Chapter 8 – Displacement of Beams

It is often the case that the amount a beam deflects or rotates due to the applied transverse
loads has a limit placed on it mostly for structural safety and geometrical stability of the
structure. For this reason we now need to determine the deflection and slope of a
transversely loaded beam. This can be done in one of three ways: (1 ) Double integration
method; (2 ) Moment area method and (3 ) Energy method.

8.1 DOUBLE INTEGRATION METHOD(4th SI p. 533)

Elastic Curve Equation
Consider a loaded beam as shown in Fig. 8 .1 :

Fig. 8.1 Loaded beam indicating its deflection and slope due to the applied loads

Look at a FBD of element dx, and consider only the bending moment that it is
experiencing:

Fig. 8.2 The curvature of deflection Fig. 8.3 Infinitesimal segment dx showing angle and
vertical displacement

From Engineer' s Theory of Bending (ETB), Eq. (6 .9 ), we know that a beam under an
applied bending moment deflects with a curvature equal to the radius of a circle (arc), and
that this radius is related to the applied bending moment by:

1 M
 (8 .1 )
R EI

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 1 MM211: Solid Mechanics

From Fig. 8 .2 , we can approximately compute arc dx = Rdθ, therefore,

1 d
 (8 .2 )
R dx

where θ can be considered to be the slope of the beam. But from Fig. 8 .2 a more detailed
diagram shown in Fig. 8 .3 can be drawn. When dx approximates to zero and the slope is
small enough, we have relationship as

dv
 tan    (8 .3 )
dx

Combining Eqns. (8 .2 ) and (8 .3 ), we can obtain:

1 d d 2 v
  (8 .4 )
R dx dx 2

and then substituting the part from ETB, Eq. (8 .1 ), it gives the Elastic Curve Equation:

d 2v M
 (8 .5 )
dx 2 EI

d 2v
or EI 2  M x  (8 .6 )
dx

here EI is referred to as flexural rigidity. Furthermore, from the relationship between

distributed load w(x) and shear force V(x) established in Chapter 5 (Eqns. (5 .2 ) and
(5 .2 )), one can have

d 3v
EI  V x  (8 .7 )
dx 3

d 4v
and EI 4   wx  (8 .8 )
dx

Knowing the material and cross sectional properties of the beam, i.e. flexural rigidity (EI), Eq. (8.6)
can be integrated ONCE to give an equation for the slope (θ) and TWICE to give an equation for the
displacement (v) of the beam as a function of x as:

M x 
 M x dx  C
dv dv

dx 
 dx  C or EI  EI (8 .9 )
dx EI

M x 
v   dxdx  Cx  D or EIv   M x dxdx  Cx  D (8 .1 0 )
EI

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 2 MM211: Solid Mechanics

Integration of Macaulay’s Function
Recalling Chapter 5 , we adopted Macaulay’s function, Eq. (5 .1 1 ), as

 0 for x  a
xa
n
 n  0 (8 .1 1 )
x  a  for x  a
n

in the expression for shear force and bending moment equations. In order to compute the
deflection v and slope θ = dv/dx from Eq. (8 .5 ) or (8 .6 ), we need to integrate Macaulay’s
function as

n 1
xa
 x  a dx   C
n
(8 .1 2 )
n 1

where C’ is constant of integration and can be determined from the kinematic boundary
conditions.

Kinematic Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditions of the Cantilever and Simply Supported Beams can be seen from
Fig. 8 .4 .

Fig. 8.4 Kinematic boundary conditions

Example 8.1 Determine the slope and displacement equations of the Simply Supported ( SS)
beam with a point load P.

Step 1 : Determine the ground reactions at supports A and B;

RAY = P/ 2 and RBY = P/ 2

Step 2 : Bending moment equation via equilibrium for FBD of Section I-I.
By cutting the beam just before the RHS (Section I-I), the bending moment can be
determined as discussed in Chapter 5 . Take moments about RHS:

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 3 MM211: Solid Mechanics

 1 1

 M x   0  M x  
P 1 L P 1 L
MO  0   2
x P x
2 2
x P x
2

Step 3 : Double Integration to obtain the elastic curve equation.

