THE COURTLY L O V E THEME IN SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS

by

DOUGLAS HENRY CHERRY

A THESIS S U B M I T T E D I N P A R T I A L F U L F I L M E N T OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in the Department

of

English

We accept this thesis as conforming to the

standard required from candidates f o r the

degree o f MASTER OF ARTS.

Members o f the Department of

English

THE UNIVERSITY OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA

September, 1952
 Douglas Henry Cherry

An abstract of the thesis:

The Courtly Theme A i n Shakespeare s 1

Plays

Shakespeare reveals his interest in the popular

theme of courtly love, which came to him as an established

tradition, in a number of his plays. This tradition can

be traced back to the troubadours of Provence who, during

the Crusades, appeared as a class of knights whose chief

values were valor, courtesy, and knightly worth. From the

troubadours came the idea of love service: every knight

must have a lady whose relationship to him was parallel

to that between him as a vassal and his lord. This love

service c a m e . t o be looked upon as leading to moral dignity

and true chivalry and i t was performed by the knight for

another s 1
wife. An elaborate set of rules grew up

describing the nature of courtly love and the attitudes

and responses of both the knight and the lady. From

Provence courtly love spread to Italy where i t was

endowed w i t h spiritual and philosophical aspects by

Cardinal Bembo, D a n t e , and Petrarch, for example. By the

time that the tradition reached England i t had been

modified, added to, and conventionalized in i t s passage .

through Italian and Northern French literature.

A number of Shakespeare's predecessors made

important contributions to the courtly theme: Chaucer

suggested its evil consequences, C a s t i g l i o n e established the

rules to guide the perfect courtier and the lady, and

emphasized marriage as the only acceptable end. o f courtly

 2

love, Sidney combined the medieval chivalric and the

classical pastoral traditions in an imaginary setting

where chivalric ideals always triumphed over evil, and

Spenser added a strong moral note, recognizing the

physical as well as the spiritual aspects of love in his

emphasis on virtue and constancy. By the time that

Shakespeare began to deal with courtly love, courtesy

meant more than the medieval idea of a willingness to

undertake love-service. It meant gentlemanly conduct,

refined manners, intellect, and a high moral purpose.

When S h a k e s p e a r e t o o k up the courtly theme, i t had been

refined considerably.

In an early treatment of the theme, Shakespeare

satirizes the folly connected with courtly love and the

courtly ideal. This is seen i n Love's L a b o u r ,s l o s t

1
where

the ladies only toy with the men and where love is not

triumphant. In The Two Gentlemen of Verona the satirical

vein is continued and the weaknesses inherent in courtly

love are exposed i n the struggle between love and

friendship. As You Like^It is another play in this group .

where courtly love is satirized. Rosalind becomes the

spokesman for sincerity and faithfulness i n love and

condemns artificiality and sham. In a group of plays

which treats the courtly theme as comedy (AJMidsummer

Nightls_Dream, T w e l f th_.Night, H e n r y _ I V _ , l P a r t JQ., and

Herjr^;_V) S h a k e s p e a r e i s more fun-loving and gentler in

his presentation than he was in the plays where courtly

love was treated satirically. No serious issue mars the

 3

comic atmosphere as we see the humorous side of love in

each of these plays. In another g r o u p , R o m e o .and .Juliet,

T h e , . W i n t e r ' s, T a l e 1t and Cymheline tr we see the strength

derived from romantic love which is presented as a

genuine passion leading to permanence. Such love gives

strength in adversity and though love ends tragically

in Romeo and Juliet and nearly ends tragically in the

other two plays, we see that i t enables the lovers to

meet their fate, even when i t i s death. Shakespeare

reverses the theme in the following plays: A l l ^ s Jftfell

that Ends, W e l l , M u c h A d o about Nothing, Measure; f o r

Measure, and Richard_.II. In the first three the lady

uses a trick to win her man, and i n Richard^II she pleads

for love but i s rebuffed. The scheming and trickery of

the first three plays in this group brings the theme

close to unpleasantness and degrades the courtly

lover. Shakespeare here probes the realistic

aspects of the theme and s h o w s men and women a s they

really are. This treatment is followed through in the

tragedies Troilus .and Cressiday Hamlet, and Othello, where

the unpleasant, realistic aspects of courtly love lead

naturally to tragedy. In these tragedies the gaiety and

idealism of the conventions of courtly love have disappeared

completely and the true possibilities have been exposed.

After these plays, courtly love no longer could supply a

valid pattern for loving and living. In The Tempest the

theme is subverted and love is seen as the.force of

renewal in the world. The lovers are no longer of interest

as courtly lovers but appear as mature people whose

marriage becomes t h e hope of a better world. The

conventional suffering f o r love i s gone and i n i t s place

is a mature, reasoned a t t i t u d e t o t h e most basic o f man's

emotions. With this play Shakespeare h a s come a l lthe

way from artificiality a n d sham to a lasting, satisfying

type of love.
 Table_oOontents

Introduction page I

Chapter I : Literarj;,sources of_the t j i courtl^^theme: page 2

Provencal
Latin
Italian
Northern French

Chapter I I : Shakesgeare'^spredecessors .and, t h e

theme~of~courtl^~love7 ~ page 25

Chaucer - Kni^ht^s^Tale
- T r o i l u s and Cris.eyde
Castiglione - The C o u r t i e r
Sidney - Sonnets
- Arcadia
Spenser - C o l i n C l o u t ' s Come Home A g a i n ,
- T h e F a i r i e Queene

Chapter I I I : The c o u r t l y theme and s a t i r e : page 52

L,2Y§.ls_Labour]_s^Lost
T h e ^ T w o ^ G e n t l e m e n ^ o f ,„Y.erpna
As Y o u L i k e " i t

Chapter IV: Th^_courtlx^heme_and_com page 75

A Midsummer Night',s, D r e a m
Twe"rf^ Ni£ht""
-

Henri_IVllPirt Il -

Henry._V

Chapter V: The c o u r t l y theme a n d romantic,. l o v e : page 95

Romeo and , J u l i e t
r

Thi^Winterl.i2Il§.
CymbelTne,

Chapter V I : R e v e r s a l o f t h e theme:, t h e l a d y i n love: page 117

(.Venus and Adonis),

4lIEsIfIinthit_End^J£ell
Much'Ado about Nothing""
Measure for^Measure
Richard~Il"""
 Troilus and Cressida
Hamlet
Othello

Chapter VIII: Subyersion_of_the_them page 160

The Tempest

Conclusion page 167

Bihj.iogra.2hy (books used i n this dissertation) page 170

 INTRODUCTION

No person can r e a d f a r i n t o E l i z a b e t h a n l i t e r a t u r e

without becoming aware of the importance of the chivalric

i d e a l s i n h e r i t e d from the Middle Ages. These i d e a l s had

g i v e n a s p i r i t u a l aspect t o the deeds and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f

f e u d a l i s m i n an age of b r u t a l i t y and coarseness hy

s t r e s s i n g such v a l u e s as c o u r t e s y , g e n e r o s i t y , and loyalty.

Though the i d e a l s of c h i v a l r y were, perhaps, more c l o s e l y

adhered to i n the poems and romances of the medieval w r i t e r s

than i n a c t u a l l i f e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , such i d e a l s had an

important b e a r i n g on the t h i n k i n g i n Western Europe through

the Middle Ages i n t o the Renaissance. One can detect a

c o n t i n u i t y i n the P r o v e n c a l l y r i c s , the l o v e poetry o f Dante

and P e t r a r c h , the romances o f Chre'tien de T r o y e s , the

n a r r a t i v e s o f Chaucer, the prose and poetry of Sidney, the

poetry o f Spenser, and the p l a y s of Shakespeare. I t i s often

difficult t o t r a c e the exact i n f l u e n c e o f one w r i t e r upon

another, but s t i l l these w r i t e r s have one t h i n g i n common:

they a l l w r i t e about c h i v a l r y and c o u r t l y love.

By the time that Shakespeare took, up the theme of

c h i v a l r y and c o u r t l y l o v e i t was at l e a s t four centuries o l d .

Many changes had o c c u r r e d i n the conventions which came i n t o

being t o s a t i s f y c e r t a i n needs i n the p a r t i c u l a r society

of the age o f the e a r l y crusades. I t seems more than

probably that Shakespeare was f a m i l i a r with t h e whole

tradition.of courtly love from i t s earliest manifestations

to h i s own d a y . The h i s t o r y plays from The L i f e and. Death

of King; J o h n t o T h e Famous H i s t o r y o f the Life o f King,

Henry the Eighth deal with a period when c h i v a l r y was a

part o f everyday life. One c a n s e e , by n o t i n g t h e images

in his plays, that Shakespeare had studied the subject o f

chivalry thoroughly and that h i s t h i n k i n g was i n f l u e n c e d b y i t .

Many of his great heroes were fashioned after the chivalric

pattern. Furthermore, a l l those characters whom we feel

Shakespeare approved o f were guided by a strong sense o f

honor. Henry V , whom S h a k e s p e a r e probably loved as w e l l

as anyone he e v e r created, took a firm stand for honor:

B y J o v e , I am n o t c o v e t o u s f o r g o l d ,
N o r c a r e I who d o t h f e e d u p o n my c o s t ;
I t y e a r n s me n o t i f men my g a r m e n t s w e a r ;
S u c h o u t w a r d t h i n g s d w e l l n o t i n my d e s i r e s .
But i f i t be a s i n t o covet honour,
I am t h e m o s t o f f e n d i n g s o u l a l i v e .
(IV.iii.24-29)

This passage i s only o n e o f many w h i c h serve t o show t h e

influence that chivalric i d e a l s had upon Shakespeare.

