ENAMEL

Physical Characteristics
Enamel forms a protective covering of variable thickness over the entire surface of the
crown. Because of its high content of mineral salts and their crystalline arrangement, enamel
is the hardest calcified tissue in the human body. Enamel has always been observed as a
non-electrical conductive material. The enamel can act in a sense like a semipermeable
membrane. The color of the enamel-covered crown ranges from yellowish white to
grayish white

Chemical Properties
The enamel consists mainly of inorganic material (96%) and only a small amount of organic
substance and water (4%).
The organic material consists of some unique proteins, found exclusively in the enamel and
lipids. They consist of two main groups: Amelogenins (low molecular weight proteins; rich in
proline, histidine, glutamine and leucine); Nonamelogenins (high molecular weight proteins;
rich in glycine, aspartic acid and serine).
The inorganic material of the enamel is hydroxyapatite (Ca10 (PO4)6(OH4)2).
Water is present as a part of the crystal (hydroxyapatite), between crystals and between
rods and surrounding the rods.

Structure

Rods
The enamel is composed of enamel rods or prisms, rod sheaths, and in some regions a
cementing interprismatic substance. The enamel prisms are cylindrical, in longitudinal
section, therefore the term rods is more apt. From the dentinoenamel junction the rods run
somewhat tortuous courses outward to the surface of the tooth. The length of most rods
is greater than the thickness of the enamel because of the oblique direction and the wavy
course of the rods. The enamel rods normally have a clear crystalline appearance,
permitting light to pass through them.

Ultrastructure
When cut longitudinally (Fig. 4.6), sections pass through the ‘heads’ or ‘bodies’ of one row of
rods and the ‘tails’ of an adjacent row. These rods measure about 5 µm in breadth and 9 µm
in length. Rods of this shape can be packed tightly together.

Striations
Each enamel rod is built up of segments separated by dark lines that give it a striated
appearance. The striations are more pronounced in enamel that is insufficiently calcified.The
rods are segmented because the enamel matrix is formed in a rhythmic manner.
Direction of rods
In the cervical and central parts of the crown of a deciduous tooth they are approximately
horizontal. Near the incisal edge or tip of the cusps, they change gradually to an increasingly
oblique direction until they are almost vertical in the region of the edge or tip of the cusps.
The arrangement of the rods in permanent teeth is similar in the occlusal two thirds of the
crown.

Hunter–Schreger bands
The more or less regular change in the direction of rods may be regarded as a functional
adaptation, minimizing the risk of cleavage in the axial direction under the influence of
occlusal masticatory forces. The change in the direction of rods is responsible for the
appearance of the Hunter–Schreger bands.They originate at the dentinoenamel border
and pass outward, ending at some distance from the outer enamel surface.
Alternating dark and light strips
Have varying width
Seen in large ground section (oblique reflected light)
Originate from DEJ

Incremental Lines of Retzius

Surface structures

prismless ename
A relatively structureless layer of enamel
is found least often over the cusp tips and most commonly toward the cervical areas of the
enamel surface

Perikymata
are transverse, wave-like grooves, external manifestations of the striae of Retzius
continuous around a tooth and usually lie parallel to each other and to the cementoenamel
junction

enamel caps
the ends of ameloblast
due to enamel deposition on nonmineralizable debris

cracks
The outer edges of lamellae
Extend for varying distance along the surface.
They are less than 1 mm in length.

Enamel cuticle
is a typical basal lamina found beneath most epithelia
is apparently secreted by the ameloblasts
to protect the surface of enamel from the resorptive activity of the adjacent vascular tissue
prior to the eruption
Dentinoenamel junction
a hypermineralized zone about 30 µm thick
appears as a scalloped line
the crystals of dentin and enamel mix with each other

Age Changes
Enamel undergoes wear due to mastication termed attrition. Perikymata is lost after eruption.
Fluoride uptake by superficial layers of enamel is noted and permeability of enamel is
decreased.

DENTIN
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
In the teeth of young individuals the dentin usually is light yellowish in color, becoming
darker with age. Dentin hardness varies slightly between tooth types and between crown
and root dentin. It is somewhat harder than bone but considerably softer than enamel.
Dentin consists of 35% organic matter and water and 65% inorganic material.The organic
substance consists of collagenous fibrils embedded in the ground substance of
mucopolysaccharides (proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans). The inorganic consist of
hydroxyapatite, as in bone, cementum, and enamel.