Substituting M(x) into the elastic curve equation Eq. (8 .6 ), gives that:

1
d 2v d 2v P 1
EI 2  M x   EI 2 
L
x P x
dx dx 2 2

Integrate once: EI  EI

dv P
 x
2

P
x
L
C slope equation 
dx 4 2 2

Integrate again: EIv 

P
x
3

P
x
L
 Cx  D elastic curve equation 
12 6 2

where C and D are the constants of the integration. To determine C & D we need to use
Kinematic Boundary Conditions, which are determined from the known displacements and
rotations of the beam.

Step 4 : Determine the integration constants based on Kinematic Boundary Conditions

O ur beam is simply supported at both ends, so kinematic boundary conditions are shown in
Fig. 8 .4 ,

 when x = 0 , v = 0 , (recall the definition of Macaulay’s function as in Eq. (8 .1 1 ))

P P
EI  0   03   0  C  0  D  D  0
12 6

 when x = L, v = 0

3 3
P L PL2
 CL  0  L    L    CL  0  C  
P P L P
EI  0   L
3 3
L
12 6 2 12 6 2 16

Step 5 : Express the Slope and Elastic Curve Equations respectively:

2
dv P P L PL2
Slope Equation: EI  EI   x 
2
x
dx 4 2 2 16

3
P P L PL2
Elastic Equation: EIv   x 
3
x x
12 6 2 16

PL3
At x = L/ 2 , the deflection reaches the maximum as v max   downwards
48EI

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 4 MM211: Solid Mechanics

At x = 0 ,  A  
PL
clockwise  and at x = L,  B 
PL
counter clock wise
16 EI 16 EI

8.2 MOMENT-AREAMETHOD(4th SI p. 569)

The Moment-Area Method uses the Elastic Curve Equation derived above, but the integration
is done graphically and by doing so the kinematic boundary conditions are not considered.
Let’s look at the elastic curve equation (8 .5 ):

d 2v M

dx 2 EI

To integrate this equation graphically, you firstly need to draw the Bending Moment M(x)
diagram and then the M(x)/ EI diagram. So look at a beam with arbitrary loadings as
illustrated in Fig. 8 .5 :

Fig. 8.5 Bending moment and M/EI diagrams for beam with arbitrary loading

1st Theorem of Moment Area

Integrating the elastic curve equation with respect to x, between two points x1 and x2 ,
gives:
x2 d 2v x2 M
x1 dx 2
dx  
x1 EI
dx (8 .1 3 )

which can be reduced to:

x
 dv 
2
x2 M
 dx   x1 EI dx (8 .1 4 )
x1

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 5 MM211: Solid Mechanics

This is
 dv   dv  x2 M
       2  1  x dx (8 .1 5 )
 dx  x2  dx  x1 1 EI

This equation gives the change in slope of the beam between x1 and x2 . It is represented
by the area in the M/EI diagram between x1 and x2 , and this equation is called the 1st
THEOREM OF MOMENT AREA. Note that the AREA should be considered in an algebraic
sense, i.e. can be positive or negative.
In this theorem, if dv/dx is known at x1, dv/dx at x2 can be very easily found via Eq. (8.15). A
useful side effect of this is that if I varies along the length of the beam, it can easily be
accommodated for, as to be shown in Example 8 .2 below.

Example 8.2 Look at a cantilever beam where I = I0 for the left half of beam and I = I0 / 2, for
the right half. Find the slope θ = dv/dx at the end C.

We know that at x = 0 , dv/dx = 0 , so use the 1 st Theorem of Moment Area Eq. (8 .1 5 )

gives that:

 dv   dv  M x 
       L   0  Area under diagram between x = 0 & x = L
 dx  L  dx  0 EI

which can be computed by adding those three sub areas as shown,

 dv   PL L 1 L PL 1 L PL  5 PL2
so:    0  A1  A2  A3            
 dx  L  2 EI 0 2 2 2 2 EI 0 2 2 EI 0  8 EI 0

 dv  5 PL2
which gives: C     
 dx  L 8 EI 0

2nd Theorem of Moment Area

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 6 MM211: Solid Mechanics

Equation (8 .1 5 ) only gives the change of slope between any two points, to determine the
displacement at some points along the beam, the second moment theorem must be applied.
To find displacement let’s return to elastic curve equation (8 .5 ):

d 2v M

dx 2 EI

Multiply both sides by x and integrate between x1 and x2 ,

x2 d 2v x2 M x2  dv  x2 M
 x1 dx 2
xdx  
x1 EI
xdx i.e. x1
xd     x dx
 dx  x1 EI

