Table of Contents

2. Composition...............................................................................................................1
2.1 Composition of Biodegradable waste...................................................................1
2.1.1 The method of composting biodegradable waste..........................................3
2.2 Recyclable............................................................................................................5
2.2.1 Recyclates......................................................................................................5
2.2.2 Recycling industrial waste.............................................................................7
2.3 Inert waste............................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Examples of inert waste.................................................................................9
2.3.2 Threat of inert waste......................................................................................9
2.3.3 Inert Waste Disposal......................................................................................9
2.4 E-waste Defined.................................................................................................10
2.4.1 E-waste Hides Toxic Materials....................................................................10
2.4.2 Leeching Poisons nearby Water..................................................................10
2.4.3 E-waste Problems........................................................................................11
2.4.4 The Dangers of E-waste...............................................................................11
2.5 Composite Waste................................................................................................12
2.6 Hazardous Waste................................................................................................13
2.6.1 Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste.........................................15
2.7 Toxic waste.........................................................................................................16
2.7.1 Toxic waste in practice................................................................................16
2.7.2 Toxic waste regulations...............................................................................17
2.7.3 Cleaning up hazardous waste.......................................................................17
2.7.4 Toxic Land Generates Solar Energy............................................................18
References....................................................................................................................19
 2. Composition

2.1 Composition of Biodegradable waste

Waste is nowadays considered one of the leading environmental problems of the

modern world. Due to the increasing amount of waste generated as a result of human

activities, one of the specific objectives of environmental protection is proper waste

management. If waste is not managed properly, the problem of waste could be a huge

burden for future generations. Introducing citizens with the need for adequate waste

management is necessary because citizens are the greatest generators of utility waste.

According to the criterion of formation, waste is divided into: household (municipal)

waste, waste in the public area, industrial waste, construction waste, agricultural

waste, sediments and sludge from waste waters, sewage, septic tanks and street drains

(Albanell, 1988).

The municipal waste consists of varied scrap arising as a by-product in households,

institutions, stores, shops. It occurs in various forms such waste (animal and vegetable

sources), ash, paper, cloth, cardboard, objects made of rubber, wood, glass, leather,

porcelain, furniture, household appliances, etc. Open fermentation and decomposition

of food residues mixed with other waste not only creates an unpleasant smell that is

spread by wind in the environment, but also provides ideal conditions for the rapid

spread of various infectious and pathogenic microorganisms.

i. Bio-waste rich in nitrogen (50 %): fruit and vegetable residues, peel of fruit

and vegetables, coffee and tea dregs, grass cuttings, weeds and plant residues

in the garden, withered flowers;

ii. Bio-waste rich in carbon (50 %): leaves, chopped brushwood, straw and hay,

fruit and grapes pruning residues, sawdust, needles of conifers.

2.1.1 The method of composting biodegradable waste

One of the ways to use organic and biodegradable waste is composting. Composting

is a controlled process in which, by the activity of microorganisms living in the soil

(bacteria, fungi and etc.), biological and organic waste is converted into a neat humus

that does not have an unpleasant odor and which can be used as a fertilizer. According

to the National Waste Management Strategy for 2010-2019 (Official Gazette of RS no

29/10) composting is defined as fast, but partial decomposition of moist, solid organic

matter, food waste, garden waste, paper and cardboard with aerobic microorganisms

under controlled conditions. What is got as a final product is a useful material, similar

to humus, which has no odour and can be used as means for soil conditioning or as a

fertilizer (Albanell, 1988).

Composting of garden waste is easier than composting of municipal waste, due to

difference in the composition of raw materials. Municipal waste is diverse, both by

type and by its homogeneity and composition, from garden waste which is relatively

uniform. Many cities in the US have banned the disposal of organic and garden waste

in landfills. Only in New Jersey there are more than 200 facilities for composting,

while 5 centers for composting in Ohio collect more than 180 000 tonnes of organic

residues, of which 6500 m 3 of compost is made. Compost is a mature product of

composting, which is a product of a controlled process of bio-oxidation of a solid

heterogeneous organic substrate which also includes the thermophilic phase. The

composting process is biological decomposition of organic material under controlled

aerobic conditions into a stable product similar to humus (Atiyeh, et al., 2001).

