CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. GENERAL
One of the major environmental concerns in today is the issue of solid waste
management. In India about 50 million tons of municipal solid waste was generated
every year from cities (CPCB, 2000). Uncontrolled dumping of wastes on outskirts of
cities has created overflowing landfills, which are not only impossible to reclaim
because of the haphazard manner of dumping, but also have serious environmental
implications in terms of ground water pollution and contribution to global warming.
There are four basic ways of waste management.
 Waste minimization and at source reduction.
 Recycling and composting
 Incineration (with extract energy from waste)
 Waste to landfill

Solid waste management is concerned with the generation, on – site storage,

collection, transfer, transportation, processing and recovery and ultimate disposal of
solid waste. Various solid waste management methods are adopted nowadays like
sanitary landfill, incineration, recovery and recycling, composting and Pyrolysis.
Everyday tonnes of solid waste are disposed off at various landfill sites. These
landfill sites produce foul smell if waste is not stored and treated properly. It can
pollute the surrounding air and can seriously affect the health of humans, wildlife and
our environment.

Before final disposal one can process and treat the waste so as to reduce the
“wasteful wasting of waste”. Some of the techniques available to achieve this
objective are volume reduction, recovery of resources, energy recovery. This study
has been done for reducing the pollution problems due to solid waste by converting
it into compost by using earthworms very successfully, economically and usefully.

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1.2. KITCHEN REFUSE
Kitchen refuse is defined as left – over organic matter from kitchens of
restaurants, hotels and households. Tons of kitchen refuse are produced daily in
highly populated areas. Kitchen refuse comprises of vegetable and fruit remains and
peelings, egg shells and coffee sediments, tea and coffee filter bags, tainted food,
non – liquid cooked food waste etc., Kitchen refuse entering the mixed municipal
waste system are difficult to process by standard means such as incineration due to
the high moisture content. Furthermore, organic matter can be transformed into
useful fertilizer and biofuel. New disposal methods that are both environmentally and
economically efficient are being developed which rely on various forms of microbial
decomposition.

Kitchen refuse is a nutrient rich, or eutrophic environment containing high

levels of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and other organic molecules which can
support abundant populations of microorganisms. Kitchen refuse is usually acidic
due to the action of acid fermentation bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria. It is toxic
to other bacteria, thus a buffer is usually added into kitchen refuse to make the
environment less acidic. Overall, the high moisture and nutrient level make kitchen
refuse an ideal environment for biodegradation process.

FIGURE 1.1 VEGETABLE WASTES FIGURE 1.2 FOOD WASTES

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1.3. COMPOSTING
Composting is an alternative solid waste management system; it can be used
to recycling of organic material into useful products. In addition, it can also be used
to control the increase in waste. Composting is defined as the controlled biological
decomposition of organic matter into stable, humus like product called compost.
Compost is a rich source of organic matter. Soil organic matter plays an
important role in sustaining soil fertility and hence in sustainable agricultural
production. In addition to being a source of plant nutrient, it improves the physico –
chemical and biological properties of the soil. As a result of these improvements, the
soil: (1) becomes more resistant to stresses such as drought, diseases and toxicity,
(2) helps the crop in improved uptake of plant nutrients and (3) possesses an active
nutrient cycling capacity because of vigorous microbial activity. These advantages
manifest themselves in reduced cropping risks, higher yields and lower outlays on
inorganic fertilizers for farmers.

1.3.1. TYPES OF COMPOSTING

Generally there are two types of composting techniques,
1. Anaerobic composting
2. Aerobic composting

Anaerobic Composting:
It is the process of decomposition that occurs using microorganisms which do not
require oxygen to survive. By this process, sludge like compost material is produced,
which is difficult to break down. This material typically requires aerobic composting
to complete the stabilization process. Many of these compounds have strong odours
and some present phytotoxicity. Moreover, the process usually takes longer than
aerobic composting.

Aerobic Composting:
This type of composting is a process of decomposition of organic matter using
microorganisms that require oxygen. The heat produced in aerobic composting is

3
sufficient to kill harmful bacteria and pathogens. It also supports the growth of
beneficial bacteria species including psychrophilic, mesophilic and thermophilic
bacteria which thrive at the higher temperature levels. Moreover, this process
destroys many micro organisms that are human or plant pathogens, as well as weed
seeds, provided it undergoes sufficiently high temperature. Although more nutrients
are lost from the materials by aerobic composting, it is considered more efficient and
useful than anaerobic composting for agricultural production.