In addition t o f i n d i n g frequent references to the

ideals of the c h i v a l r i c code, one c a n f i n d a considerable

number of plays i n which Shakespeare was concerned

predominantly with the matter of courtly love. I t i s the

purpose of this dissertation, after discussing the back-

ground o f the tradition, t o i n v e s t i g a t e a number of plays

 Ill

in w h i c h S h a k e s p e a r e t r e a t s t h e theme o f c o u r t l y love. It

s h o u l d he p o s s i b l e to trace the various ways i n w h i c h t h e

dramatist t r e a t s t h e theme: w h e t h e r he a d m i r e s courtly

love, satirizes i t , treats i t romantically, or d e a l s w i t h i t

in tragedy. One may expect to find that Shakespeare, who

dealt specifically with courtly love i n approximately half

his plays, h a d more t h a n one p o i n t o f view t o p r e s e n t .

The text edited by K i t t r e d g e w i l l be u s e d . f o r a l l

references t o the plays of Shakespeare.

1 G.L. K i t t r e d g e j .The .Complete, Works o f S h a k e s p e a r e ,

B o s t o n , G i n n and-Company, 1 9 3 6 * . ~~ ~
 CHAPTER I

LITERARY SOURCES OF THE COURTLY THEME

Provencal

Latin

Italian

N o r t h e r n French
 2

CHAPTER I

The phenomenon commonly known as c o u r t l y love

appeared quite s u d d e n l y t o w a r d t h e c l o s e o f the. e l e v e n t h

la
century i n Provence. The e x a c t o r i g i n o f t h e phenomenon

is still a mystery. However, certain facts a r e known

about this period which help to explain t h e vogue of a

new conception of love that was to find i t s way into the

literatures o f many countries with far-reaching effects.

It seems u n l i k e l y t h a t a new treatment of love just appeared

from nowhere a t t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f one person. On t h e

contrary, William, Count o f P o i t i e r s (1071-112?), who i s

1

acclaimed by a number of historians of literature as

the first known writer t o take courtly love f o r the subject

of poetry, seems t o have inherited certain conventions of

language and c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s towards the lovers which

would suggest that the poetry of courtly love was a

2

gradual evolution. At any r a t e , the crusades which began

in the eleventh century brought a major change i n the

social life of medieval France and c r e a t e d a situation that

was ideal f o r the flowering of a l y r i c a l poetry based on

the subject of love. With the advent of the crusades a

landless knighthood came into existence whose chief values

1 Among t h e s e i s H . J . C h a y t o r , T h e T r o u b a d o u r s ,
Cambridge, U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1912, on page~41. ~

2 Ibid., pp. 41-42.

la C f . page 11 f f . f o r the possible early influence of

Ovid.
were those of valor, c o u r t e s y , and k n i g h t l y worth. From

this class of fighting knights emanated the troubadours

of Provence who germinated the seed of courtly love until

it grew into a robust tradition that never quite died with

the Middle Ages.

The troubadours, who are often thought o f as being

a -group of lyrical poets that sang of love about and f o r

the courtly class, were actually more than that. They were

knights who engaged i n battles and tournaments; and, though

not a l l were of noble birth, they were the constant com-

panions o f noblemen. The troubadours took part i n the

earliest crusades which s e t out from t h e towns of Provence;

and f o r the crusades they composed songs o f war. Their

songs were generally sung by the j o n g l e u r , a man employed

3
by the troubadour f o r that purpose. These songs dealt

with various topics, including war, politics, personal satire,

4

and love. The songs o f the troubadours were a product of

the age and d i s p l a y e d a youthful zest f o r adventure, a

hearty and joyous praise of living even amid the p e r i l s of

an age o f t r e a c h e r y and w a r f a r e , and b e t r a y e d the writer's

restless desire t o wander afield. Though t h e work o f the

3 L a t e r i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y when d e c a d e n c e
s e t i n a n d when t h e y were no l o n g e r r e q u i r e d f o r b a t t l e , t h e
t r o u b a d o u r s o f t e n became j o n g l e u r s , t h a t i s , t h e y sang
t h e i r own s o n g s a s a n o c c u p a t i o n . The j o n g l e u r s , as w e l l ,
sought t o enhance t h e i r f o r t u n e by c a l l i n g themselves
troubadours i n t h i s l a t e r period.

4 Ghaytor, op,, c i t . , p. 14.

 4

troubadour i s noted f o rthese characteristics, i ti s the

special treatment of love which was s o m e t h i n g new t o E u r o p e

and which gave rise t o a whole new s e t o f v a l u e s i n the

medieval world. To t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r treatment of love,

which came t o b e known a s c o u r t l y love, we m u s t now give

our attention;

The troubadour accepted the age-old subject of love

for h i s poetry and, by f i t t i n g i tinto the pattern of his

society, founded a new c o n c e p t i o n of love. H i s important

innovation was t h e i d e a of love-service, that i s , that

every knight must have a mistress whose r e l a t i o n s h i p tothe

knight was p a r a l l e l to that between him (as a vassal) and

his lord. This application of the feudal system t othe

matters of love gained f o r woman an e x a l t e d position i n

society and t h e k n i g h t s came t o consider love-service to a

woman as s o m e t h i n g which l e dt o moral dignity and t r u e

chivalry. I n short, the love o f woman b e c a m e a desirable

thing f o r every troubadour and an i n s p i r a t i o n f o r h i s songs

and deeds. In hisefforts to teach love as b e i n g exalted

and ennobling, he soon b u i l t up a s e t o f c o n v e n t i o n s

regarding love, the lady h e r s e l f , and the p o s i t i o n o fthe

knight.

L o v e r a p i d l y came t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a
r e l i g i o u s c u l t w i t h i t s own c o d e o f l a w s
t o w h i c h t h e l o v e r must s u b m i t himself
completely; i n f r a c t i o n s o f t h e s e laws were
t h e o r e t i c a l l y fraught with serious con-
sequences.?

5 T.A. K i r b y , Chaucer's Troilus, Louisiana State,

University Press, 1940,""p7 24.
 5

Into their lyrics, for more than two c e n t u r i e s , t h e

troubadours poured their ideas, attitudes, and f e e l i n g s

concerning love, thus firmly establishing the tradition

of courtly love.

Certain characteristics of society i n the Middle

Ages also contributed t o t h e growth of courtly love. The

women i n t h i s society l e da f a i r l y secluded life and often

only saw men ( o r were seen b y men) a t c h u r c h or at formal

court functions. A s a r e s u l t , much s i g n i f i c a n c e might be

attached t o a glance or a smile. These might be remembered

long after the-encounter and, quite conceivably, they might

6
assume an a i r o f mystery or imagined passion. This

romantic temper was a v e r y real part o f the relationship

b e t w e e n man a n d woman a n d h a d a n i m p o r t a n t bearing on t h e

development of courtly love.

At t h e time when t h e t r o u b a d o u r s began to exalt the

position o f woman b y m a k i n g love t o h e r and by composing

lyrics i n her praise, her social p o s i t i o n was, i n r e a l i t y ,

inferior t o that o f man. Indeed, s h e was m e r e l y a chattel:

first of her father, then o f h e r husband. Marriage rarely

grew out o f love but, rather, was a n i n s t r u m e n t to gain

political power or social and economic advantage. Among t h e

knightly c l a s s , marriage had nothing t o do w i t h love. Often,

if love were t o be e n j o y e d to i t s fullest i t could only

6 J . H . S m i t h , T r o u b a d o u r s a t Home, New Y o r k , G.P.

Putnam's S o n s , 1899,
v o l 7 lTTp"122-12^7"'
 6

be experienced through adultery. This, i n brief, was t h e

situation when a new t h e o r y of love came into being i n

Provence. The coming of the chivalric spirit raised woman

to a plane where s h e became the object o f devotion.

Courtly love, which reflected the true situation o f woman

finding satisfaction outside o f marriage, became the interest

of every nobleman and c o u r t l y lady i n Southern France.

Courtly love was, i n most cases, the love of a

knight f o r a woman m a r r i e d t o someone else. S e r v i c e and

devotion were stressed rather than t h e mere gratification

of sexual desires. Though courtly love, perhaps, d i d not

always remain on this idealistic level, i t i s important f o r

us to recognize that i l l i c i t love was n o t t h e b a s i c object

of the knight, but i tonly followed as a reward for his

valor and devotion. Love was c o n s i d e r e d t o be n o b l e and

pure.

The whole idea of courtly love was r e a d i l y accepted

by the nobles. I t became customary to look on marriage as

being a l o v e l e s s union and t h e wife o f a n o b l e m a n was

expected to receive t h e homage o f a troubadour who sang

her praises and pledged h i sdevotion, with the understanding

between t h e two t h a t nothing indecorous should be done.

The lady was i m m e d i a t e l y placed on a plane above t h e

troubadour who p l e d g e d himself t o win distinction by courtly

words and c h i v a l r i c deeds i fonly he were allowed t o do

this solely f o r her. She i n t u r n was t o b e m i n d f u l of his

love and devotion to duty, acknowledging h i s achievements

and rewarding h i s s e r v i c e with appreciative praise. This

love gave t h e lady a p o s i t i o n of usefulness, releasing her

to some e x t e n t ^ from the f r u s t r a t i o n s of her married life,

and i t gave t h e troubadour a noble purpose, p l a c i n g a

premium on c h i v a l r y and courtesy. T h u s an emphasis, never

before s e e n i n m e d i e v a l E u r o p e , was put on love and devotion,

b o t h t o d u t y and t o the lady. An opportunity existed for

a whole new set of values and a whole new a t t i t u d e to love,

an opportunity w h i c h was q u i c k l y s e i z e d u p o n by the

troubadours o f the t w e l f t h and thirteenth centuries.