Integrating this by parts:

 pdq  pq   qdp (8 .1 6 )

where p and q are functions, gives:

x
 dv   dv 
2
x2 x2 dv x2 M
 x1
xd     x   
 dx   dx  x1 x1 dx
dx   x dx
x1 EI
(8 .1 7 )

x
 dv 
But, vx12 
2
x2 dv x2 M
 dx , Eqn. (8 .1 7 ) becomes:  x  v    x
x
dx
x1 dx  dx  x1 x1 EI

As a result, we have

 dv   dv  
  x2    x1   v2  v1   x x
x2 M
dx (8 .1 8 )
 dx  x2  dx  x1  1 EI

Fig. 8.6 The 2 nd theorem of moment area for finding deflection

as the 2nd THEOREM OF MOMENT AREA. It can give the change in deflection ( v1 -v2 )
between any two points x1 and x2 in terms of the change in slope and the first moment of
the area in the M/EI diagram as shown in Fig. 8 .6 .

Example 8.3 To see how this works look at the above example, but this time we are
required to determine the displacement v = ? at the tip.

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 7 MM211: Solid Mechanics

 at x  0, v  0, dv dx  0 and
Kinematic conditions:
at x  L, dv dx   5PL2 8EI 0

Setting x1 = 0 and x2 = L in this example, substituting these values into Eq. (8 .1 8 ) gives:

 5 PL2   PL L  L  1 L PL  L  1 PL L  2 L
  L  0  v  0                 
 8 EI 0   2 EI 0 2  4  2 2 2 EI 0  6  2 EI 0 2  3

When this is solved it gives:

3 PL3
v
8 EI 0

8.3 ENERGYMETHOD(4th SI p. 676)

Consider a generalized beam loaded as shown in Fig. 8 .7 .

Fig. 8.7 Beam under arbitrary loads

Because of the loading condition this beam has a bending moment distribution along its
length. In Section 3 .4 , an equation, Eq. (3 .8 ), for the stored strain energy of a structure
was defined as:

2
U  dV (8 .1 9 )
V 2E

In the transversely loaded beam, the normal stress distribution is given by Engineer’s
Theory of Bending, Eq. (6 .1 0 ), such that:

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 8 MM211: Solid Mechanics

 M x  y
x   (8 .2 0 )
I

Substituting Eq. (8 .2 0 ) into Eq. (8 .1 9 ) gives:

M 2 x  y 2
U  dV (8 .2 1 )
V 2 EI 2

but for a transversely loaded beam, dV = dA×dx, thus:

1 M 2 x  y 2
2 L A 2 EI 2
U dAdx (8 .2 2 )

because M(x), E and I are constant for a specific cross section then:

1 M2
U   y 2 dAdx (8 .2 3 )
2 L EI 2 A

Since I  
A
y 2 dA then the total Strain Energy Stored in a Straight Beam is given by:

M2
U  dx (8 .2 4 )
L 2 EI

And for a Circular Beam, the equation becomes:

M 2  
U  Rd (8 .2 5 )
 2 EI

To determine the displacement at the point of application of the load, Castigliano' s 2 nd

Theorem is used. So differentiating the total Strain Energy with respect to the applied load
P gives the desired deflection as:

U L M  x  M  x 
vP   dx (8 .2 6 )
P 0 EI P

In order to determine the slope of tangent θ at a point on elastic curve, the partial
derivative of the internal bending moment M(x) with respect to an external bending
moment M’ acting at the point must be found, as

U L M  x  M  x 
M   dx (8 .2 7 )
M  0 EI M 

For example, at point C in Fig. 8 .7 , one can find the slope at C by formulating:

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 9 MM211: Solid Mechanics

 U L M  x  M  x 
C   dx (8 .2 8 )
M C 0 EI M C

Example 8.4: Determine vertical deflection for a simply supported beam with a central load
P.