1.3.2. METHODS OF COMPOSTING

Composting

Open Closed
system system

Vermi Bin In - Vessel

Static Pile Windrow
Composting Composting Composting

FIGURE 1.3 COMPOSTING METHODS

1.3.2.1. STATIC PILE COMPOSTING:

In aerated static pile composting, organic waste is mixed together in one large
pile instead of rows. To aerate the pile, layers of loosely piled bulking agents (ex:
wood chips, shredded news papers etc.,) are added so that air can pass from the
bottom to the top of the pile. The piles also can be placed over a network of pipes
that deliver air into or draw air out of the pile.

4
1.3.2.2. WINDROW COMPOSTING:
It is the production of compost by pilling organic matter or biodegradable
wastes such as animal manure and crop residues in long rows (windrows) and can
be aerated by turning the pile periodically by either manual or mechanical means.
The ideal pile height is between 4 to 8 feet. The ideal pile width is between 14 to 16
feet. This method is suited to producing large volumes of compost.

1.3.2.3. VERMI COMPOSTING:

Vermi composting is the process involved in the degradation of organic waste
into a useful product (compost) by using earthworms. It is all together a natural
system in which the earthworms play their major roles in degrading the organic
portion of the waste. The use of earthworms in sludge management is also called as
worm composting or vermi stabilization.

1.3.2.4. BIN COMPOSTING:

Composting bins are made of wooden boxes or plastic dust bins or
complicated concrete block structures. The simplest composting bin is the plastic
dust bin or trash can with a lid. The ideal size for a composting bin is about one
cubic metre or one cubic yard as this size allows for easy turning and aeration but
any reasonable size will do. An enclosed circular (160 – 250 litres) plastic barrel or
metal drum with a secure lid is used to generate compost in a relatively short period
of time.

1.3.2.5. IN – VESSEL COMPOSTING:

Organic materials are fed into a drum, silo, concrete – lined trench or similar
equipment where the environmental conditions including temperature, moisture and
aeration are closely controlled. The apparatus usually has a mechanism to turn or
agitate the material for proper aeration. In – vessel composters may vary in size and
capacity.

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1.4. VERMICOMPOSTING
Vermicomposting is a type of composting in which certain species of
earthworms are used to enhance the process of organic waste conversion and
produce a better end-product. It is a mesophilic process utilizing microorganisms
and earthworms. Earthworms feeds the organic waste materials and passes it
through their digestive system and gives out in a granular form (cocoons) which is
known as vermicompost. vermicompost is earthworm excrement, called castings,
which can improve biological, chemical, and physical properties of the soil. The
chemical secretions in the earthworm’s digestive tract help break down soil and
organic matter, so the castings contain more nutrients that are immediately available
to plants.

Earthworms consume organic wastes and reduce the volume by 40–60

percent. Each earthworm weighs about 0.5 to 0.6 gram, eats waste equivalent to its
body weight and produces cast equivalent to about 50 percent of the waste it
consumes in a day. The moisture content of castings ranges between 32 and 66
percent and the pH is around 7. The level of nutrients in compost depends upon the
source of the raw material and the species of earthworm.

1.4.1. ADVANTAGES OF VERMICOMPOSTING

1. It is pollution – free, with no odour and leachate problems.
2. It is used to transform a wide variety of wastes into premium quality
vermicompost.
3. Vermicompost enhances plant growth, suppresses disease in plants,
increases porosity and microbial activity in soil, and improves water retention
and aeration.
4. Vermicompost also benefits the environment by reducing the need for
chemical fertilizers and decreasing the amount of waste going to landfills.
5. Vermicompost retains the maximum nutrient content N, P, K and magnesium
for plants and other organisms.
6. Vermicomposting is economical method of composting than other methods.

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1.5. EARTHWORMS
Earthworms are also known as “Friends of the Farmer” as they decompose
organic waste material present in the soil and make the soil fertile for agricultural
use. In other words, organic waste generated by different life forms is recycled by
earthworms to form humus, thereby improving the quality of soil used for cultivation.

1.5.1. CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHWORMS

There are nearly 3600 types of earthworm species are available. The
earthworm species most often used are red wigglers (Eisenia fetida or Eisenia
Andrei), though European nightcrawlers (Eisenia hortensis or Dendrobaena veneta)
could also be used. Red wigglers are recommended by most vermicomposting
experts, as they have some of the best appetites and breed very quickly.