With the i n c e p t i o n of c o u r t l y love, a number of

conventional p r a c t i c e s and r u l e s q u i c k l y developed. These

added t o the artificiality which accompanied the new

attitude towards l o v e and become an important part of the

whole t r a d i t i o n . An obvious need e x i s t e d f o r a system of

checks t o prevent courtly love from degenerating into license

and t h i s need u n d o u b t e d l y l e d t o the v a r i o u s r u l e s and the

rigid e t i q u e t t e w h i c h were d e v i s e d . Courtly love

. . . was t o be m a i n l y an a f f a i r o f
s e n t i m e n t and h o n o r , n o t w h o l l y P l a t o n i c
t o be s u r e , b u t t h o r o u g h l y desensualized.7

Four d i s t i n c t stages were l a i d down t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e lover

should pass:

(1) he adored without confessing i t ;

(2) he adored while entreating his lady;

7 S m i t h , o_>. c i t . , p. 215.
 8

(3) he adored with hope, knowing h i s l a d y was

not indifferent;

(4) he became t h e lady's accepted l o v e r , that i s ,

her vassal and s p e c i a l knight.$

The acceptance o f the t r o u b a d o u r by the l a d y m e r e l y meant

that she was p r e p a r e d t o r e c e i v e h i s homage i n songs and to

8a

be his inspiration. He i n t u r n w o u l d be i n s p i r e d to

p e r f o r m deeds w o r t h y o f h e r , to strive f o r the wisdom w h i c h

would teach self-restraint, t o endeavor always t o please

her, and to s i n g her praises i n song. Of course, since their

l o v e must be c a r r i e d on i n secrecy the l a d y was usually

given a pseudonym. Perhaps the idea of secrecy was a

practical one because the l a d y was someone e l s e ' s wife.

However, the troubadours held that l o v e was too noble to be

m a r r e d by common gossip.

The poetry w h i c h grew up around t h i s courtly love

tradition abounded i n c o n v e n t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n s of the

knight and the lady. The l o v e r was always the lady's vassal,

o b e y i n g her slightest w i s h and silently s u f f e r i n g her

rebukes. This patient o b e d i e n c e was the only v i r t u e he dared

9

claim. In h i s love lyrics, the troubadour p r a i s e d his

lady as b e i n g p h y s i c a l l y and morally p e r f e c t , possessed of

8 S m i t h , op., c i t . , pp. 215-216.

9 C.S. L e w i s , The A l l e g o r y of Love. Oxford,
C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1936, p7 2. ~"

8a The s e x u a l a s p e c t s o f c o u r t l y l o v e can n o t be
dismissed. F o r example, t h e s e a r e e v i d e n c e d i n t h e r e l a t i o n -
s h i p o f L a n c e l o t and G u i n e v e r e .
 9

extreme beauty, and able by her mere presence to cheer the

sad and make the lover courteous. His love f o r her i s

infinite to the troubadour who would rather s u f f e r death than

be denied the privilege to serve her. A l l h i s thoughts of

good and .his p l e a s u r e i n beauty are owed to her. She alone

gives him the ability to sing. Rather than seek another's

favor, the troubadour would s u f f e r any pain from his lady. In

addition to this v^orship, the troubadour constantly describes

the e f f e c t " o f the lady's love upon him. He can not control

his voice when she i s near but constantly sighs and weeps.

At night he wakes thinking of her and grows a l t e r n a t e l y hot

and cold. His love f o r her has made a different man of him:

he i s now strong and merciful, f o r g i v i n g h i s enemies and

suffering any p r i v a t i o n f o r her sake. Winter i s spring to

him. I f his love i s not accepted he will lose his self-

control and become unable to eat or sleep. Only the hope

of his lady's mercy will keep him alive since he knows his
10

own merit is negligible. One can easily deduce the position

of the knight and the lady from this description. The

inferiority and humility which the troubadour displayed by

such a d e s c r i p t i o n of love gave a commanding position to the

woman, who could b i d her lover to perform deeds requiring

extreme courage as a test of h i s devotion. The adventurous

knight, as a reward, could expect her love which sometimes

might only be a kiss and encouragement, but at other times

10 T h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
troubadour's l o v e experience i s taken mostly from Chaytor,
T r o u b a d o u r s , pp. 17-18.
resulted i n physical love. Thus i t can be seen that though

the description of courtly love was often fanciful,

exaggerated, and c o n v e n t i o n a l , i t was an actuality and an

important part"of medieval life In Southern France.

As the conception of courtly love grew, i t was

naturally e l a b o r a t e d upon and carried into other literatures

since i t was so congenial to the society of the Middle Ages.

The tradition actually came to an end as f a r as Provence

was concerned i n the thirteenth century when t h e Roman

Catholic Church sent a crusade to wipe out the A l b i g e n s i a n

heresy. The crusade broke up the local fiefs in Provence

and, d e s t r o y i n g the c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h had enabled the

troubadours to flourish, i t drove them to other lands or

forced them to seek other occupations. The system of love

which they had developed was actually incompatible with

Christian standards and henceforth Provencal lyricists

were to focus their p r a i s e upon the Virgin whose grace,

beauty, and c h a r a c t e r were.'.idealized i n the same manner

as had been the troubadour's lady. However, with the

dispersal of the troubadours courtly love d i d not disappear.

Already this conception of love had been spreading, in the

twelfth century, into Italy, Northern France, and even

England. The Provencal love lyrics were m e r e l y the first

stage i n the development of a system of courtly love which

found i t s full expression i n the romances of Northern France

and which reached a spiritual level i n the late Middle Ages

 11

in Italy.

The growth of the courtly love tradition was not

confined to the Italian, French or Provencal poets. Certain

Latin writers also made their contribution. Ovid's

Ars_Afflatoria has often been considered a major influence on

the troubadours, lying at the base of the whole tradition.

In this work, the poet dealt with love as a' s c i e n c e or art.

One critic comments as follows:

C o u r t l y l o v e had as i t s c h i e f b a s i s the
l o v e p o e t r y o f O v i d , and. p a r t i c u l a r l y
h i s "Ars Amatoria," i n which the whole
a r t o f l o v e was classified in a simple,
l o g i c a l , and s y s t e m a t i c style, eminently
suited to French tastes. The a n a l y t i c a l
m i n d o f t h e F r e n c h r a c e was strongly
a t t r a c t e d by a book w h i c h , i n p l a c e of
the romantic ecstasies a n d sweet
n o t h i n g s s o common i n l o v e poetry,
formulated d e f i n i t e r u l e s f o r the
g u i d a n c e o f l o v e r s and a n a l y s e d the
sentiments of sexual love.^-

Many of the critics do not agree that the influence was

as clear or direct as Taylor states. However, i t is well

to recognize that there are some resemblances between

the troubadours and Ovid in the matter of certain images,

12
themes, methods of loving, and remedies of love. It is

also well to recognize that Ovid's attitude to love is

vastly d i f f e r e n t from that of the troubadours. To him i t

is a sensual force; to them i t is an ennobling one. Lewis

points out this difference:

11 A.B. T a y l o r , A n I n t r o d u c t i o n .to M e d i e v a l Romance

L o n d o n , H e a t h C r a n t o n L i m i t e d , " 1 9 3 0 , " p . 237. """" ""

12 Kirby, Gh^uc^r|_s_Troilus, p. 5
 12

. . . t h e same c o n d u c t w h i c h O v i d
i r o n i c a l l y recommends c o u l d be
recommended s e r i o u s l y by t h e
courtly tradition.

While the i n f l u e n c e o f O v i d upon t h e m e d i e v a l writers

c a n n o t be d i s r e g a r d e d , i t seems l i k e l y that the greatest

factors i n the growth o f the c o u r t l y l o v e tradition were

the temper o f t h e t r o u b a d o u r s and t h e n a t u r e o f the

times i n which they lived.

One w r i t e r who wrote i n Latin prose, d u r i n g the

early thirteenth century, demonstrates the d e s i r e to set

down a m e t h o d i c a l s y s t e m i n the a r t o f love-making, a

d e s i r e which i s close t o t h e c o r e o f the c o u r t l y love

tradition. Andreas Capellanus (Andre^the C h a p l a i n ) ,

i n
De, A ,t,e, Honeste, A m a n d i , d e f i n e s
r
l o v e and, explaining

what t h e l o v e r s h o u l d be and what he should expect, goes

14
on t o l a y down t h e r u l e s . T h o u g h he i s ' more c o n g e n i a l

to the medieval temper t h a n was Ovid, unlike the early

troubadours, Andreas i s interested i n trying to Christian-

ize h i s love theory.

The l o v e r must be t r u t h f u l and m o d e s t ,
a good C a t h o l i c , c l e a n i n h i s s p e e c h ,
h o s p i t a b l e , and r e a d y t o r e t u r n good
for e v i l . He must be c o u r a g e o u s i n
war ( u n l e s s he i s a c l e r k ) and g e n e r o u s
of h i s g i f t s . He must a t a l l t i m e s be
courteous. Though devoted i n a s p e c i a l

13 Lewis, A l l e g o r y , p. 7.

14 I b i d . , p. 32.
 13

s e n s e t o one l a d y , he must b e r e a d y
to perform m i n i s t e r i a et obseauia
for all.15 "

He emphasizes love as t h e s o u r c e o f a l l good. It inspires

great deeds, moral uprightness, and v i r t u e , a n d i t may

compensate f o r lowly birth. Though Andreas recognizes

two kinds of love, the chaste and the impure, only the
16
chaste i s acceptable i n courtly society.

The work o f Andreas i s important because i t

codified a n d s e t down the p r a c t i c e s and conventions of

courtly love w h i c h were probably fashionable at the time

he wrote, when the t r a d i t i o n was at i t s height.