Step 1 : Bending moment equation From Example 8 .1 , the bending moment equation is:

M x  
P 1 L
x P x
2 2

Step 2 : Compute the total strain energy U

Because of Macaulay’s notation we have to do the following:

M 2 x  M 2 x 
L2 L
M2
U  dx   dx   dx
L 2 EI 2 EI 2 EI
0 L2

and substituting for the bending moments it gives:

2 2
 Px  P
L2  L  L  x 
U     dx     dx
2 2
0
2 EI L2
2 EI

doing this integration gives the total bending strain energy as:

P 2 L3 P 2 L3 P 2 L3
U  
192 EI 192 EI 96 EI

Step 3 : Castigliano' s 2 nd Theorem

The displacement is then found by Castigliano' s Theorem:

U   P 2 L3  PL3
vP    
P P  96 EI  48EI

which is the displacement at the point of application of P in the direction of P.

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 10 MM211: Solid Mechanics

Remarks
We may observe that the deflection vj of a beam at a given point C can be obtained by direct
application of Castigliano’s theorem only if a real load Pj happens to be applied at C in the
direction in which vj is to be determined. When no real load is applied at Cj, or when a real load P
is applied in a direction other than the desired one, we need to apply a fictitious or virtual load Qj
at Cj along the direction in which the deflection vj is to be determined and use Castigliano’s
theorem to obtain deflection vj, similar to the approach stated in Chapter 3, as

U P, M j 
vj  (8 .2 9 )
Q j

Keep in mind that the internal strain energy here contains the contributions from both actual load
P and virtual load Qj. After computing the partial derivative with respect to Qj, then make Qj = 0
in Eq. (8.29).
The slope θj of a beam at point Cj may be determined in a similar manner by applying a fictitious
couple Mj at Cj, then computing the partial derivative as

U P, M j 
j  (8.30)
M j

and making Mj = 0 in the expression obtained.

Example 8.5 The cantilever beam AB supports a uniformly distributed load w as shown.
Determine the deflection vB and slope θB at the free end B.

Part I: Determine Deflection vB

Since there is no real concentrated load at B along the vertical direction, a fictitious load QB
must be applied at the point in the desired direction as shown.

Step 0 : Ground reactions due to both w and QB:

 M  0  M  Q L  wL L 2  0  M
A A B A  wL2 / 2  QB L
   F  0  R  Q  wL  0
y AY
R B AY  wL  QB

Step 1 : Bending moment equation (via Section I-I)

x  M x   0
w 2
M  0  MA x
0
 R AY x 
1
O
2
M x   M A x  R AY x  w x 2  wL2 2  QB L  x  wL  QB  x  w x
0 1 2 0 1 2
2

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 11 MM211: Solid Mechanics

Step 2 : Compute the total strain energy U in terms of both real (w) and virtual load (QB)

M 2 x 
2
  wL2  w 2
U w, QB     wL  QB 
1
dx  L   2  QB L  x x 
0 1
x  dx
L 2 EI 2 EI 2
 

Step 3 : Using Castigliano’s Theorem

U w, QB   M 2 x, w, QB  1 M x, w, QB 

vB 
QB

QB L 2EI dx  EI M
L QB
dx

M x, w, QB 
 L x  x
0 1
But
QB

Substituting for M and ∂M /∂QB into the previous equation and setting QB = 0, we have

vB 
1
EI  M
M
QB
dx 
1
EI
  L2 
L    w 2  0  x
0
 wL  0 x 
1 w 2
2

x   L x
0
 x dx
1

 
L

 L2 w 2
L
 wL3 3wL2 3wL 2 w 3 
L  2  wLx  2 x x  Ldx  EI
1 1

EI
  w 0  2  2 x  2 x  2 x dx

wL4
vB  "" means the same direction as QB 
8EI

Part II: Determine slope θB

Slope corresponds to a couple in Castigliano’s 2nd theorem. It is hence necessary to apply a

virtual moment MB at B as shown.

