Lecture Three

Elements of Research Design

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 What are the basic research
design issues?
 Basic research design issues:
– are primarily a function of the purpose of the study
(whether it is exploratory, descriptive, or
hypothesis-testing),
– relate to such aspects as the type of study to be done
(causal or correlational),
– the setting in which it will be done (natural or
contrived),
– how much researcher control will have to be
exercised (very little in the case of field studies, to
very much in the case of experimental designs),
– time horizon- i.e. how many times data will have to be
collected (one shot versus longitudinal), and
– the unit of analysis – i.e. the level at which data will
be aggregated.
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 What are the basic research
design issues?
 Notice:
– For most correlational studies, the field setting with
minimal researcher influence will be the choice.(field
study before and after is better).
– Most field studies are generally cross-sectional,
though some could be longitudinal.
– Longitudinal studies, though better for
understanding the dynamics of the situation fully, also
consume more time and resources.
– Thus, the costs of a study also determine some of the
design choices.
– The unit of analysis depends on whether the research
question focuses on individuals, dyads, groups, or
entire systems.
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Research Design

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Purpose of the Study

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 Purpose of the Study
 Exploratory study:
– is undertaken when not much is known about the
situation at hand, or no information is available on
how similar problems or research issues have been solved
in the past.
– Mostly qualitative in nature where data is collected
through observations and interviews.
 Example 1:
– A service provider wants to know why his customers are
switching to other service providers.
 Example 2:
– A manager of a multinational corporation wants to know if
the work ethic values of employees working in its
subsidiary in a specific country is different from those of
Americans.

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 Purpose of the Study
 Descriptive study:
– is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to
describe the characteristics of the variables of
interest in a situation.
– Quantitative data in terms of frequencies, or mean and
standard deviations are necessary for descriptive studies.
 Example:
– A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individuals
who have loan payments outstanding for 6 months and
more. It would include details of their average age,
earnings, nature of occupation, full-time/part-time
employment status, and the like. This might help him to
elicit further information or decide right away on the types
of individuals who should be made ineligible for loans in
the future.

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 Purpose of the Study
 Hypothesis testing:
– Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the
nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences
among groups or the independence of two or more factors in
a situation.
 Example 1: (explain the nature of certain relationships)
– A marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the company
will increase if he doubles the advertising dollars.
– Hypothesis: If advertising is increased, then sales will also go up.
 Example 2: (Establishing difference between groups)
– Hypothesis: More female students get higher grades than male
students.
 Example 3: (Establishing independence between two variables)(joint
effect)
– Hypothesis: Working the night shift (as opposed to the day shift) is
related to whether or not one is married..

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 Type of Investigation

 Causal Study
– it is necessary to establish a definitive
cause-and-effect relationship (variable X
causes variable Y).
 Correlational study
– identification of the important factors
“associated with” the problem.

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 Study Setting
 Contrived (artificial) setting:
– Lab experiments are conducted to establish a
cause-effect relationship beyond the possibility of the
least doubt in a contrived environment in which all
the extraneous factors are strictly controlled.
 Non-contrived (natural) setting:
– the natural environment where work proceeds
normally
– Correlational studies done in organizations are called
field studies.
– Field experiments are conducted to establish
causal relationship using the same natural
environment.

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 Population to be Studied

 Unit of analysis:
– Individuals – employee, customer, student, etc.
– Dyads (pairs) – mentor and mentored, student and
advisor, patient and doctor, etc.
– Groups – female and male customers, age groups,
etc.
– Divisions – Grocery, meat, bakery, etc.
– Industry – banking, manufacturing, utilities, health
care, etc.
– Cultures – urban and rural areas, Egyptians vs.
Americans, etc.

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 Time Horizon
 Cross-sectional studies
– Snapshot of constructs at a single point in time.
– Data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks
or months in order to answer a research question.
– Use of representative sample

 Multiple cross-sectional studies (DIFFERENT SAMPLES)

– Constructs measured at multiple points in time
– Use of different sample

 Longitudinal studies (BEFORE AND AFTER TESTING)

(SAME SAMPLE)(e.g. trend analysis)
– Constructs measured at multiple points in time (e.g. study of
employees behavior before and after some variable treatment, trend
analysis, etc.).
– Data are collected at two or more points in time.
– Use of same sample = a true panel

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 Exercise for Discussion

 Below are three scenarios. For each,

indicate how the researcher should proceed
with the following, giving reasons:
a. The purpose of the study
b. The type of investigation
c. The extent of researcher interference
d. The study setting
e. The time horizon for the study
f. The unit of analysis.

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 Exercise for Discussion
 Scenario A
 Ms. Joyce Lynn, the owner of a small business (a woman’s dress boutique), has
invited a consultant to tell her how she is different from similar small businesses
within a 60-mile radius, in regard to her usage of the most modern computer
technology, sales volume, profit margin, and staff training.
 Answer
 This will be a descriptive study (describing how she compares with the others).
 Data will be collected from small businesses on the use of computers, sales
volume, profit margin, and training programs and comparisons made.
 Some of these descriptions might be qualitative, as for example, in describing
training methods.
 This will be a field study (using many similar small businesses), and researcher
interference will be minimal.
 It will be a one-shot study, and the unit of analysis will be small business
systems.