With a l l the minuteness o f a s c h o l a s t i c

t r e a t i s e a n d t h e o r d e r l y management
of a p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s q u i s i t i o n the
; author discusses love i n a l l i t s aspects.^7

This discussion includes t h e ways i n which love may be

acquired, the part correct conversation plays i n love-

making, the conventional a t t i t u d e s which the lover and h i s

lady assume, and the r e a c t i o n s t o be e x p e c t e d . Twelve

chief rules are l a i d down i n a dialogue between a l o v e r and

lady, and A n d r e a s elaborated later a longer code of thirty-

18

one rules. The treatise of Andreas i s an example of the

medieval love of authority and s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n and i n d i c a t e s

15 Lewis, op,, c i t . , p . 21.

16 I b i d . , PP. 64-67.

17 Kirby, Chaucer's Trpilus, p. 56.

18 L o c . c i t .
 14

the manner i n which c o u r t l y l o v e was developing into a

stereotyped system of love-making.

One other L a t i n work which might he mentioned as

d e a l i n g with c o u r t l y l o v e i s Geoffrey of Monmouth's

H i s t o r i a Regum B r i t a e n i a e ( c . 1 1 3 7 ) . In w r i t i n g of A r t h u r ,

G e o f f r e y of Monmouth makes h i s court a medieval one,

contemporary with Geoffrey's oun day, where k n i g h t s and

l a d i e s are concerned w i t h c h i v a l r i c wars and c o u r t l y l o v e .

The s e t t i n g i s a c o u r t l y one, where l o v e i n s p i r e s v a l o r

and v a l o r i n s p i r e s l o v e , and where the tournament i s used

19
to t e s t a k n i g h t . T h i s method of t r e a t i n g A r t h u r i a n

legend became e s t a b l i s h e d i n Geoffrey's f o l l o w e r s such as

Wace ( i n h i s Rom§S-_i£-.B..li_l) r
l a t e r i n the French w r i t e r s

of the romances.

I n t u r n i n g to the growth of the c o u r t l y love theme

i n I t a l y and the i n f l u e n c e of the troubadours on the

I t a l i a n s , one f i n d s that there i s nothing unusual i n the

connection between the P r o v e n c a l l y r i c and the literature

o f medieval I t a l y . The languages o f N o r t h e r n I t a l y and

Southern France were s i m i l a r . In a d d i t i o n , c l o s e r e l a t i o n s were

maintained between the two r e g i o n s , many troubadours

t r a v e l l i n g i n N o r t h e r n I t a l y and g i v i n g r i s e to a troubadour
20
school t h e r e . In I t a l i a n c o u r t s before the i n t e r e s t

19 T.P. C r o s s , and W.A. N i t z e , L a n c e l o t j a n d

fiuinevere, Chicago, U n i v e r s i t y . . P r e s s , 19307"*p.""o l. r

20 Chaytor, Troubadours, pp. 95-96.

in l e a r n i n g began to r e p l a c e the interest i n love, the

troubadours were w i d e l y i m i t a t e d and a keen i n t e r e s t was

shown i n t h e i r theory of love. The influence of the

troubadours even a f f e c t e d the forms o f I t a l i a n poetry*'

the sonnet and t e r z a rima, among o t h e r forms, having been

21

traced to Provencal origin. In a d d i t i o n to adopting form

and style, the I t a l i a n s readily accepted the matter of

the troubadour lyrics. However, i n a c c e p t i n g and imitating

them, t h e y w r o t e o f l o v e as a fashionable fancy rather than

as an expression of c h i v a l r y . In Italy i n the M i d d l e Ages,

the city became t h e centre of s o c i a l life and the feudal

system (upon w h i c h c o u r t l y l o v e was b q s e d ) was non-existant.

One critic says, o f the growth o f c o u r t l y l o v e i n I t a l y :

When t h e l o v e c o n v e n t i o n s o f P r o v e n c a l
p o e t r y were b r o u g h t i n t o I t a l y , t h e y
underwent two p r o f o u n d m o d i f i c a t i o n s .
There the r a p i d a b s o r p t i o n o f the
f e u d a l l o r d s i n t o the c i t i e s r e s u l t e d
i n the c i t y , not the c a s t l e , becoming
t h e s e a t o f s o c i a l l i f e , and so i n
I t a l y f e u d a l i s m never took r o o t . Since,
t h e n , t h e s o c i a l l i f e o f I t a l y was
v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f F r a n c e , the
l o v e w h i c h was t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f c h i v a l r y
became " t h e i m i t a t i o n o f P r o v e n c a l
p o e t r y , a f a s h i o n a b l e f a n c y . .*. ."And
s i n c e the French l o v e conventions never
became a p a r t o f I t a l i a n l i f e and
t h o u g h t , t h e y were v e r y e a s i l y a f f e c t e d
by t h e P l a t o n i c I t a l i a n temperament,
w h i c h has i n i t an e l e m e n t o f p h i l o s o p h -
i c a l mysticism f o r e i g n to the French.
. . . T h e i r love conventions . . .
d i f f e r e d from those o f the F r e n c h i n
t h a t t h e y c o n t a i n e d much t h a t i s
p u r e l y f a n c i f u l , and much t h a t i s
a l l e g o r i c a l and m y s t i c a l . 2 2

21 C h a y t o r , pp.. c i t . , . p. 108.

2 2 L . E . P e a r s o n , E l i z a b e t h a n L . o y . e . Convertic-n^,,
Berkeley, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i T o r r i i a P r e s s , 1 9 3 3 , P. 1 0 0 .
 16

The fanciful aspect of the Italian tradition can he seen

in-the Sicilian imitators of the troubadours. Their

poetry is almost totally artificial and their lovers and

ladies are type characters. The mystical and allegorical

aspects which the I t a l i a n s added to the courtly love theme

can be seen in the works of Guido Guinicelli who was

first influenced by the Sicilian school and who later

became influenced by the growing intellectual life in Italy.

Guinicelli

. . . was the f i r s t to turn chivalric

l o v e i n t o t h e s p i r i t u a l , t o endow
I t a l i a n poetry with p h i l o s o p h i c a l
content.24

It is this p a r t i c u l a r approach to courtly love that

attracted Dante and Petrarch.

Dante can be pointed to as an example of the

extreme to which the I t a l i a n s took courtly love. In his

work courtly love becomes idealized, mystical, and

metaphysical. Courtly devotion changes to spiritual

worship of the lady and philosophical speculation on the

effects of love. The dolce stil nuova of Guinicelli which

gave a position of heavenly eminence to the woman, i s

reflected in the Beatrice of the V i t a Nuova;,

23 K i r b y , C h a u c e r ^ s _ T r o i l u s , p. 71. The Sicilian

s c h o o l c a n n o t b e d i s r e g a r d e 3 7 " f o r tErough t h e m c e r t a i n
t r a d i t i o n a l i d e a s were p a s s e d on t o l a t e r I t a l i a n s . On page
73 K i r b y s a y s , " A s t r a n s m i t t e r s o f P r o v e n c a l poetic theory
and p r a c t i c e , t h e y a r e d i s t i n c t l y significant."

24 I b i d . , p. 75.
 B e a t r i c e , w h i l e t h e embodiment o f
a l l that i s perfect, i s also the
symbol o f something h i g h e r . I nher,
love i s transformed into v i r t u e , into
the h i g h e s t good — into a thing a l l
spirit.25

Dante, like Andreas Capellanus, saw t h e e v i l at the heart

of courtly love and, i n making love a purifying force

and h i sbeloved a symbol o f t r u t h , he s o u g h t to purify

it by b l e n d i n g i twith C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s and s e r v i c e .

This approach t o the subject of love became popular i n

Italy, and P e t r a r c h , the greatest love poet of Italy,

adopted the mystical i n t e r p r e t a t i o n which Dante and h i s

predecessors had advanced.

In the sonnets of Petrarch, courtly love i s carried

to a further extreme. H i s Laura i s made the object o f an

ideal love through which Petrarch can learn how to love

God. In searching forideal beauty, the poet describes

the charms of h i s lady and g r a d u a l l y i s led, i n h i s search,

to the creator o f a l l beauty. Petrarch's approach t o

Laura, love, and beauty gage rise to. s e t d e s c r i p t i o n s and

a catalogue of conceits. H i s many i m i t a t o r s focussed

on these artificialities and created a cult t o perpetuate

them. The themes which Petrarch made popular i n his

G a n z o n i e r e , became conventional. H i s lady was o f s u p e r -

lative beauty but this beauty was only transitory.

However, the poet vowed, though inadequate to the task,

to make h e r b e a u t y immortal i n song. The poet describes

25 Pearson, OJD. c i t . , p . 13.

the lady's cruelty and the s l e e p l e s s n e s s and the suffering

w h i c h b r i n g s him c l o s e t o death because o f h i s l o v e . The

lover v a $ c i l l a t e s between f l e e i n g from l o v e and being

held c a p t i v e by i t . He has dialogues with h i s e y e s and his

heart and d i s c u s s e s h i s l o v e d one with her friends. In

his treatment of Laura, Petrarch i s v i s i t e d by her i n his

sleep and r e c e i v e s an announcement o f h e r death. Finally

she d i e s and he becomes aware o f h e r presence after

d e a t h and, proclaiming his devotion t o God, he prays that

26
she a t t e n d him on h i s d e a t h bed.

The manner i n w h i c h P e t r a r c h t r e a t s h i s l o v e for

Laura i s kept on an i d e a l i s t i c level.