Composting is controlled aerobic, thermophilic, microbiological degradation of solid

organic components such as raw or processed waste sewage sludge, manure, crop

residues, food residues and their mixtures to the stabilized matter similar to humus.
This is one of the methods of accelerated elimination of waste, which is the biological

treatment of waste with the production of compost, and in special conditions and

biogas. This process is based on self-heating of garbage (waste) and therefore it is

also characterized as bio-thermic process. It occurs as a result of growth and

development, especially of thermophilic microorganisms under aerobic conditions.

During bio-thermic process the residues are heated to the temperatures which have

devastating effect on pathogenic microorganisms, helminth eggs, larvae and dolls

flies, which makes the residues significantly less harmful. Under the influence of

microorganisms, the waste mass is subjected to the process of decomposition and

creation of new substances (including humic), which become a part of a new product-

the compost. Composting technology must ensure optimal conditions that will allow

the elimination of hazard in a short time and obtaining the high-quality compost

(Atiyeh, et al., 2001).

The activity of bio-thermic process is largely dependent on the humidity of waste,

because the microorganisms that participate in the process are fed by organic

substances only in aqueous solution. If the humidity is insufficient, or the residues are

devoid of water, the bio-thermic processes become slower. If the humidity is

excessive, then water fills the pores and spaces between the particles of residues, air is

pressed out, which causes the occurrence of the anaerobic process due to the lack of

oxygen, and the composting process stops suddenly (i.e. the processes of the

anaerobic methanogenesis with the formation of methane gas or biogas start) (Ball, &

Shah, 2000).

The presence of sufficient oxygen is necessary for the basic functions of aerobic

microorganisms. To start the thermal process, the sufficient amount of oxygen is the

one contained in the weight of the waste prior to composting. In order for the process
to be successful, it is necessary that air penetrates into all parts of the waste mass. The

composting process is affected by a lot of factors, but the most important factors of

degradation of organic compounds are oxygen and water.

2.2 Recyclable

Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects.

The recovery of energy from waste materials is often included in this concept. The

recyclability of a material depends on its ability to reacquire the properties it had in its

original state (Albanell, 1988).

It is an alternative to "conventional" waste disposal that can save material and help

lower greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling can prevent the waste of potentially useful

materials and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing:

energy usage, air pollution (from incineration), and water pollution (from landfilling).

2.2.1 Recyclates

Recyclate is a raw material that is sent to, and processed in a waste recycling plant or

materials recovery facility, and used to form new products. The material is collected

in various methods and delivered to a facility where it is processed so that it can be

used in the production of new materials or products. For example, plastic bottles that

are collected can be re-used and made into plastic pellets, a new product.

Quality of recyclate

The quality of recyclates is recognized as one of the principal challenges that needs to

be addressed for the success of a long-term vision of a green economy and achieving

zero waste. Recyclate quality is generally referring to how much of the raw material is

made up of target material compared to the amount of non-target material and other

non-recyclable material. For example, steel and metal are materials with a higher

recyclate quality. It's estimated that two-thirds of all new steel manufactured comes
from recycled steel. Only target material is likely to be recycled, so a higher amount

of non-target and non-recyclable material can reduce the quantity of recycling

product. A high proportion of non-target and non-recyclable material can make it

more difficult for re-processors to achieve "high-quality" recycling. If the recyclate is

of poor quality, it is more likely to end up being down-cycled or, in more extreme

cases, sent to other recovery options or landfilled. For example, to facilitate the re-

manufacturing of clear glass products there are tight restrictions for colored glass

going into the re-melt process. Another example is the downcycling of plastic, in

which products such as plastic food packaging are often downcycled into lower

quality products, and do not get recycled into the same plastic food packaging.