STRUCTURE

Dentinal tubules
It resembles a gentle S (sigmoid course) in shape
Starting at right angles from the pulpal surface, ending perpendicular to the dentinoenamel
and dentinocementum junctions.
The tubules are longer than the dentin, and are thick because they curve through dentin.
The tubules are farther apart in the peripheral layers and are more closely packed near the
pulp. They are larger in diameter near the pulpal cavity (3 to 4 mm) and smaller at their outer
ends (1mm).

Peritubular dentin
Peritubular dentin forms the walls of the dentinal tubules in all but the dentin near the pulp. It
is more highly mineralized (about 9%) than the dentin present between the tubules (the
intertubular dentin). By its growth, it constricts the dentinal tubules to a diameter of 1 mm
near the dentinoenamel junction.

Intertubular dentin
The main body of dentin is composed of intertubular dentin. It is located between the zones
of peritubular dentin. About one half of its volume is organic matrix, specifically collagen
fibers. Hydroxyapatite crystals are formed along the fibers with their long axes oriented
parallel to the collagen fibers.

Predentin
The predentin is located always adjacent to the pulp tissue and is 2 to 6 µm wide, depending
on the extent of activity of the odontoblast. It is not mineralized. As the collagen fibers
undergo mineralization at the predentin-dentin junction, the predentin becomes dentin and a
new layer of predentin forms circumpulpally.

Odontoblast process
The odontoblast processes are the cytoplasmic extensions of the odontoblasts. The
odontoblast cells reside in the peripheral pulp at the pulp-predentin border and their
processes extend into the dentinal tubules. The odontoblastic processes narrow to about
halfthe size of the cell as they enter the tubules.

INCREMENTAL LINES
The incremental lines of von Ebner, appear as fine lines or striations in dentin. They run at
right angles to the dentinal tubules and correspond to the incremental lines in enamel or
bone. These lines reflect the daily rhythmic, recurrent deposition of dentin matrix as well as a
hesitation in the daily formative process.

AGE AND FUNCTIONAL CHANGES

It is rather difficult to separate age and functional changes in dentin. Dentin is laid down
throughout life. This dentin is termed secondary dentin. If dentin forms as a result of
pathological process, like caries, it is termed tertiary dentin. Tertiary dentin shows irregularity
in size, shape, number and arrangement of dentinal tubules. Dentinal tubules degenerate
due to injury resulting in the formation of dead tracts. Mineralization of dentinal tubules
results in the formation of sclerotic dentin. This makes the tooth to appear transparent in
these areas.

GINGIVAL
The gingiva extends from the dentogingival junction to the alveolar mucosa. It is subject to
the friction and pressure of mastication. The stratified squamous epithelium may be
keratinized or nonkeratinized but most often is parakeratinized. The underlying lamina
propria is dense.
The gingiva is limited on the outer surface of both jaws by the mucogingival junction, which
separates it from the alveolar mucosa.
The gingiva can be divided into the free gingiva, the ‘attached’ gingiva, and the interdental
papilla. The dividing line between the free gingiva and the (attached) gingiva is the free
gingival groove. In some cases the free gingival groove is not so well defined as in others,
and then the division between the free gingiva and the gingiva is not clear. The free gingival
groove and the epithelial ridge are probably caused by functional impacts on the free
gingiva. In the absence of a sulcus there is no free gingiva.
The attached gingiva is about 4–6 mm. The mucogingival junction is 3–5 mm below the level
of the crest of the alveolar bone
The interdental papilla is that part of the gingiva that fills the space between two adjacent
teeth. When viewed from the oral or vestibular aspect, the surface of the interdental papilla is
triangular.
The lamina propria of the gingiva consists of a dense connective tissue that does not contain
large vessels. Small numbers of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages are present in
the connective tissue of normal gingiva subjacent to the sulcus and are involved in defense
and repair.
The gingival fibers of the periodontal ligament enter into the lamina propria, attaching the
gingiva firmly to the teeth. The gingiva is also immovably and firmly attached to the
periosteum of the alveolar bone. In contrast, the submucosa underlying the alveolar mucous
membrane is loosely textured. The fiber bundles of the lamina propria of the alveolar
mucosa are thin and regularly interwoven.