The most e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
P e t r a r c h a n i s m i s a d o r a t i o n o f the
l o v e d one, an a d o r a t i o n w h i c h makes
her the c e n t r e o f a l l e a r t h l y beauty
and r e l a t e s a l l c r e a t i o n t o h e r .
. . . I n genuine P e t r a r c h a n l o v e t h e r e
must be no e l e m e n t o f d e s i r e , f o r
a f t e r one l y r i c o u t b u r s t o f t h i s
nature, P e t r a r c h attempts to s t i f l e
t h e n o t e by r e m o v i n g f r o m a l l t h e
r e m a i n i n g songs t h e e l e m e n t o f
d e l i g h t i n p h y s i c a l beauty f o r i t s
own sake.2?

T h i s high p o s i t i o n which P e t r a r c h gave t o women was

hardly compatible with the a t t i t u d e of the C h u r c h at this

time. However, C a r d i n a l Bembo, i n t h e early sixteenth

26 P e a r s o n , CJD. c i t , . , p. 37. The Petrarchan

conventions i n t h i s paragraph are summarized f r o m t h i s book.

27 Ibid., pp. 252-253.

century, brought about a reconciliation between

Platonic love and t h e Church by p o p u l a r i z i n g the idea

that

. . . man r i s e s t o G o d t h r o u g h t h e
contemplation o f the b e a u t i f u l ,
a n d t h a t woman i s t h e n e a r e s t
a p p r o a c h t o d i v i n e b e a u t y . . . .^o

Soon the Petrarchan attitudes spread into the love poetry

of Italy and i n t o the poetry o f other countries.

Regardless o f the direction i n which Dante and

Petrarch took courtly love, they a r e o f utmost significance

to us because English Literature, i n the l a t e Middle Ages

and the Renaissance, was greatly influenced by the v a r i o u s

contributions which Italy made to the courtly love

tradition.

Of no l e s s importance t o t h e growth of the

tradition was the contribution which Northern France made.

Provencal lyrics reached their northern neighbor fairly

early, since the peoples from both r e g i o n s met while

crusading i n the east. In addition, the court of Northern

France was o f considerable importance i n the spreading of

courtly love from the south. Eleanor of Aquitaine, the

daughter of the f i r s t known t r o u b a d o u r , W i l l i a m , Count

of Poitiers, i s generally accredited with being the first

28 P e a r s o n , op., c i t . , p. 44.
 20

patroness of the courtly love writers i n Northern France.

She invited many of the test known troubadours to her

court and encouraged the spread of the new love theory

in her n o r t h e r n homeland. Eleanor 1

s daughter,. M a r i e de

Champagne, became a more famous patroness than her

mother, being both patroness and inspirer to the greatest

29
of a l l French romance-writers, C h r e t i e n de Troyes.

H e i t was who made A r t h u r i a n

s t o r i e s p o p u l a r , and u n d e r M a r i e ' s
i n f l u e n c e t r a n s f o r m e d them i n t o
t a l e s of c o u r t l y love, thus
s t a r t i n g a vogue which f o r l o n g
remained supreme.-*

Chretien gave a new impetus to French romance, and

courtly l o v e became an integral part of these romances.

Perhaps the extent to which courtly love was

carried i n Northern French literature can be best seen i n

Chretien de Troyes' R o m a n de l a Charrete r the story of

Lancelot and Guenevere. In this romance, the author i s

midway between the Christian ideal of d e v o t i o n and the

pagan sensual love of Ovid. Guenevere i s treated as a

virtual religious deity by Lancelot. He i s pleased to be

humiliated at her request and s t i l l he worships her. When

coming to her bed-chamber to accept her love, he kneels

at her bed and adores her. Before leaving the bed-chamber,

Lancelot g e n u f l e c t s toward the bed, treating i t as a

29 Taylor, I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Romance, p. 235.

30 Ibid., p. 236.
religious shrine. H i s love f o rher i s true and

ennobling and h i s devotion i s absolute. Chretien shows

here the influence which the troubadours had upon h i s

depiction of the Arthurian court, f o r one o f t h e m a i n

characteristics of the Provencal love lyric i s the idea

of submission and devotion t o one's lady. However,

Chretien went beyond the troubadours, creating i n his

R o m a n de. l a C h a r r e t e a system of courtly love. When

the influence of the Provenpals reached him

. . . he was n o t o n l y t h e f i r s t , b u t
perhaps the .greatest, exponent o f
i t t o h i s f e l l o w countrymen; and,
combining t h i s element w i t h t h e
A r t h u r i a n legend* he s t a m p e d u p o n
men's m i n d s i n d e l i b l y t h e c o n c e p t i o n
of Arthur's c o u r t a s t h e home
par e x c e l l e n c e o f t r u e and n o b l e
l o v e . 3>2~"

Certain aspects of Chretien's concept of courtly

love are worth noticing. Since the love i s illegitimate,

the lover occupies a p o s i t i o n beneath the lady, who might

be haughty, c a p r i c i o u s , o r even unjust though reciprocating

his love. He must sacrifice himself to her service t o be

•'33
worthy o f h e r and she i s e x p e c t e d to test his worthiness.

The lady stimulates bravery i n her lover and h i s bravery

wins her loyalty. The l o v e r i s devoted t o the task of

31 Lewis, Allegory, p. 29.

32 I b i d . , p. 23.

33 Cross and N i t z e , Lancelot, pp. 67-68.

 22

winning h i s l a d y ' s l o v e , and t o win i t he is willing to

sacrifice all, e v e n when h i s p a s s i o n a p p e a r s to'be

unrequited. The a r t o f l o v e has certain rules, like those

of chivalry, r u l e s which the l o v e r i s b o u n d t o obey i f he

hopes t o be successful. Chretien's handling o f l o v e as an

art seems t o be i n f l u e n c e d more by the troubadours than

34
by Ovid, f o r l o v e i s more t h a n a mere a r t , h a v i n g as i t s

supreme aim the triumph o f an ennobling love. Some O v i d i a n

influence i s seen i n the poet's use of imagery, i n the love

soliloquies, and t h e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e l o v e r as being

35

a f f l i c t e d with a disease. I t w o u l d seem t h a t C h r e ' t i e n

t o o k what he considered t o be the best from the L a t i n and

the P r o v e n c a l traditions and, i n combining these, r.

d e v i s e d h i s own system o f c o u r t l y l o v e w h i c h was a great

i n f l u e n c e upon t h e romance w r i t e r s who f o l l o w e d him. His

own particular handling o f the tradition shows t h a t i t

was by no means a s t a t i c one as i t was being adopted and

i m i t a t e d i n the l a n g u a g e s o f Vtfestern E u r o p e .

The spreading o f the courtly love system throughout

Western Europe p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t part i n the

development o f s o c i e t y i n the M i d d l e A g e s and the Renaissance.

The system found i t s way into the l a n g u a g e s o f many lands

and e a c h added s o m e t h i n g t o i t u n t i l a truly significant

t r a d i t i o n was established. C o u r t l y l o v e became a topic

34 C r o s s and N i t z e , op,, cit., p. .98.

35 Loc. c i t .
 23

of discussion and debate in some of the leading courts of

Europe and this widespread interest, though directed toward

a convention that was increasing in artificiality, played a

great part in shaping the intellectual temper of society.

The tradition spread to England in the Middle Ages

where a number of writers dealt with i t . Eleanor of

Aquitaine, who became the queen of Henry II, did much

to popularize courtly love. She i s reputed to have

established a Court of Love where disputes between knights

(over a lady) or violations of the code were heard and

judgment given, held salons In the art of love-service,

tribunals, tournaments, imported troubadours from Provence,

and made E n g l a n d for a while the centre of courtesy. As

the tradition grew i n England, a number of romances were

written on the theme of courtly love in the thirteenth,

fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, including a number

in the Arthurian cycle. Among the works dealing with

courtly love may be mentioned: Florls and Blanchefleur,

Gower 1
s C.qnfessio Amantis, Gawain and the Green Knight,

James l's (of Scotland) Kingis Quhair, and Malory's

Morte d' Arthur. Chaucer helped to swell the growing

courtly literature and the S c o t t i s h Chaucerians, Dunbar

and Douglas, added to i t . In the sixteenth century,

Wyatt and Surrey took courtly love as the subject of

their sonnets though they were more directly influenced

by the Italian tradition. Thus i t may be. s e e n that a

considerable English tradition existed before the

Elizabethans took up the theme of courtly love.

 4

23a

In England, late i n the tradition, the Elizabethans

dealt at length with the conventions of courtly love,

displaying a readiness to accept them and t o e l a b o r a t e upon

the increasing systematization. However, we must note that

they d i d n o t o f t e n mock the system of courtly love. They

accepted i t enthusiastically, a t t i m e s - a s a means o f

escape i t i s true, and gave the conventions much c o n s i d e r a t i o n

in their efforts t o analyse and u n d e r s t a n d the thoughts and

emotions o f mankind. The f a c t that they could still apply

many o f the ideals of courtly love to the society of their

day suggests that the troubadours and the t r a d i t i o n which

they founded had been an i m p o r t a n t element i n the develop-

ment of Elizabethan society. And t h i s i s the case, even

though the t r a d i t i o n , a s i t came to English literature,

had been m o d i f i e d , added t o , and c o n v e n t i o n a l i z e d i n i t s

passage through Italian and. N o r t h e r n French literature.

 CHAPTER II

SHAKESPEARE'S PREDECESSORS AND THE THEME OF

COURTLY LOVE'

Chaucer - KnigbJ^s_Tale

- Troilus"and Criseyde

Castiglione - The .Courtier

Sidney - Sonnets
- Arcadia
Spenser - Coiin^Clou^s^Come_H,orae_,Again
~ fhe]_Fairie_^ueene
 CHAPTER II

The first major E n g l i s h writer to deal with

the theme o f courtly love was Chaucer. He lived in an

age when E n g l i s h k n i g h t h o o d was at i t s h e i g h t , when the

warrior, who was still hound t o h i s l o r d by feudal ties,

was devoted to the ideals of chivalry. Moreover, Chaucer

lived at court and wrote f o r a c o u r t l y audience. At court

was able to see the pride, artificiality, and affectation

often manifest i n the pursuit of the chivalric ideal.