The quality of recyclate not only supports high-quality recycling, but it can also

deliver significant environmental benefits by reducing, reusing, and keeping products

out of landfills. High-quality recycling can help support growth in the economy by

maximizing the economic value of the waste material collected. Higher income levels

from the sale of quality recyclates can return value that can be significant to local

governments, households, and businesses. Pursuing high-quality recycling can also

provide consumer and business confidence in the waste and resource management

sector and may encourage investment in that sector.

There are many actions along the recycling supply chain that can influence and affect

the material quality of recyclate. It begins with the waste producers who place non-

target and non-recyclable wastes in recycling collection. This can affect the quality of

final recyclate streams or require further efforts to discard those materials at later

stages in the recycling process. The different collection systems can result in different

levels of contamination. Depending on which materials are collected together, extra

effort is required to sort this material back into separate streams and can significantly
reduce the quality of the final product. Transportation and the compaction of materials

can make it more difficult to separate material back into separate waste streams.

Sorting facilities are not one hundred percent effective in separating materials, despite

improvements in technology and quality recyclat. The storage of materials outside,

where the product can become wet, can cause problems for re-processors.

Reprocessing facilities may require further sorting steps to further reduce the amount

of non-target and non-recyclable material. Each action along the recycling path plays

a part in the quality of recyclate (Albanell, 1988).

Quality recyclate action plan (Scotland)

The Recyclate Quality Action Plan of Scotland sets out a number of proposed actions

that the Scottish Government would like to take forward in order to drive up the

quality of the materials being collected for recycling and sorted at materials recovery

facilities before being exported or sold on to the reprocessing market.

2.2.2 Recycling industrial waste

Although many government programs are concentrated on recycling at home, 64% of

waste in the United Kingdom is generated by industry. The focus of many recycling

programs done by industry is the cost–effectiveness of recycling. The ubiquitous

nature of cardboard packaging makes cardboard a commonly recycled waste product

by companies that deal heavily in packaged goods, like retail stores, warehouses, and

distributors of goods. Other industries deal in niche or specialized products,

depending on the nature of the waste materials that are present. The glass, lumber,

wood pulp and paper manufacturers all deal directly in commonly recycled materials;

however, old rubber tires may be collected and recycled by independent tire dealers

for a profit. Levels of metals recycling are generally low. In 2010, the International

Resource Panel, hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

published reports on metal stocks that exist within society and their recycling rates.

The Panel reported that the increase in the use of metals during the 20th and into the

21st century has led to a substantial shift in metal stocks from below ground to use in

applications within society above ground. For example, the in-use stock of copper in

the USA grew from 73 to 238 kg per capita between 1932 and 1999.

2.3 Inert waste

Inert waste is waste which is neither biologically nor chemically and is waste which

will not decompose are requires. Materials like sand and concrete are both good

examples of inert waste. This has particular relevance to landfills as inert waste

typically requires lower disposal fees than biodegradable waste or hazardous waste.

Inert waste usually doesn’t pose a threat to the environment, or the health of animals

or other people and will not endanger the quality of watercourses. However, when

there is a large amount of this type of waste, it can become an issue as it begins to

take up a lot of space. We mentioned that some of the most common examples of

inert waste are sand and concrete waste, however, other examples of inert waste

include; Clay, Sub soil, Chalk and Rubble.

If your building site or project has a lot of any of the waste materials which we

mentioned above, it is recommended that in order to lessen the environmental impact,

it should be collected in a controlled manner to safely sort through the materials. Our

experienced team at Burlington Aggregates are specialists in the removal of a variety

of inert wastes, so we do all the hard work for our clients! With years of acquired

skills and experience from working in the sector, we’re able to manage large volumes

of waste at our Goldmire Quarry, and our clients can be assured that the materials are

being sorted and recycled to the highest of quality standards meaning you don’t have

to worry about how your waste was disposed. If you need to dispose of your inert
waste? No matter what type it is, contact us to discuss your waste disposal needs with

a member of the team at Burlington Aggregates today.