Generally there are three main types of earthworms cultivated, depending on

the feeding and burrowing habits. They are

a) Epigeic (Epi = Top, Geic = Earth)

These earthworms live on the upper part of the soil. These are not
burrowing earthworms, but survive by feeding on soil litter. These
earthworms are small in size. They are not striped, and are red to red –
brown in colour. The three species most commonly used for
vermicomposting in colder countries are Dendrobaena veneta (blue nosed
worm), Eisenia fetida (tiger or brandling worm) and Eisenia Andrei (red tiger
worm). In warmer countries like India, other tropical species such as
Eudrillus eugeniae have been farmed.

b) Endogeic (Endo = Inner, Geic = Earth)

These earthworms are completely burrowing. They create horizontal
burrows, and feed on material present deep within the soil surface. These
earthworms are rich soil feeders, and are small in size. These earthworms

7
 are not pigmented, but have a pale appearance. One notable species in this
type is Allolobophora chlorotica (green worm).

c) Anecic
These earthworms feed on soil litter by making vertical burrows deep
into the soil. Therefore, earthworms live on the upper part of the soil, as well
as in deep soil burrows. These earthworms are large in size and dorsally
pigmented. The head part is red or brown in colour and the tail has a pale
appearance as compared to the head part. Two of the more beneficial
species are Lumbricus terrestris (lob worm or common earthworm) and
Aporrectodea longa (black headed worm).
In vermiculture, the main species of earthworms cultivated are as follows.

TABLE 1.1 EARTHWORM SPECIES

Tropical species Temperature species
Eisenia fetida
Eudrillus eugeniae
Eisenia Andrei
Dendrodrilus rubidus
Perionyx excavates
Dendrobaena veneta
Lumbricus rubellus
Polypheretima elongata
Drawida nepalensis

1.6. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The various objectives of the present study can be listed as
1) To collect and quantify the kitchen refuses produced in the NRS-Canteen.
2) To characterize the collected waste.
3) To feed and process the collected waste in the composting unit.
4) To determine the quantity of waste processed and quantity of compost
obtained.
5) To analyze the characteristics of compost.
6) To return the waste to the land as quality organic fertilizer.

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 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. GENERAL
This chapter briefs about the composting of wastes, methods of composting
and vermicomposting technique. A brief review of literature associated with
municipal solid waste, waste management practices, composting and its methods
and vermi composting of an organic wastes is presented below.

2.2. BIOCOMPOSTING OF ORGANIC WASTES AND VERMITECH

Dr. Sultan Ahmed Ismail has reported a handbook on biocomposting of
organic waste and vermitech for Tamilnadu Pollution Control Board which states to
use 2.5mm sieve to get uniform compost. He also gave the various layers to be
provided in the worm bin and the various classifications of earthworms. He also gave
a note on vermi wash and its unit.

2.3. VERMICOMPOST FROM DIFFERENT SOLID WASTE USING TREATED

DIARY EFFLUENT
C. Ravichandran et al., (2001) evaluated the impact of treated diary effluent
in vermicomposting for three different kinds of waste i.e., garbage, fruit and
vegetable waste and meat waste separately. Their results showed that the NPK
value varied in compost obtained from different types of waste. They also found that
the composting period was greatly reduced with the use of treated diary effluent and
NPK values found maximum in compost obtained from garbage.

2.4. KAU PACKAGE OF PRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONS CROPS –

VERMICOMPOST, COIR PITH & BIOFERTILIZERS
Agricultural University of Kerala (2002) recommended Eudrillus eugeniae
as a best species of earthworm for vermi technology under Kerala conditions. They
suggested 500 to 1000 worms for a pit of 2.5m x 1m x 0.3m. Vermicomposting of

9
farm waste was done by them and the average nutrient status of 1.5% N, 0.4% P 2O5
and 1.8% K2O with pH of 7 to 8 in the vermicast was reported.
They also vermicomposted coconut leaves and obtained the nutrients with
about 1.2% N, 0.1% P2O5 and 0.5% K2O. Coir pith waste was vermicomposted and
the C/N ratio found to be reduced from 112:1 to 24:1. They also found that the lignin
content was reduced considerably. They also carried out vermicomposting for
household wastes and found the nutrient content of 1.8% N, 1.9% P 2O5 and 1.6%
K2O. They indicated in their results that the composition of nutrient content varies
with the substrate used.

2.5. COMPOSTING OF FOOD AND VEGETABLE WASTE

Kunwar D Yadav et al., (2010) said that composting is one of the cheap and
best methods for disposal of organic waste and its conversion into valuable
products. Reduction in volatile solids is an indicator of loss of carbon content in
waste and the rate of degradation. It depends on the characteristics of organic
constituents. The main objective of the present study is to find out the degradation
aspects of food and vegetable waste. The study was conducted in two phases: (1) to
find out the degradation rate in terms of change in volatile solids during the
composting process: and (2) to study the leachate characteristics of food and
vegetable waste. The results showed that around 55 – 58% of volatile solids
reductions was possible within four months of composting of food and vegetable
waste. Odour is the one of the major problems during the initial stage of composting
of food and vegetable waste. Leachate production was more in vegetable waste
compared to food waste.