T h o u g h he a c c e p t e d the convention of courtly love, Chaucer,

with great perspicacity, revealed that he was aware of

its less attractive features. In the K n i g h t 1

s, T a l e and

i* 1
T r p i l u s and Criseyde, he p r e s e n t s the love of Palamon

and Arcite f o r E m e l y e and the love of T r o i l u s f o r Criseyde

as courtly love but at the same t i m e shows t h e unhappiness

and bitterness which the relationships cause. Perhaps i t

is too easy t o say that Chaucer a c t u a l l y s a t i r i z e s courtly

love. One must r e c o g n i z e that the perfect courtier i s a

living i d e a l to t h i s poet. In the General Prologue to the

Canterbury Tales, C h a u c e r e m p h a s i z e s and admires the

courtly ideals

A K n y g h t t h e r was, and t h a t a w o r t h y man,

T h a t f r o t h e tyme t h a t he f i r s t b i g a n
To r i d e n o u t , he l o v e d c h i v a l r i e ,
T r o u t h e and h o n o u r , f r e d o m and c u r t e s i e .
(11. 43-46)
 A n d t h o u g h t h a t h e w e r e w o r t h y , h e was wys,
A n d o f h i s p o r t , a s meeke as i s a mayde.
He n e v e r e y e t n o v i l e y n e n e s a y d e
I n a l h i s l y f u n t o no maner w i g h t .
He was a v e r r a y , p a r f i t g e n t i l k n i g h t .
(11. 68-72)1

There i s only admiration i n this portrait. Actually, in

dealing with chivalry and i n depicting courtly love,

Chaucer has a moral purpose. He insists on the necessity

of virtue i n noble ladies, he refines the conception of

love, making i t more acceptable to Christian principles

by considering i t a natural step t o m a r r i a g e , he holds

that love should not be attained too e a s i l y , and he. s h o w s

the evil consequences which can come of courtly love.

Chaucer's blending of the traditions of courtly

love w i t h h i s own particular attitudes to i t i s evident i n

the K n i g W ^ s ^ T a l e ^ There i s much that i s conventional i n

the relationship of Palamon, A r c i t e , and Emelye. The two

noble men are c o u s i n s and sworn b r o t h e r s and both fall in

love w i t h the beautiful lady, Emelye, whom t h e y espy from

their prison i n the tower. The two knights both suffer for

love of her. In the courtly pose, Palamon says:

1 F . N . R o b i n s o n , e d . , The, P o e t i c a l W o r k s o f
Chaucer, Boston, Houghton Mifflin~Company7™933,~p. 19.
A l l r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e K n i g h t 1__JTale and Troilu.s_.and
Criseyde- are from this~bookT """""
 27

But I was hurt r i g h t now thurghout rayn ye

Into myn h e r t e , that wol my bane be.
The f a i r n e s s e of that l a d y that I see
Yond i n the gardyn romen to and f r o
I s cause of a l my c r i y i n g and my wo.
(11. 1096-1100) 2

A r c i t e i s a f f e c t e d i n the same way when he catches s i g h t of

the lady:

And w i t h that s i g h t e h i r beautee hurte hym so,

That, i f that Palamon was wounded sore,
A r c i t e i s hurt as muche as he, or moore.
(11. 1114-1116)3

B o t h men become so jealous that they forsake their solemn

oath of brotherhood. I n true c o u r t l y f a s h i o n they finally

s e t t l e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s i n combat, the p r i z e being

Emelye's l o v e . Though the noble A r c i t e wins the f i g h t , he

falls from h i s horse and dies. Before dying, he regrets

the jealousy which caused the q u a r r e l w i t h Palamon and

commends Emelye to h i s cousin's dare, reminding her that

Palamon a l s o served her and i s worthy o f her love.

I n t h i s t a l e of c o u r t l y l o v e , Chaucer c a r e f u l l y

keeps the l o v e r s equal: each i s k n i g h t l y and worthy i n

his own way. Throughout the poem the q u e s t i o n of which man

l o v e s Emelye the more i s present. The reader, at the end,

asks h i m s e l f which man most deserved the l a d y . This i s

perhaps i m p o s s i b l e to answer, but one t h i n g i s made c l e a r

by the author: l o v e i s capable of i n s t i l l i n g jealousy and

2 Robinson, on. c i t . p. 32.

3 Loc. c i t .
 28

s e l f i s h n e s s , and bad f a i t h , causing sworn b r o t h e r s t o attempt

to kill each other. Chaucer concludes the t a l e on a note o f

happiness; t r u e romantic l o v e grows out o f what began as

4a
c o u r t l y l o v e when Palamon and Emelye are wed.

In the longer t a l e o f c o u r t l y l o v e , T r q i l u s .and

Crisey_de, Chaucer a l s o goes beyond the bounds o f the

courtly tradition. He takes B o c c a c c i o ' s II: F i l p s t r a t o ,

i n which the author deals w i t h the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f Tr'oilo..

and C r i s e i d a as a sensual one i n terms o f the conventions

4

of courtly love, and humanizes h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n a.

p s y c h o l o g i c a l study o f the f a i l u r e o f l o v e . Though the

t a l e concerns f i g u r e s from c l a s s i c a l a n t i q u i t y , Chaucer

makes them thoroughly medieval and shows them caught i n

the snares o f c o u r t l y l o v e . He does not openly condemn i t ,

but t r i e s t o make the system mean something i n terms o f human

experience. I t f a i l s , not because i t i s i n h e r e n t l y e v i l , but

because C r i s e y d e has a f a t a l human weakness, i n c o n s t a n c y .

The two main c h a r a c t e r s , T r o i l u s and C r i s e y d e ,

are presented as c o u r t l y f i g u r e s and they conduct their

l o v e i n the f a s h i o n expected o f them as such. Troilus i s

the embodiment o f the medieval i d e a l o f l o v e r and w a r r i o r .

He i s s t r o n g , brave, g a l l a n t , generous, and quick t o

serve the l a d y he l o v e s :

4 K i r b y , Chaucerl.s_TrjoiJ.us,, p. 92.

4 a B e f o r e Palamon and A r c i t e fought, the former had

prayed t o the God o f Love while the l a t t e r had prayed t o the
God of War. Thus the reward that Palamon g e t s , i n winning
Emelye, may be a s c r i b e d t o h i s devotion t o the s e r v i c e of l o v e .
 In a l l e nedes, f o r the townes werre,
He -was-, and ay, the f i r s t i n armes dyght,
And c e r t e y n l y , but i f that bokes e r r e ,
Save E c t o r most ydred of any wight;
And t h i s encrees of hardynesse and myght
Com hym of l o v e , h i s l a d i e s thank to wynne,
That a l t e r e d h i s s p i r i t so withinne.
(Book I I I , 11. 1772-1778)

T r o i l u s i s the p e r f e c t c o u r t l y l o v e r , humble, t r u e , p a t i e n t

i n h i s s u f f e r i n g f o r the love o f C r i s e y d e , f u l l of d e s i r e

to l o v e , and devoted to the s e r v i c e of h i s l a d y . In h i s

aong (Book I , 11. 400-434) he r e v e a l s that love i s

E f f e c t i n g him i n the t r a d i t i o n a l manner: he s u f f e r s ,

grows hot and c o l d , f a i n t s , t h i n k s he w i l l d i e , i s made

humble i n h i s d e s i r e to serve and he w i l l be ennobled

through the v i r t u e of high service to her.

5
Criseyde i s the i d e a l c o u r t l y l a d y and must

respond to T r o i l u s ' l o v e . Her beauty and graceful bearing

aroused sensual love and f o r that reason, she was bound by

the r u l e s to p i t y and give some c o n s i d e r a t i o n to her lover.

She holds the customary p o s i t i o n of s u p e r i o r i t y i n the

6

c o u r t l y love r e l a t i o n s h i p . However, though C r i s e y d e is

sweet and d e s i r a b l e she i s a l s o f i c k l e . T h i s l e d her to

put T r o i l u s aside and, contrary to the code of c o u r t l y

l o v e , to take a second l o v e r when she was f o r c e d to r e t u r n

to her f a t h e r i n the Greek camp. She was not to be blamed

5 C r i s e y d e i s a widow r a t h e r than the u s u a l married
woman which means that she i s f r e e to c a r r y her love f o r
T r o i l u s through to a n a t u r a l c o n c l u s i o n by marrying (as
Emely-e d i d i n the Knight_.s_Tale).

6 T h i s can be seen i n T r o i l u s ' p l e a d i n g in

11. 92-98 and 11. 131-147 o f Book I I I .
for y i e l d i n g to T r o i l u s , f o r , according to the courtly

s o c i a l code, that was the c o r r e c t t h i n g to do.

Chaucer d i d not r e g a r d i t as a crime

i n her that she y i e l d e d to T r o i l u s .
. . . But C r e s s i d a proved untrue —
t h e r e i n l a y her grievous s i n . To
he u n f a i t h f u l to one who had done no
wrong, who was, as she d e c l a r e d ,
a "sword of knighthood, source of
g e n t i l e s s , " was an unpardonable
offence.7

The unhappiness which r e s u l t e d came because C r i s e y d e d i d

not remain t r u e to the code which bound her to T r o i l u s .