2.3.1 Examples of inert waste

Inert wastes are typically produced during construction activities. The most common

types include:

1) Concrete

2) Rubble

3) Sands

4) Clay

5) Soil

6) Chalk

2.3.2 Threat of inert waste

This type of waste does not pose a threat to the environment, animals or human health

and will not affect the quality of water sources it may be in contact with. The main

issue inert waste poses to individuals and businesses is what to do with. Because it

does not decompose (or takes many years to do so), it can become problematic as it

takes up a lot of space.

2.3.3 Inert Waste Disposal

Derwen specialise in the recycling of inert waste, our award winning aggregate

recycling plant can process up to 350,000 tonnes per annum of inert waste into high

quality recycled aggregates. Derwen’s audited recycling rate for inert waste is 99.1%

Our facility was the first in Wales, where you can dispose of construction and

demolition waste and collect high grade recycled aggregate in one vehicular

movement. Adopting this approach can enhance your carbon and ecological footprint
and reduce haulage and manpower costs. You can dispose of any quantity of inert

material at our site or contact us to arrange collection.

2.4 E-waste Defined

E-waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that’s been discarded. This includes working

and broken items that are thrown in the garbage or donated to a charity reseller like Goodwill.

Often, if the item goes unsold in the store, it will be thrown away. E-waste is particularly

dangerous due to toxic chemicals that naturally leach from the metals inside when buried.

2.4.1 E-waste Hides Toxic Materials

While above ground, modern electronics are safe to use and be around. However, most

electronics contain some form of toxic materials, including beryllium, cadmium, mercury, and

lead, which pose serious environmental risks to our soil, water, air, and wildlife.

When E-waste gets buried at a landfill, it can dissolve in microscopic traces into the gross

sludge that permeates at the landfill. Eventually, these traces of toxic materials pool into the

ground below the landfill. This is known as leaching. The more E-waste and metals at the

landfill, the more of these trace toxic materials show up in the groundwater.

2.4.2 Leeching Poisons nearby Water

The problem is that there is so, so much E-waste that the trace amounts have ballooned over

the years. That toxic water under the landfill doesn’t stop below the landfill. It continues to

the groundwater and the sources to all the freshwater in the surrounding area. Not only is this

bad for anyone using a natural well, but it hurts the nearby wildlife. That, in turn, causes the

wildlife to get sick from lead, arsenic, cadmium, and other metal poisonings due to the high

concentration of these minerals.

Not only is this a problem for E-waste in landfills, but this is a side effect of mining for new

sources of metal too. Having an environmentally-friendly source of recycled metal is better

for the environment than a company digging up new sources of ore. Every time you recycle

your electronics, you are preventing your E-waste from leaching toxic metals into your

groundwater. But you’re also preventing it from happing at a mine somewhere else.
Fortunately, there’s a proven solution. The recycling of e-waste serves a lot of useful

purposes. For instance, include protecting human and environmental health by keeping those

devices out of landfills. Or recovering the parts within the devices that still have value, and

providing manufacturers with recycled metals that can be used to make new products.

Virtually all electronic waste contains some form of recyclable material. That includes

materials like plastic, glass, and metals, which is why they may be considered “junk” or

“obsolete” to consumers but still serve an essential purpose. It’s ironic, in some ways that

these devices are called “e-waste,” since they’re not waste at all. But in far too many

instances, they are thrown away. With electronic recyclers like GLEC, we have a solution.

The challenge is getting recycling rates, still stubbornly low, to increase.

2.4.3 E-waste Problems

The definition of e-waste is likely to keep expanding. In an era of rapid technological

advancement, more and more highly sophisticated electronic goods are being invented and

manufactured. Just think of the concept of the “smart home.” It’s easy to recognize how many

electronic devices can now do everything from offer security to turning lights on and off, to

having fresh coffee ready before we wake up.