2.6. MANAGEMENT OF KITCHEN WASTE MATERIAL THROUGH

VERMICOMPOSTING
Alok Bharadwaj (2010) studied an effort has been made to assess the
efficacy of E. foetida (red tiger worm) in utilizing the kitchen waste material, to
analyze the waste decomposition process assessed with earthworm activity. This

10
chosen substrate was mixed with cow dung in the ratio of 4:1 (w/w) to initiate the
waste conversion process into a useful product. Physical and biochemical activity,
occurring during the 75 days of vermicomposting period were analyzed. During this
process pH, organic carbon, organic matter and C:N ratio revealed negative trend,
however total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium content
expressed positive trend of increment with vermicomposting period. 15 days
precomposting of substrate (kitchen waste + cow dung) and subsequent
vermicomposting upto 75 days, clearly indicate the potential of earthworm
biotechnology in reduction of biomass of the waste, addition of the nutrient pool
(nutrient enrichment) and more availability of animal protein in the form of earthworm
number and biomass.

2.7. VERMICOMPOSTING OF FOOD WASTE: ASSESSING THE STABILITY AND

MATURITY
Monireh Majlessi et al., (2012) said that the vermicompost using earthworms
Eisenia Fetida was produced from food waste and chemical parameters (EC, pH,
carbon to nitrogen content (C/N)) and germination bioassay was examined in order
to assess the stability and maturity indicators during the vermicomposting process.
The ranges of EC, pH, C/N and germination index were 7.5 - 4.9 mS/cm, 5.6 - 7.53,
30.13 - 14.32% and 12.8 - 58.4% respectively. The C/N value showed that the
vermicompost was stable. As a result of these observations, stability test alone was
not able to ensure high vermicompost quality. Therefore, it appears that determining
vermicompost quality requires a simultaneous use of maturity and stability tests.

2.8. VERMICOMPOSTING OF FOOD WASTE

N.Othman et al., (2012) reported that in this study, vermicomposting is
introduced as an alternative of the food waste recycling. Vermicomposting consists
of the use of earthworms to break down the food waste. In this vermicomposting
treatment, the nightcrawler earthworms are used to treat the food waste. The food
was collected from UTHM cafe. The experiment consists of peat soil as a base,
earthworms and the food waste. The pH and moisture content of each container

11
were controlled at 7.0 to 7.2 and 60 to 80% to maintain the favorable environment
condition for the earthworms. The mass of the sample will be measured in three
days time after exposure to the earthworm. The vermicomposting study was taken
about two weeks time. After the treatment, the soil sample was tested for nitrogen
(N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) concentration. Based on the results
obtained, it shows that vermicomposting has reduced the mass of tested sample and
the concentration of N, P, and K for the soil is greater than the chemical fertilizer.
Therefore, vermicomposting is a promising alternative treatment of food waste as it
is more ecofriendly.

2.9. MANAGEMENT OF KITCHEN WASTE BY VERMICOMPOSTING USING

EARTHWORM, EUDRILUS EUGENIAE
Mohamed Omer Albasha et al., (2015) studied on examines the potential of
the African night crawler Eudrilus eugeniae in the vermicomposting of Kitchen waste.
As Kitchen waste is rich inorganic material while deficient in nitrogen cow dung was
mixed with it to make it suitable for earthworms. A mixture of Kitchen waste and cow
dung in the ratio of 1:1 was found to be the best ratio than 2 (Kitchen waste): 1 (cow
dung) and 3 (Kitchen waste): 1 (cow dung). In 60 days time good quality compost
was prepared by earthworms. Physical and biochemical parameters were analyzed
during this period of 60 days. Pre decomposition of 15 days and subsequent
vermicomposting of 60 days indicates the role of this species in vermitechnology.
Increase was found in all the parameters like, Total nitrogen (%), Available
phosphorus (%) and Exchangeable potassium (%) while a decrease was found in
pH and C:N ratio as the timing of vermicomposting increased from 0 days to 6 days.

2.10. STUDY OF VERMICOMPOSTING TECHNOLOGY FOR ORGANIC WASTE

MANAGEMENT
Vandana Patyal (2017) Vermicomposting refers to composting or natural
conversion of biodegradable garbage into high quality manure with the help of
earthworms. In their present study an effort has been made to check the efficacy of
Eisenia Fetida (red worm) in vermicomposting. Moisture content in bed is maintained

12
by spreading water over it and to cover with moist gunny bag. The temperature was
monitored at every week. The parameter such as pH, electrical conductivity,
temperature, and bulk density, C/N Ratio, N, P and K are measure during the
specifics interval of time in which result show that the nutrient content at the end of
45 day is increased. Vermicompost is the process which will convert organic waste
into valuable fertilizer.