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 Exercise for Discussion
 Scenario B
 Mr. Paul Hodge, the owner of several restaurants is concerned about the wide
differences in the profit margins of the various restaurants. He would like to try
some incentive plans for increasing the efficiency levels of those restaurants that
are lagging behind. But, before he introduces this, he would like to be sure that the
idea will work. He asks a researcher to help him on this issue.
 Answer
 This would be a causal, hypothesis-testing study.
 It will be a field experiment, using one or two restaurants to manipulate incentive
plans and see if this causes an increase in profit margins in those restaurants.
 Because of the manipulation, there will be some researcher interference with
the natural flow of events.
 The time horizon for the study would be longitudinal since data will be obtained
on sales, profits, etc., both before and after the manipulation.
 The unit of analysis would be the restaurant.

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 Exercise for Discussion
 Scenario C
 A manager is intrigued why some people seem to
derive joy from work and get energized by it, while
others find it troublesome and frustrating.

 Answer (why , what factors = hypothesis)

 This would be a correlational, hypothesis-testing,
field study with minimal researcher interference.
 It will be a one-shot study and the unit of analysis
will be individuals.

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 Exercise 1
 A foreman thinks that the low efficiency of the machine tool
operators is directly linked to the high level of fumes
emitted in the workshop. He would like to prove this to his
supervisor through a research study.

 Is this a causal or a correlational study? Why?

 This would be a causal study because the foreman wants to prove to the
supervisor that the fumes are causing operators to be low in their efficiency. In
other words, the machine tool operator is trying to establish the fact that
fumes cause low efficiency in workers.
 Is this an exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing (analytical or
predictive) study? Why?
 This is an analytical study because the machine tool operator wants to
establish that fumes cause low efficiency and convince his workshop supervisor
through such analysis (i.e. establish cause and effect relationship).
 What kind of a study would this be: field study, lab experiment, or
field experiment? Why?
 This would be a field experiment. Though the study would be set up in the
natural environment of the workers where the work is normally done, the
amount of fumes will have to be manipulated while other factors, such as
atmospheric pressure, may have to be controlled. Because of the location of
the study, it will be a field experiment.
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 Exercise 1 – Contd.
 What would be the unit of analysis? Why?
 The unit of analysis would be the individual operators.
The data will be collected with respect to each operator and
then the conclusion will be made as to whether the
operators are less efficient because of the fumes emitted in
the workshop.
 Would this be a cross-sectional or a longitudinal study? Why?
 This would be a longitudinal study because data will be
gathered at more than one point in time. First, the efficiency
of the operators would be assessed at a given rate of fume
emission. Then the fumes emitted would be manipulated to
varying degrees, and at each manipulation the efficiency of
the workers would again be assessed to confirm that the
high rate of fume emission causes a drop in operators’
efficiency.

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 Exercise 2
 You want to examine how exposure to thin or heavy models in
advertisements influences a person’s self-esteem. You believe that the
effect of exposure to models in advertisements depends on the
extremity of the model's thinness or heaviness.
  Discuss the design decisions that you as a researcher will make to
investigate this issue, giving reasons for your choices.
 An experimental study (causal study) will be needed since the goal of the study is to
test a cause-and-effect relationship.
  A pretest will help you to select advertisements containing female models for the following
four conditions: moderately thin, extremely thin, moderately heavy, and extremely heavy;
 participants view an advertisement booklet containing ads with female models.
 participants rate each model in terms of size (-5 =extremely overweight, +5 = extremely
thin) and attractiveness (-5 = extremely unattractive, + 5 = extremely attractive).
  Based on these scores, you will be able to select advertising models in each condition. Note
that models should differ from each other in terms of size but not in terms of attractiveness
(you have to perform post hoc comparisons to test for this).
  In the actual experiment, participants must be randomly assigned to one of the four
conditions of the 2 (model size: thin vs. heavy) and (extremity of model size: moderate vs.
extreme) between-subjects design. Participants are then provided with a booklet containing
ads: ads with models, pertaining to their condition, and filler ads with no models (randomize
the order of the ads). Eventually (after one or more filler tasks) participants complete a self-
esteem scale .
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 Exercise 3

 You want to investigate the specific effects of specific

emotions on customers' behavioral responses to failed service
encounters across industries.
 Discuss the design decisions that you as a researcher will
make to investigate this issue, giving reasons for your
choices.
 Answer
 Because it is difficult (and probably unethical) to induce specific
emotions in an experiment a field study seems to be the more logical
choice but it will be expensive as it is among diff. industries.
 Note however, that when you use a field study, it is very important to
control for variables that might potentially bias your results such as
complaint success likelihood and switching costs.
 The critical incident technique is a method that may help you to
collect a wide variety of negative experiences with service
organizations.
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 Exercise 3

 A production manager wants to see if providing

automation enhance work productivity
 Discuss the design decisions that you as a researcher
will make to investigate this issue, giving reasons for
your choices.
 Answer
 Hypothesis
 Longitudinal
 Individual….. Unit of nalaysis.

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