Unfortunately, a skyrocketing amount of e-waste is being written off by owners as junk.

There’s no more significant example of that than computers, laptops, and smartphones. New

models arrive even as the current one appears to be working just fine. Despite that, the latest

version always provides additional features that make it seem too enticing to resist. So in

answer to the question, “What is e-waste?” a good response today might be, “It depends.” The

technology innovators continue to create electric devices designed to make our lives easier

and more convenient in every conceivable way. Still, we seem all too susceptible to quickly

pitching the machines we already have. It doesn’t matter how satisfied we’ve been with them

up until now.

2.4.4 The Dangers of E-waste

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health risks may result from

direct contact with toxic materials that leach from e-waste. These include minerals

such as lead, cadmium, chromium, brominated flame retardants, or polychlorinated

biphenyls (PCBs). Danger can come from inhalation of the toxic fumes, as well as

from the accumulation of chemicals in soil, water, and food. This puts not just people

in danger but land and sea animals as well. In developing countries, the risks are

exceptionally high because some developed countries send their e-waste there.

Studies have shown this global e-waste has detrimental effects on the people that

work with the e-waste but also the people that live around it. Because of this, a proper

recycling process needs to be put in place to protect us and future generations.

2.5 Composite Waste

Whilst small-scale composting of organic waste is widespread in the region, attempts

to introduce large-scale composting as a means of reducing the quantities of

municipal solid waste requiring disposal, or with the intention of creating a revenue

stream from the sale of compost, have been met with limited success. Most of the

composting plants in the region are neither functioning at full capacity nor do they

produce compost of marketable value. The high operating and maintenance costs

results in compost costs that are higher than commercially available fertilisers, whilst

the lack of material segregation produces compost contaminated with plastic, glass

and toxic residues. Under such circumstances, little of the compost produced is

suitable for agriculture application.

The forced-air composting plant in Hanoi is a typical example. The plant is currently

operating at 20 per cent of its design capacity, whilst the municipal authorities have

been unable to persuade local farmers to take the product free as it is too

contaminated with plastics and glass. Elsewhere, small-scale neighbourhood

composting is actively promoted through research and pilot projects. In Indonesia,

such schemes have been underway for over a decade and small private enterprises

have been established in Cipinang Besar and Watam (East Jakarta) that supply

compost to estate gardens and golf courses. In Bandung, a box type windrow

composting plant has been established alongside and existing dumpsite whilst Ho Chi

Minh City has two small composting plants. Small-scale vermicomposting (a process

that uses worms and micro-organisms to convert organic materials into nutrient-rich

compost) of organic waste is carried out in open boxes or containers and is practised

in People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia and Philippines. At a slightly larger

scale, the composting of organic MSW with agricultural waste and sludge from

municipal sewage treatment plants is being piloted in Australia, Bangladesh, People’s

Republic of China, India, Philippines and Thailand. However, land availability, high

operational, maintenance and transportation costs and incomplete waste material

segregation remain major constraints to the adoption of co-composting.

2.6 Hazardous Waste

With rapid development in agriculture, industry, commerce, hospital and health-care

facilities, the Asian and Pacific Region is consuming significant quantities of toxic

chemicals and producing a large amount of hazardous waste. Currently, there are

about 110 000 types of toxic chemicals commercially available. Each year, another 1

000 new chemicals are added to the market for industrial and other uses. The

availability of robust data on the generation of hazardous waste for the Asian and