Chaucer seems to have been concerned w i t h the unhappiness

which mutable love can b r i n g . Though he does not condemn

c o u r t l y l o v e , he reveals a s i d e of i t that the Provencal

t r a d i t i o n neglected. Chaucer can only say:

Swich i n t h i s world, whoso i t kan byholde:

I n ech e s t a t i s l i t e l h e r t e s r e s t e .
God leve us f o r to take i t f o r the beste 1
(Book V, 11. 1748-1750)

As i n the Knight's, T a l e , he looks deeper i n t o c o u r t l y love

than did h i s predecessors and sees i t s true relationship

to a c t u a l life.

As Chaucer shows the interest he takes in the

chivalric ideal, from the d e s c r i p t i o n he gives us of the

Knight and the Squire i n the GeneralJProloguej. so

7 W.H. Schofield, Chivalry i n English Literature,

Cambridge, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y Press ,"T925',~*p. !?7.
 31

Castiglione concentrates his i n t e r e s t i n the perfect

courtier. Though C a s t i g l i o n e writes his guide-book f o r

all would-be c o u r t i e r s over a century a f t e r Chaucer's tales

of courtly love had appeared, s t i l l the Renaissance courtier

is the d i r e c t descendant of the medieval knight.

II Cortegianoy o r The Courtier, was written between

8
1508 and 1516 and i t dealt with actual conditions at the

court of Urbino. Castiglione endeavored to describe the

perfect, noble, gentle p e r s o n who was an all-round individual,

worthy o f the name o f " c o u r t i e r " i n R e n a i s s a n c e I t a l y .

His book was not i n t e n d e d t o be a fanciful description of

an artificial, unreal p e r s o n , but a realistic treatise on

what t h e model c o u r t i e r s h o u l d be and how he should act.

Castiglione's Courtier, printed i n

V e n i c e i n 1528, was the f o r e m o s t book
of etiquette i n t h i s respect. • . .
C a s t i g l i o n e s e t f o r t h i n an e n t e r -
t a i n i n g manner t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e
i d e a l l o v e r at c o u r t . . . . He w o u l d
draw l a r g e l y f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , and a l t h o u g h
he was u n d o u b t e d l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e
e x i s t i n g works on l o v e , he so combined
t h e o r y w i t h p r a c t i c e as t o p r e s e n t a
v i v i d p i c t u r e o f the s o c i e t y f o r which
he w r o t e . 9

His book was so congenial to the upper s o c i e t y of h i s day

that i t became e x t r e m e l y p o p u l a r and was soon translated

i n t o S p a n i s h , F r e n c h , and English. The Renaissance

conception of the c o u r t i e r , who was t o be a perfectly

balanced gentle p e r s o n , a s o l d i e r , and a scholar, was

f i x e d by C a s t i g l i o n e and t h i s c o n c e p t i o n was of tremendous

8 P e a r s o n , L o v e C o n v e n t i o n s , p. 45.

9 I b i d . , p. 51.
 32
importance to the literature of Europe. Hamlet and H e n r y V,

to mention only two o f S h a k e s p e a r e ' s characters, are copies

of Castiglione s ideal 1
courtier.

So important is this Italian writer's treatment of

the courtier and the code of love to the thought and

feeling of all Europe in the sixteenth century, that it is

well for one to consider the main p o i n t s dealt with in

his book. The nobility of b i r t h and the physical appearance

of the courtier are important, as are his bearing and manner:

The C o u r t i e r t h e r e f o r e , b e s i d e
noblenesse of b i r t h , I w i l l have him.
t o bee f o r t u n a t e i n t h i s b e h a l f e , and
by nature t o have not onely a w i t ,
and a comely shape o f p e r s o n and
countenance, but also a c e r t a i n grace,
and (as t h e y say) a hewe, t h a t s h a l l
make.him at the f i r s t s i g h t l o v i n g unto
who s o b e h o l d e t h h i m . 1 0

He must h a v e t h e ability to bear arms, acquire prowess in

sports and e x e r c i s e s , be a good r i d e r , and be proficient

11
in a tournament. As a s o l d i e r , tie m u s t a l s o be learned:
That t h e r e f o r e which i s the p r i n c i p a l l
matter and n e c e s s a r i e f o r a C o u r t i e r
t o s p e a k e , and w r i t e w e l l , I believe
i s knowledge.12

The ideal courtier must b e , among o t h e r things, a good

conversationalist; he must conduct himself with social

propriety, be suave, not brusque, humble, not boastful,

10 B . C a s t i g i o n e , T h e B o o k of the C o u r t i e r , (done
i n t o E n g l i s h b y S i r T h o m a s Hoby7~1 5617, L o n d o n J J.M. Dent
a n d S o n s , L i m i t e d , 1928, p. 33.

11- £bid., p. 40.

12 Ibid., p. 56.
and be ever c a r e f u l t o enhance h i s r e p u t a t i o n . Indeed, we

might say that enhancement o f personal r e p u t a t i o n i s the

13
c o u r t i e r ' s whole p u r s u i t . I t i s necessary f o r the
c o u r t i e r to choose a good f r i e n d :

Then according t o t h e i r deserts and

h o n e s t i e , l o v e , honour and observe a l l
other men, and alwaies doe h i s best t o
f e l l o w s h i p p e with men o f e s t i m a t i o n 14
that are noble and known t o bee good . . . .

The c o u r t i e r must a l s o be able t o confide i n h i s p r i n c e :

The ende t h e r e f o r e of a p e r f e c t C o u r t i e r
. . . I b e l i e v e i s t o purchase him, by the
meane o f the q u a l i t i e s which these Lordes
have given him:,': i n such wise the good
w i l l and favour o f the P r i n c e he i s i n
s e r v i c e w i t h a l l , that he may breake h i s
minde t o him, and alwaies enforme him
f r a n c k l y o f the t r u t h o f every matter
meete f o r him t o understand, without
f e a r or p e r i l l t o d i s p l e a s e him.15

The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the c o u r t i e r t o h i s p r i n c e i s important.

It i s necessary that the c o u r t i e r be able t o advise h i s

prince:

And t h e r e f o r e i n mine o p i n i o n , as
musicke, s p o r t e s , pastimes, and other
pleasant fashions are (as a man woulde
say) the f l o u r e o f C o u r t l i n e s s e , even
so i s the t r a i n i n g and h e l p i n g forwarde
of the P r i n c e t o goodnesse, and the
f e a r i n g him from e v i l , the f r u i t e o f i t . 1 6

The C o u r t i e r , as d e s c r i b e d by C a s t i g l i o n e , was a model o f

perfection. T h i s model was taken s e r i o u s l y i n the s i x t e e n t h

century and became the guide f o r many an a s p i r i n g young man

13 C a s t i g l i o n e , op,, c i t . , pp. 105-127.

14 I b i d . , p. 120.

15 I b i d . , p. 261.

16 Loc. c i t .
who cultivated 'gentlenesse.'

One important c o n s e q u e n c e o f The Courtier was the

h o n o r a b l e p o s i t i o n i t gave t o women. Castiglione clearly

saw the influence which her courtly excellence could have

upon the ideal courtier. One critic, i n estimating the

value of C a s t i g l i o n e s 1
e n n o b l i n g o f woman, s a y s :

D u r i n g t h e M i d d l e A g e s she had b e e n
l i f t e d by c o n v e n t i o n t o a f a l s e h e i g h t ,
f r o m w h i c h she was t o o o f t e n d e g r a d e d .
Now she was become t h e i n s p i r a t i o n o f
man, and was a l s o f a s t b e c o m i n g a com-
p a n i o n and e q u a l . 1 7

C a s t i g l i o n e made h e r p o s i t i o n c l e a r when he laid down the

way i n which a c o u r t i e r should t r e a t a lady:

. . . i t i s meete t h e C o u r t i e r b e a r e
v e r i e g r e a t r e v e r e n c e t o w a r d e women,
and a, d i s c r e e t e and c o u r t e o u s p e r s o n
ought n e v e r t o t o u c h t h e i r h o n e s t i e
n e i t h e r i n j e a s t , n o r i n good e a r n e s t . l o

He points out that the lady i s t o be g u i d e d by the same

19
r u l e s as the courtier. Her b i r t h , beauty, grace of

bearing, and her ability to dispatch s u c h womanly d u t i e s as

entertaining, reading, conversing, and p l a y i n g music are

all very important. In addition, she must be virtuous,

chaste, gentle, frank, m o d e s t , and gracious.

It i s natural that Castiglione's discussion of the

17 P e a r s o n , L o v e C o n y e n t i o n s . p. 45.

18 C a s t i g l i o n e , op,, cit,., p. 182.

 35
courtier and t h e l a d y should l e a d up t o one o f l o v e i n

Book IV, f o r the s u b j e c t o f l o v e was one o f t h e most

important topics of conversation i n the Renaissance. His

treatment of love, coming l a t e i n the c o u r t l y tradition,

combines t h e m e d i e v a l t e n d e n c y to c l a s s i f y i t and t h e

Renaissance tendency t o p h i l o s o p h i z e and s p e c u l a t e upon

it. In defining love i n one o f t h e d i a l o g u e s , Castiglione

has Bembo s a y :

I s a y t h e r e f o r e t h a t a c c o r d i n g as i t
i s d e f i n e d o f t h e w i s e men o f o l d e
time, Love i s n o t h i n g e l s e b u t a 20
c e r t a i n e coveting t o enjoy beautie . . . .

This d e s c r i p t i o n of love e c h o e s P l a t o i n "The Banquet.".

In this symposium, P l a t o dignifies the passion i n a manner

which appealed t o the Renaissance students of love. Love i s

described as t h e emotion which c a n l i f t t h e body and t h e

soul t o a contemplation o f t h e b e a u t i f u l and t h e e t e r n a l :

Love i s the d e s i r e o f g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e
b e a u t i f u l , b o t h w i t h r e l a t i o n t o t h e body
and t h e soul.21
One o f t h e members o f t h e symposium p o i n t s out that love i s

not merely the love o f the b e a u t i f u l , but the love of the

generation and p r o d u c t i o n of the b e a u t i f u l . Since generation

and production, continues t h i s member, a r e e t e r n a l and

22
immortal f o r c e s , then love i s also the desire o f immortality.