Step 0 : Ground reactions due to both w and MB:

L
M  0  M A  M B  wL    0
A  M A  wL2 2  M B
2
 R AY  wL
   Fy  0  R AY  wL  0

Step 1 : Bending moment equation (via Section I-I)

 M x   0
w
M  0  MA x  R AY x 
0 1 2
O x
2
M x    M A x
0
 R AY x 
1 w
2
x
2

  wL2 2  M B x  0
 wL x 
1 w
2
x
2

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 12 MM211: Solid Mechanics

Step 2 : Total strain energy U in terms of both real force (w) and virtual moment (MB)

M 2 x 
2

U w, M B    dx 
1 

L  wL 2  M B x
2
 0
 wL x 
1 w 2
x  dx
L 2 EI 2 EI 2 

Step 3 : Castigliano’s Theorem

U w, M B   M 2 x, w, M B  1 M x, w, M B 

B 
M B

M B L 2EI dx 
EI  L
M
M B
dx

M x, w, M B 
 x
0
but
M B

Substituting for M and ∂M / ∂MB into the previous equation and then setting MB = 0 , we
have

B 
1
EI  M
M
M B
dx 
1
EI
  L2 
L    w 2  M B  x
0
 wL x 
1 w 2
2

x   x
0
dx
 
L

  L2  w 2
L
 wL2 w 2 wL3
x  1dx 
1 1
 L   2  x
     wL x  0  2  wLx  2 x dx  6EI
 
0 1
w 0
EI  2  EI

wL3
B  the same rotational direction as M B 
6 EI

So far we have just been looking at beams that are statically determinate, we now need to
look at the cases where the beams are statically indeterminate, that is there are more unknown
reaction forces than equations of statics. In these cases we need to come up with as many
compatibility equations as are necessary to solve the problem.

8.4 STATICALLYINDETERMINATE BEAMS

A beam is statically indeterminate when there are more unknown support loads (forces &
moments) than equations of statics. Because these excess support loads have associated with
them excess boundary conditions, we can use these to solve the problem. For example, for
a propped cantilever as shown in Fig. 8 .8 :

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 13 MM211: Solid Mechanics

 Fig. 8.8 Statically indeterminate cantilever beam with load P

Three unknown reactions, RA, RB and MA ;

Two equations of statics (ΣFy = 0 and ΣM = 0)
Three kinematic boundary conditions, at x = 0, v =0 and dv/dx = 0, at x = L, v = 0.

8.4.1 INTEGRATION METHOD TO SOLVE STATICALLY INDETERMINATE

BEAMS (4th SI p. 540)

When we employed the integration method as given in Section, 8 .1 , two of these kinematic
boundary conditions are necessary for determining the constants of integration; the third is
used with the two equations of statics to solve for the three reaction loads.

Example 8.6 Determine the reaction loads in the indeterminate beam with a point force P
applied at 2 / 3 L, as shown in Fig. 8 .8 .

   Fy  0  RAY  RBY  0 (8 .3 1 )

M A  0  M A  2PL 3  RBY L  0 (8 .3 2 )

Step 2 : Bending moment equation

Take moments about Section I-I by cutting just before RHS, as shown in Fig. 8 .8 :

M  R AY x  P x  2L 3  M x   0
1
 0  MA x
0 1
O

The Moment equation is given by:

M x    M A x
1
 R AY x  P x  2L 3
0 1

Step 3 : Determine Elastic Curve equation

We now need to derive the displacement equation and apply the kinematic boundary
conditions; using the elastic curve equation gives:

d 2v
 M x    M A x  R AY x  P x  2L 3
0 1 1
EI
dx 2

R
  M x dx  M A x  AY x
dv P
Integrate once: EI  EI
1 2
 x  2L 3
2

dx 2 2

MA R AY
 M xdxdx  
P
Integrate again: EIv 
2

3
 x  2 L 3  Cx  D
3
x x
2 6 6

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 14 MM211: Solid Mechanics

Step 4 : Determine the integration constants based on Kinematic Boundary Conditions
Since at x = 0 , dv/dx = 0 , then C = 0 Since at x = 0 , v = 0 , then D = 0

MA R AY P
Elastic Curve Equation: EIv  
2

3
 x  2L 3
3
x x
2 6 6

Step 5 : Give an additional equation using the other Kinematic Boundary Condition

3
MA R AY P 2
Also, at x = L, v = 0 , we have equation:    L L 0
2 3
L L
2 6 6 3

which gives : RAY L − 3 MA − PL / 2 7 = 0 (8 .3 3 )

Solving Eqns. (8 .3 1 ), (8 .3 2 ) and (8 .3 3 ) simultaneously gives that:

RA = 1 3 P / 2 7 , RB = 1 4 P/ 2 7 , MA = 4 PL/ 2 7

You can then substitute these values into the above equations to obtain the slope and
displacement of the beam.