Pacific Region is limited by the reliability of information on the quantities and types

of hazardous waste produced at the country level. This is due to a variety of reasons,

including the lack of qualified personnel to undertake the necessary assessment, the

reluctance of industries to provide process information (including waste arising data)

and a poor appreciation of the extent to which generated waste is hazardous. Where

data is available, significant difficulties are encountered in seeking to draw

international comparisons due to differences in classification and definition of

hazardous waste from country to country within in the region. Most hazardous waste

is the by-product of a broad spectrum of industrial, agricultural and manufacturing

processes, nuclear establishments, hospitals and health-care facilities. Primarily, high-

volume generators of industrial hazardous waste are the chemical, petrochemical,

petroleum, metals, wood treatment, pulp and paper, leather, textiles and energy

production plants (coal-fired and nuclear power plants and petroleum production

plants). Small- and medium-sized industries that generate hazardous waste include

auto and equipment repair shops, electroplating and metal finishing shops, textile

factories, hospital and health-care centres, dry cleaners and pesticide users. The

principal types of hazardous waste generated in the Asian and Pacific Region, include

waste solvents, chlorine bearing waste and pesticide organophosphate-herbicide-urea-

fungicide bearing waste. In particular, solvents are extensively used in the region and,

as a consequence, large quantities of waste solvents are produced. The types,

quantities and sources of hazardous waste vary significantly from country to country

and are influenced by the extent and diversity of industrial activity. Table 8.4 provides

a conservative estimate of the past, current and future hazardous waste generation

trends in a number of selected countries (Hernandez 1993).

However, it must be stressed that such estimations are founded on data that may be

considered incomplete and unverified. In the absence of reliable regional data, a study

by the World Bank (WRI 1995) estimated the hazardous waste toxic releases in the

Asian and Pacific region and predicted significant increases in hazardous waste

production each year in People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines,
and Thailand. An even more significant conclusion of the study was that the intensity

of hazardous waste generation per unit of output is also set to increase (WRI, 1995).

Better and more reliable data are available for the quantities of petroleum waste

produced in countries that extract or process crude oil such as in Brunei Darussalam,

People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Japan and Republic of Korea.

In Malaysia, 0.71 metric tonnes of petroleum waste.

2.6.1 Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste

The Asian and the Pacific Region is under considerable pressure as a favoured

dumping ground for hazardous waste, particularly as domestic pressure has been

exerted on industries operating in the industrial nations to dispose of their hazardous

waste in a controlled, and hence expensive, manner. Between 1994 and 1997, the

industrialized nations sent a total of 3.5 million tonnes of hazardous waste to countries

in the Asian and Pacific Region. The first documented case of such imports to

People’s Republic of China occurred in September 1994 and by the first quarter of

1995, Chinese customs identified 22 separate incidents involving some 3,000 tonnes

of foreign hazardous waste. From 1995 to 1996 Chinese customs uncovered almost

one case per week of mislabelled hazardous waste, mostly from United States,

Republic of Korea, and Japan in particular. In June 1998, 640 tonnes of Californian

waste was found dumped in a Beijing suburb; the waste included toxic sludge, used

syringes and decomposing animal bodies (Greenpeace 1997). Over the same period,

India has also seen an increase in the dumping of hazardous waste from industrialized

nations (Anjello & Ranawana Agarwal 1998).

Thousands of tonnes of toxic waste are being illegally shipped to India for recycling

or dumping, despite a New Delhi court order banning imports of toxic materials. In

1995, Australia exported more than 1 450 tonnes of hazardous waste, including scrap
lead batteries, zinc and copper ash, to India, whilst some 569 tonnes of lead battery

waste were brought in through the main seaport of Mumbai between October 1996

and January 1997 (Greenpeace, 1998). Despite international agreements, substantial

quantities of PVC waste is still exported to Asia as shown in Box 8.2 (Greenpeace

1998). Various attempts by industry to use the islands of the Pacific as dump sites for

hazardous waste (in association with power co-generation) have not been successful

largely due to heightened awareness created through the negotiation of the

subregional Waigani Convention on transboundary movement of hazardous and

radioactive wastes

2.7 Toxic waste

Hazardous, or toxic, waste is the potentially dangerous byproduct of a wide range of

activities, including manufacturing, farming, water treatment systems, construction,

automotive garages, laboratories, hospitals, and other industries. The waste may be

liquid, solid, or sludge and contain chemicals, heavy metals, radiation, pathogens, or

other materials. Even households generate hazardous waste, from items such as

batteries, used computer equipment, and leftover paints or pesticides. Toxic waste can

harm people, animals, and plants, whether it ends up in the ground, in streams, or

even in the air. Some toxins, such as mercury and lead, persist in the environment for

many years and accumulate over time. Humans or wildlife often absorb these toxic

substances when they eat fish or other prey.