2.11. ORGANIC WASTE IN COMPOSTING: A BRIEF REVIEW

Suhas S. Gonawala and Hemali Jardosh (2018) studied on the composting
process of organic waste. Organic waste is the easily biodegradable waste. Organic
wastes are produced from many sources Such as agricultural waste, market waste,
kitchen waste, urban solid waste and municipal solid waste. Without proper
management, this waste could create several environments problem. Therefore,
composting is the best low-cost alternative solution to overcome this problem. The
composting method can degrade all types of organic waste such as fruits,
vegetables, plants, yard waste and others. The organic waste composition can be
used as nutrients for crops, soil additives and for environmental management.
However, many factors can contribute to the quality of compost products since
different types of organic waste have different concentrations of nutrients, Nitrogen,
Phosphorus and Potassium (N, P, K) that are the common macro energetic present
in fertilizers. The presence of heavy metals shows how composts can be applied to
soils without contributing any negative effects. In terms of the factor affecting the
composting process, temperature, pH, moisture content and carbon nitrogen ratio
(C:N) are the main parameters that contribute to the efficiency of the composting
process.

2.12. AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY TO ASSESS VERMICOMPOSTING BY USING

VEGETABLE WASTE AND FRUIT WASTE
T. Manikandan et al., has presented that earthworms feed on the organics
and convert material into casting rich in plant nutrients. Some of the parameters that
have been used to measure the maturity include changes in nitrogen species, pH,

13
optical density, temperature, specific gravity, plant assays, respiration, and microbial
population changes. The vermicomposting using earthworms (Eisenia - Fetida) was
produced from food waste and fruit waste with chemical parameters (EC, pH, carbon
to nitrogen contents (C/N)) and germination bioassay was examined in order to
assess the stability and maturity indicators during the vermicomposting process.

14
 CHAPTER III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. GENERAL
The biodegradation of the kitchen refuse by vermicomposting method can be
done systematically through a sequence of integrated measures. The kitchen refuse
from NRSC could be collected and refuse generation rate is estimated. The
collected refuse is preprocessed through various processes like segregation, size
reduction and removal of other contaminants. Then the preprocessed refuse is
feeded in the prepared vermi compost pit along with the manure. Water is sprinkled
along the maturation period to maintain the adequate moisture content. Finally the
compost recovered from the pit after the completion of maturation period.

3.2. COLLECTION OF KITCHEN REFUSE FROM NRSC

Separate bins were provided at the NRSC for dumping organic waste (kitchen
and vegetable waste) and inorganic waste (plastic). The refuse collected in the bin
for organic wastes containing kitchen and vegetable waste was collected and
removed everyday at 3.00 P.M. as a cycle for 2 weeks. Surveys were conducted to
the workers regarding the quantity of food cooked every day, quantity of vegetables
used for cooking per day and the days of the week when the waste generation was
at peak.

3.3. ESTIMATION OF REFUSE GENERATION RATE IN NRSC

The period of study was from 05.08.2019 to 09.08.2019.The waste was

collected at 3 P.M. every day and weighed. The population was also noted by taking
survey from the workers of the canteen. From the details obtained, percapita
generation of waste was calculated and tabulated in the table no. 3.1

15
 TABLE 3.1 ESTIMATION OF REFUSE GENERATION RATE IN NRSC

QUANTITY
PER CAPITA
S.No. DATE GENERATED POPULATION
GENERATION (kg)
(kg)

1 05.08.2019 7.310 250 0.029

2 06.08.2019 10.500 150 0.070

3 07.08.2019 9.120 180 0.051

4 08.08.2019 8.860 150 0.059

5 09.08.2019 8.150 150 0.046

TABLE 3.2 ESTIMATED RESULTS FOR NRSC

Daily average 8.788 kg

Weekly average 43.940 kg

Monthly average 263.64 kg (approx.)

Percapita average 0.0510 kg

REFUSE GENERATION RATE

12 10.5
QUANTITY GENERATED (kg)

10 9.12 8.86
8.15
7.31
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
NO OF DAYS

FIGURE 3.1 REFUSE GENERATION RATE

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3.4. SEGREGATION OF THE COLLECTED REFUSE
The workers in the NRSC were educated about the need for segregating
organic and inorganic wastes so as to contribute to fit compost. It was found that
sometimes traces of inorganic wastes were found in the bin for organic waste. The
workers were reinstructed about the potential harm caused to the compost by
accidental or careless mixing of organic and organic wastes in the bin. Any inorganic
particles found in the organic waste mixture was found and immediately removed.
The efficiency of segregation was examined and strict implementation measures
were taken.

3.5. PREPROCESSING OF THE COLLECTED REFUSE

The following objectives must be met in preparing kitchen refuse for the
composting process.

1. Size Reduction
The optimal particle size is typically in the range of 2 to 8mm to provide
a high volume to surface ratio. This process is done either manually or
mechanically, mechanical shredders are available for size reduction. It is a
important stage because microbial decomposition takes on the particle
surface.

