100 200 300

Orifice diameter /um

(Received 26 March 1978)

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