In the past, many hazardous wastes were only loosely regulated, allowing substantial

contamination of communities and the environment. In the U.S., toxic waste has been

overseen by the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) since 1976, as well

as state departments of environmental protection. The EPA now requires that

hazardous waste be handled with special precautions and be disposed of in designated

facilities. Many towns have special collection days for household hazardous waste.

2.7.1 Toxic waste in practice

A common hazardous waste facility is one that stores the material in sealed containers

in the ground. Less toxic waste that is unlikely to migrate, like soil containing lead, is

sometimes allowed to remain in place and then sealed with a cap of hard clay.

Communities may eventually decide to use these sites for golf courses or parks, or to

label them “brownfields” sites, suitable for commercial or industrial uses.

Violations of the law, like dumping untreated hazardous waste on the ground or in

town landfills to avoid paying the fees charged by designated waste facilities, may

result in hefty fines or even jail time. Many toxic waste dumps that still pose a threat

to communities are holdovers from the era prior to 1976. Other waste sites are the

result of more recent illegal dumping.

2.7.2 Toxic waste regulations

The U.S. federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act regulates how hazardous

waste must be handled and stored. Yet some community activists and

environmentalists have long complained about what they view as lax enforcement of

hazardous waste regulations, both by the federal and state governments. In particular,

many groups have accused governments and corporations of environmental racism

when it comes to toxic waste. They point out that a disproportionate number of toxic

waste sites tend to be located in or near low-income and communities of color, in part

because such communities often have fewer resources to oppose such activities. At

the same time, many corporations argue that regulations on hazardous wastes are too

strict, and they often lobby Congress to soften or remove certain restrictions. One

EPA rule that has proved controversial governs handling of sludge including sewer
sludge generated by some water treatment and industrial processes. The EPA allows

certain waste sludges often called biosolids to be used in fertilizers that are used by

farmers on food crops or sold directly to the public. The agency allows sludges that

contain toxic materials to be used, as long as the concentrations of heavy metals,

pathogens, or other harmful substances don’t exceed legal thresholds.

2.7.3 Cleaning up hazardous waste

In order to help clean up historic toxic waste sites, Congress passed the Superfund Act

in 1980 (0fficially called the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation

and Liability Act or CERCLA). At first, Congress collected a tax on chemical and

petroleum industries to create a trust fund (the Superfund) for cleaning up abandoned

and uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. That tax wasn’t renewed after 1990, however.

And while responsible parties can be forced to pay for cleanup of hazardous waste, in

recent years most Superfund work has been funded out of the general treasury.

Hundreds of sites have so far seen remediation actions, while hundreds more are

waiting on the list and dozens more have been proposed. Hazardous waste clean-up is

a multi-step process, which starts with site visits and reviews to determine if the area

threatens human health or the environment. Once confirmed, the site is listed on the

National Priorities List as one of the nation’s worst hazardous waste locations. It is

then further investigated and characterized based on the type of contaminants

identified and the estimated cost of clean-up (which can run into tens of millions and

take decades).

2.7.4 Toxic Land Generates Solar Energy

From there, a clean-up plan is developed, and work begins. Environmental engineers

use a variety of techniques to remediate sites, including removing barrels, tanks, or

soil for safe disposal; lining and capping pits; installing drainage systems; and seeding
beneficial plants or bacteria to absorb or breakdown toxic materials. Once the work is

complete, monitoring and scheduled reviews are conducted to ensure that the area

remains safe. Eventually, the site can be considered for reuse. The Superfund program

was launched in response to a series of high-profile toxic waste cases in the 1970s.
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