2. Removal of Contaminants
Contaminants include light materials such as film plastic and textiles,
dense materials such as glass, ferrous and non ferrous materials. This can
done by manual means only and the efficiency must be high. Typically, they
are removed by a combination of preprocessing and refinement after
composting.

3. Adjustment of Moisture and Nutrient Content

The feedstock should have a water content in the range of 55 to 60
percent and a ratio of available carbon to nitrogen (C:N) of 30 to 40. Food

17
 waste and sludges are high in nitrogen. It is also essential that the materials
be thoroughly mixed and wetted.

3.6. CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COLLECTED REFUSE

3.6.1. DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE

The temperature was measured directly using thermometer at the sampling
site. Ambient temperature and waste sample temperature were recorded.

3.6.2. DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT

Approximately 1gm of kitchen refuse was taken in a dish and the initial weight
of the dish containing sample was noted as W 1. The dish containing sample was
kept in moisture analyzer at 105ºC for 1 hour. Finally the heated dish is cooled in a
desiccator and then dry weight of the sample is noted as W 2. The moisture content
is determined by

Where W 1 and W 2 were recorded in mg.

3.6.3. DETERMINATION OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

1:100 ratio sample solution was prepared by taking 1g of waste sample in 100
ml of deionized water. The solution was shaken for 1 hour using a mechanical
shaker at regular intervals.
After calibration of the EC meter, the probe was rinsed with distilled water
and then dried. The probe is immersed in the sample solution where EC meter
shows the conductance value which is in terms of milliSeimens per centimeter.

3.6.4. DETERMINATION OF pH
1:100 ratio sample solution was prepared by taking 1g of waste sample in 100
ml of deionized water. The solution was shaken for 1 hour using a mechanical
shaker at regular intervals.

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 After calibration of the pH meter, the probe was rinsed with distilled water,
blotted dry and immersed in sample solution and pH reading was noted.

3.6.5. DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS

Take a crucible which has been washed cleanly and dried in a hot air oven for
one hour about 105°C and weigh the empty crucible as W 1. Take 20 ml of sample
solution and pour into the crucible and dried in a hot oven air and then the crucible
were cooled in a desiccator and weighed as W 2.

Where W 1 and W 2 were recorded in mg.

3.6.6. DETERMINATION OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Take a clean crucible which has been washed and dried in a hot air oven at
105°C for one hour and weigh the empty crucible as W 1. Take 20 ml of sample
solution and filter through a filter paper, collect the filtrate into the crucible and dried
in a hot oven air and then the crucible was cooled in a desiccator and weighed as
W2.

Where W 1 and W 2 were recorded in mg.

3.6.7. DETERMINATION OF BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

 Take four 300 ml glass stoppered BOD bottles (two for the sample and two
for the blank).
 Add 10 ml of the sample to each of the two BOD bottles and the fill the
remaining quantity with the dilution water (5 ml calcium chloride solution + 5
ml magnesium sulphate solution + 5 ml ferric chloride solution + 5 ml

19
 phosphate buffer solution + 5 litres of distilled water, which is prepared 5 days
before initiating BOD test) and remaining two bottles add dilution water alone.
 Place the glass stopper over the BOD bottles and now preserve one sample
and one blank solution bottle in a BOD incubator at 20°C for five days.
 Remaining two BOD bottles add 2 ml of manganese sulphate and 2 ml of
alkali-iodide-azide solution and allow it to settle for sufficient time then the floc
has settled to the bottom, shake the contents thoroughly by turning it upside
down.
 Add 2 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid via pipette held just above the surface
of the sample and close with stopper and then invert several times to dissolve
the floc.
 Take 203 ml of the solution from the bottle and titrate the solution with
standard sodium thio sulphate solution until the yellow color into pale yellow
color and add 1 ml of starch solution and continue the titration till the blue
color disappears.
 Note down the volume of sodium thio sulphate solution which gives initial
D.O. in mg/l.
 After five days, take out the bottles from the BOD incubator and analyze the
sample and the blank for DO by the same procedure which gives final D.O. in
mg/l.
 The BOD could be calculated by using the following relation,

3.6.8. DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

The chemical oxygen demand was measured by using Spectroquant TR 420.
The diluted samples of 3 ml were taken up in the glass test tube. Add 2.5 ml and 1.5
ml of COD solution A and B and place it in the COD digester for 2 hours at 148°C.
After 2 hours the sample was cooled for 1hour and then the sample is place it in the
Spectroquant Move 100 display meter to display COD value for the sample.

20
3.6.9. DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON
The total organic carbon was measured by using TOC analyzer. The initial
setting procedure was done for the proper measurement. The distilled water is
injected through the injection needle port to wash the acids and other chemicals in
the measuring unit. After washing, the sample solution is injected into the analyzer
which utilizes a combustion technique (upto 720°C). The CO2 generated by
oxidation process is measured with Non – Dispersive Infra Red sensor. The detector
determines the concentration of organic carbon in the sample solution.