8.4.2 SUPERPOSITION METHOD TO SOLVE STATICALLY INDETERMINATE

BEAMS (4th SI p. 560)

An alternative way of solving the above problem is by using the superposition method. Using
the superposition method we can very easily generate the extra equations necessary to solve
the statically indeterminate beam. This can be done by determining the deflection on the
beam due to each of the applied loads and then add all of these displacements together.

Example 8.7 The same as Example 8 .6 but using Superposition Method.

The loads and displacements in this beam are equivalent to treating it as two separate statically
determinate beams, then combining the separate displacements in the following way.

To determine the displacements v1 and v2 you can refer to standard solutions given in the
Textbook in Appendix D, 4th SI p. 754.

For this example, the equation for v1 is:

P2 L 3  2L 
2
v1    3L  
6 EI  3 

The equation for v2 is:

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 15 MM211: Solid Mechanics

 RBY L3
v2 
3EI

But because at B, v = 0 , then kinematic compatibility condition is

v1  v2  0

P2 L 3  2 L  RBY L3
2
i.e. v1  v2    3L   0
6 EI  3  3EI

and when you solve for this you get that:

14
RBY  P
27

8.4.3 CASTIGLIANO’S METHOD FOR STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS

(4th SI p. 549)

The reactions at supports of a statically indeterminate elastic structure may be determined by

Castigliano’s 2nd theorem using Eq. (8.26) or Eq. (8.27), in which the redundant reaction is
treated as an unknown load Rj. We firstly calculate the strain energy U of the structure due to the
combined action of the given loads and the redundant reaction Rj. Observing that the partial
derivative U R j represents the deflection (or slope) at the support. We then set this derivative
equal to zero (because of zero deflection at the support) and solve the equation obtained for the
redundant reaction. The remaining reactions may be obtained from the equation of statics.

Example 8.8 Determine the reactions at the supports for the prismatic beam and loading
shown.

The beam is statically indeterminate to the first degree (i.e. one redundant reaction). We
consider the reaction at A as redundant and release the beam from the support. The reaction RAY
is now considered as an unknown load as shown and will be determined from the condition
that the deflection vA must be zero. Note that as an unknown, RAY in this case is in effect a
real load.

Step 1 : Bending moment equation (via Section I-I)

 M x   0  M x   R AY x 
w w
M  0   R AY x 
1 2 1 2
O x x
2 2

Step 2 : Total strain energy U in terms of RAY

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 16 MM211: Solid Mechanics

 M 2 x 
2
 w 2
U w, R AY   
1
dx  L RAY x  2 x  dx
1
L 2 EI 2 EI

Step 3 : Castigliano’s Theorem

U w, R AY  1 M x, w, R AY  1 M
vA 
R AY

EI M
L R AY
dx 
EI  M R
L
AY
dx

M M x, w, R AY 
  x
1
but
R AY R AY

Substituting for M and M R AY into the previous equation, we have

M  w 2 1
  1  w 3
L
1 1
vA   dx  L  RAY x  2 x  x dx  EI 0  RAY x  2 x dx
1 2
M
EI L R AY EI

Step 4 : Kinematic compatibility condition

vA  0
L
1  R AY 3 w 4 R AY L3 wL4
vA   3 x  x   0
EI  2  4  0 3 8
 RAY  3wL 8 

From the conditions of equilibrium for the beam, we find that the reaction at B consists of
following force and bending couple:

RBY  5wL 8  M B  wL2 8

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 17 MM211: Solid Mechanics

 Table 8.1 Comparison of bending beams with axially loaded bars and torsional shafts

Chapter 8: Displacement of Beams 18 MM211: Solid Mechanics