3.6.10. DETERMINATION OF TOTAL NITROGEN

The total nitrogen content was also measured by TOC analyzer. The initial
setting procedure was done for the proper measurement. The distilled water is
injected through the injection needle port to wash the acids and other chemicals in
the measuring unit. After washing, the sample solution is injected into the analyzer
which utilizes a chemi – luminescence reaction. The sample solution is combusted
to NO and NO2. Chemi – luminescence detector determines the concentration of
total nitrogen present in the sample solution.

3.6.11. DETERMINATION OF VOLATILE SOLIDS

Take a crucible which has been washed cleanly and dried in a hot air oven for
one hour about 105°C and weigh the empty crucible as W 1. Take 20 ml of sample
solution and pour into the crucible and dried in a muffle furnace at a temperature of
550°C for atleast 4 hours. Then the crucible was cooled in a desiccator and weighed
as W 2.

21
 TABLE 3.3 INITIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KITCHEN REFUSE
CHARACTERISTIC
S.No. PARAMETER UNIT
VALUE
1 Temperature °C 28
2 Moisture Content % 74
3 Electrical Conductivity mS/cm 1.74
4 pH – 6.35
5 Total Solids mg/L 2400
6 Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 1000
7 Biological Oxygen Demand mg/L 13760
8 Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/L 33200
9 Total Organic Carbon mg/L 432.82
10 Total Nitrogen mg/L 12.73
11 Volatile Solids % 87.4

3.6 PROCESS DESCRIPTION

3.6.1 PREPARATION OF VERMI COMPOST PIT

The gardening area of the Industrial Bio – technology Department is selected
for the vermi composting process. Vermi compost pit is prepared by clearing the
vegetation in the field. A pit of size 15’ x 4’ x 2’ is excavated and the ground soil is
removed. The water is sprinkled in the pit to maintain the soil in wet condition. After
the curing process, the pit is filled with the preprocessed kitchen refuse of 70kg
along with the manure (cow dung) of 10kg and rake of the straw. The indigenous
earthworm species are employed for the bio degradation process. The top layer is
covered with the excavated natural ground soil. Water was added for providing the
optimum moisture content of 60% along the maturation period of 60 days. After the
completion of maturation period the top cover soil is completely removed and
compost is recovered from the pit.

22
 FIGURE 3.2 VERMI COMPOST PIT IN IBT DEPARTMENT

3.6.2. SUITABILITY OF THE REFUSE FOR COMPOSTING

a) Kitchen Refuse:
One of the most important factor that control the establishment and
continuity of earthworm populations is kitchen refuse and its quality. Higher nitrogen
ratios help in faster growth and greater productions of cocoons. Fresh green matter
is not easily fed upon. Decomposition by microbial activity is essential before worms
can feed on fresh waste. The preprocessed kitchen refuse collected in a wooden
boxes were placed in the pit then cow dung is mixed with the refuse. Finally straws
are also spreaded over the feedstock.

b) Earthworms:
Eudrilus eugeniae is the earthworm species evolved for the
biodegradation process. Around 1kg of earthworm species is introduced into the
vermi compost pit. Higher densities will increase the rate of vermicompost
production. The density of earthworms in any vermicomposting process is related to
the nutritional value of the waste being processed and the processing temperature.

23
 c) Moisture Content:
Moisture levels have to be maintained around 40 – 50%. So that
microbial activity is high and food matter is easy to feed upon. Excess water leads to
anaerobic conditions, which in turn lowers the pH and creates acidic condition.
Acidic condition reduces productivity and cause of migration of the earthworm
species.

d) Temperature:
The temperature should be maintained between 20°C to 30°C.
Temperature affects metabolism, growth and reproduction of worms. Compost pit
exposed to the sun loses moisture content from the waste quickly and are devoid of
earthworms. Temperature in excess of 30°C to 35°C is lethal to earthworms.
Earthworms maintain lower body temperatures than the surrounding organic matter
by their metabolic arrangements.

e) C/N Ratio:
The carbon – nitrogen (C:N) ratio is the critical factor that limits
earthworm population. When the C:N ratio of the feed material increases it becomes
difficult to extract enough nitrogen for tissue production. Worms find it difficult to
survive when the organic carbon content of the soil is low. C:N ratio in the range of
15 – 35:1 is considered to be suitable.

f) pH:
Worms are sensitive to changes in pH. They prefer neutral condition. The
processed waste pH in the range 5 – 9, appears not significantly affect the growth
and reproduction of worms. The lowered pH in the medium hampers the normal
activities of the worms, leading to weight loss and decline in population.

24
 CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. GENERAL
After the completion of maturation period the top cover soil is completely
removed and compost is recovered from the pit. The obtained compost is analysed
for the physical and chemical characteristics like pH, moisture content, electrical
conductivity, organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, BOD and COD.

FIGURE 4.1 RECOVERED COMPOST

FIGURE 4.2 RECOVERED EARTHWORMS

25
4.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RECOVERED COMPOST
The recovered compost is analysed as per standards and the characteristic
value of the different parameters are listed below.

TABLE 4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RECOVERED COMPOST

CHARACTERISTIC
S.No. PARAMETERS UNIT
VALUE
1 Moisture Content % 12.1
2 Electrical Conductivity mS/cm 0.05
3 pH – 8.55
4 Biological Oxygen Demand mg/kg 1110
5 Chemical Oxygen Demand mg/kg 4798
6 Total Organic Carbon % 1.36
7 Total Nitrogen % 0.62
8 C/N Ratio – 2.56
9 Phosphorus mg/kg 2864
10 Potassium mg/kg 1367
11 Volatile Solids % 50.87

4.3. DETAILS OF THE PERFORMANCE STUDY

The parameters like pH, moisture content, temperature, volatile solids
and chemical oxygen demand is considered for the detailed performance study

TABLE 4.2 PERFORMANCE STUDY

Moisture Temperature Volatile
DAYS pH COD (mg/l)
Content (%) (°C) Solids (%)
0th 6.35 74 28 87.4 33200
15th 7.80 68.32 27 74.5 24880
30th 6.82 45.75 27 61.57 15430
45th 7.10 41.50 28 55.63 9840
60th 8.55 12.1 29 50.87 4798

26
4.3.1. GRAPHS

pH
9
8.55
8 7.8

7.1
pH

7
6.35 6.82
6

5
0th 15th 30th 45th 60th
NO OF DAYS

FIGURE 4.3 TIME Vs pH

Moisture Content (%)

80
70
74
Moisture Content

60 68.32
50
40
45.75
30 41.5
20
10
0 12.1
0th 15th 30th 45th 60th
NO OF DAYS

FIGURE 4.4 TIME Vs MOISTURE CONTENT

27
 Temperature (°C)
30
29.5
29
28.5 29
Temperature

28
27.5 28 28
27
26.5 27 27
26
25.5
25
0th 15th 30th 45th 60th
NO OF DAYS

FIGURE 4.5 TIME Vs TEMPERATURE

Volatile Solids (%)

100
90
80
87.4
70
Volatile Solids

60 74.5
50 61.57
55.63
40 50.87
30
20
10
0
0th 15th 30th 45th 60th
NO OF DAYS

FIGURE 4.6 TIME Vs VOLATILE SOLIDS

28
 COD (mg/L)
35000

Chemical Oxygen Demand

30000 33200
25000
20000 24880

15000
15430
10000
5000 9840
4798
0
0th 15th 30th 45th 60th
NO OF DAYS

FIGURE 4.7 TIME Vs CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

29
 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Finally 150 kg of compost and 2 kg of earthworm species were recovered

from the bio degradation of the kitchen refuse of 70 kg. The characteristic values of
the compost are compared with the ideal values of good compost suggested by the
Tamilnadu Agricultural University – Organic Farming Department.

TABLE 5.1 IDEAL VALUES OF GOOD COMPOST

PARAMETERS IDEAL VALUES

Moisture Content 40 %
pH 5–9
Organic Carbon 9.5 – 17.98 %
Nitrogen 0.5 – 1.5 %
Phosphorus 1074 – 1920 mg/kg
Potassium 91.85 – 645.55 mg/kg

Based on the ideal values and the results obtained from the study, the following
conclusions are drawn.

 During the maturation stage, compost recovered in the lower moisture content
which is desirable. The compost become lighter making it easier to mix to
make seed or potting compost or to use in the land.
 The pH value of the recovered compost will be more alkaline with a pH as
high as 8.55, where the refuse contains a significant proportion of manure or
wood ash.
 If the C:N ratio is too high (excess carbon) decomposition slows down. If the
C:N ratio is too low (excess nitrogen) which cause bad odour around the pit.

30
 Generally kitchen refuse has more green products so nitrogen content is
enriched in the compost.
 The phosphorus concentration is slightly more in the recovered compost.
Excess Phosphorus content does not typically harm plants, but it
contaminates the ground water over a long period of application.
 A bit too much of potassium is not typically a problem for plant growth but
exorbitant potassium levels can cause over fertilizing and inhibition of
calcium.
 The results show that there is increasing of worm population which is used for
next cycle of the degradation process.
 This process does not result any odour problem.
 It is cost effective and eco – friendly method of waste disposal.

31
 CHAPTER VI
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