A n o t h e r o f t h e s p e a k e r s i n "The B a n q u e t , " a l s o e m p h a s i z e s t h e
21 P l a t o , "The B a n q u e t , " t r a n s l . P e r c y S h e l l e y , i n
S h e p h e r d , R.H., e d . , The P r o s e W o r k s o f P e r c y B y s s h e S h e l l e y ,
London, C h a t t o and Windus, 181^87v o l . 27~p. 957

22 I b i d . , p. 96
close relationship o f love and immortality.

H e n c e do I a s s e r t t h a t L o v e i s t h e most
a n c i e n t a n d v e n e r a b l e o f d e i t i e s , and most
p o w e r f u l t o endow m o r t a l s w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i o n
of happiness and v i r t u e , b o t h w h i l s t they
l i v e and a f t e r they d i e . 2 3

The culminating assertion of this symposium i s the doctrine

wherein man may rise through love, gradually, to a con-

templation o f supreme beauty.

When a n y o n e , a s c e n d i n g f r o m a c o r r e c t system
o f L o v e , b e g i n s t o c o n t e m p l a t e t h i s supreme
b e a u t y , he a l r e a d y t o u c h e s t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n
of h i s l a b o u r . F o r such as d i s c i p l i n e
themselves upon t h i s system, o r a r e conducted
by a n o t h e r b e g i n n i n g t o ascend t h r o u g h t h e s e
t r a n s i t o r y objects which are b e a u t i f u l ,
towards that which i s beauty itself,
p r o c e e d i n g as o n s t e p s f r o m t h e l o v e o f one
form t o t h a t o f two, and from t h a t o f two,
to t h a t o f a l l forms which a r e b e a u t i f u l ;
and from b e a u t i f u l forms t o b e a u t i f u l h a b i t s
and i n s t i t u t i o n s , and from i n s t i t u t i o n s t o
b e a u t i f u l d o c t r i n e s ; u n t i l , from the
m e d i a t i o n o f many d o c t r i n e s , t h e y a r r i v e a t
that which i s nothing else than the doctrine
o f t h e supreme b e a u t y i t s e l f , i n t h e know-
ledge and c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f which a t l e n g t h
they repose.24

This doctrine i s r e f o r m u l a t e d by G a r d i n a l B e m b o , who

popularized the ideas that man rises t o God t h r o u g h con-

templation o f the b e a u t i f u l and that t h e most nearly divine

form o f beauty was t o be f o u n d i n woman. This neo-Platonic

doctrine must have appealed to Castiglione since h e made t h e -

Cardinal h i s spokesman of love i n The JC o u r t i , e r .

n

Just as P l a t o , i n " T h e Banquet,." distinguishes

b e t w e e n mere physical gratification and t h e enjoyment of

23 Plato, on. c i t . , p. 63.

24- I _ b i d . , p p . 101-102.
 37

love on a spiritual plane, so does C a s t i g l i o n e . In

The.C o u r t i e r , i t i s carefully pointed out that possessing

the body i s not enjoying beauty but only indulging the senses,
26

from w h i c h no true pleasure can come. This view of love

reveals a refined attitude towards love generally. Castiglione

sees that the most desirable end of courtly love i s marriage. '

In advising the lady on how to love he says:;

I w i l l h a v e h e r t o l o v e one she may
m a r r i e , n e i t h e r w i l l I t h i n k i t an
o f f e n c e i f s h e s h e w h i m some t o k e n o f
love. In which matter.I w i l l teach
h e r one g e n e r a l l r u l e i n f e w wordes,
a n d t h a t i s , T h a t s h e s h e w h i m whom
she l o v e t h a l l t o k e n s o f l o v e , but
s u c h as may*T)ring i n t o t h e lovers
minde a hope t o o b t a i n e o f her any
d i s h o n e s t m a s t e r . 27

The distinction between true love and sensual love for

Castiglione lies in temperance which is the surest guide to

the lovers. He admits the a t t r a c t i o n of sensual love but

he emphasizes that i t i s beneath true love:

As I judge t h e r e f o r e , t h o s e yong men

t h a t b r i d l e t h e i r a p p e t i t e s , . and love
w i t h r e a s o n , t o be g o d l y : so doe I
h o l d e x c u s e d s u c h as y i e l d e t o s e n s u a l l ,
w h e r e u n t o . t h e y be s o e n c l i n e d t h r o u g h t h e
w e a k e n e s s e a n d f r a i l t i e o f man: so t h e y
show t h e r e i n m e e k e n e s , c o u r t e s i e , and
p r o w e s s e , and t h e o t h e r w o r t h i e c o n -
d i t i o n s that these Lords have spoken o f ,

25 P l a t o , p j _ . c i t . , p . 67. "That Pandemic lover who

loves r a t h e r the body than the s o u l is worthless."

26 Castiglione, Courtier, pp. 304-305*

27 Ihid., p. 240.
 and when these y o u t h f u l l yeares bee
•gone and past, leave i t o f f eleane,
keeping a l o o f e from t h i s sensual
c o v e t i n g as f r o the lowest step o f the
s t a y r e s , by the which a man may ascend
t o true love.28

The whole emphasis i s upon developing a true lasting

l o v e as the only s a t i s f y i n g end o f love s e r v i c e . This i s

not contrary t o the t r a d i t i o n o f c o u r t l y l o v e , but i s

a c t u a l l y a new element i n i t s e v o l u t i o n .

In much o f h i s d i s c u s s i o n on l o v e , C a s t i g l i o n e

deals with i t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y . Rules o f wooing are l a i d

down t o guide the c o u r t i e r : he i s t o serve h i s l a d y and

t r y t o please h e r , he i s t o shun ignorance o f the p a s s i o n ,

he i s t o be modest i n seeking her l o v e , and he i s to be

c h i v a l r i c , d i s p l a y i n g w o r t h i n e s s , v a l i a n c e , and d i s c r e t i o n .

The l a d y i s i n s t r u c t e d , a l s o , on how t o conduct h e r s e l f

when being wooed. She i s t o know how t o d i s t i n g u i s h

s i n c e r e love from pretended l o v e , she must know how a man

paying court t o her w i l l a c t , and she must be f o r t h r i g h t

i n d e a l i n g w i t h her l o v e r , remaining chaste, v i r t u o u s , and

modest. T h i s p a t t e r n o f conduct became an i d e a l f o r the

l a d i e s and the c o u r t i e r s o f a l l Europe.

Perhaps no b e t t e r example can be found o f a

c o u r t i e r who r e f l e c t e d C a s t i g l i o n e ' s p r i n c i p l e s both i n

h i s l i f e and i n h i s w r i t i n g than S i r P h i l i p Sidney.

28 C a s t i g l i o n e , op,, c i t . , p. 307.
 S i d n e y , as s c a r c e l y anyone e l s e i n
a l l E n g l i s h l i t e r a t u r e , embodied
t h a t p e r f e c t b a l a n c e o f . g r a c e s and
accomplishments w h i c h made him the
d e l i g h t o f a l l who knew him.
C a s t i g l i o n e ' s i d e a l had a t l a s t
e n t e r e d i n t o the f l e s h . 29

I n S i d n e y were combined b i r t h , courage, C h r i s t i a n charity,

g r a c e , v i r t u e , honour, and d e v o t i o n : a l l necessary i n the

Renaissance c o u r t i e r . Though he d i e d a t t h i r t y - t w o , he

was famous as a p e r f e c t gentleman, a c c o m p l i s h e d i n arms,

i n s t a t e c r a f t , and i n l e a r n i n g .

I n a d d i t i o n t o b e i n g a l i v i n g model o f the i d e a l

c o u r t i e r , S i d n e y d i s p l a y e d a f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h the

c o u r t i e r ' s l i f e , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the c o n v e n t i o n s o f

courtly love, i n his writing. H i s sonnet sequence,

^ S t S S E h e l ^ a n d ^ S t e 1 1 a , shows t h i s f a m i l i a r i t y . L i k e the

t r o u b a d o u r s o f o l d , S i d n e y addresses a m a r r i e d l a d y w i t h

whom he i s i n l o v e . However, i n h i s h a n d l i n g o f c o u r t l y

l o v e , S i d n e y shows the i n f l u e n c e o f the I t a l i a n s . H i s love

i s c o l d and towers over him. He grows hot and c o l d and

cannot s l e e p . D e s c r i b i n g h i s s u f f e r i n g he s a y s :

A l a s , have I not p a i n enough, my f r i e n d ,

Upon whose b r e a s t a f i e r c e r g r i p e doth t i r e :

Thus d i d on him who f i r s t s t o l e down t h e f i r e

W h i l e Love on me d o t h a l l h i s q u i v e r spend .

29 P e a r s o n , Love C o n v e n t i o n s , p. 84.
30 J.W. H e b e l and H.H. Hudson, ed. , Poetr2_.of_.the
English„Renaissan.ce, New Y o r k , A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , " " r n c . ,
1929, "p. 1087
 40

and

My m o u t h d o t h w a t e r , a n d my b r e a s t d o t h s w e l l ,
My t o n g u e d o t h i t c h , my t h o u g h t s i n l a b o r
l i e . . . .31

Sidney sees h i s lady as b e i n g t h e embodiment of love and

beauty:

. . . i n S t e l l a ' s face I read

What l o v e a n d b e a u t y b e , t h e n a l l my deed

But copying i s , what i n her Nature writes.32

The last sonnet o f h i s s e q u e n c e ' shows a distinct Petrarchan

influence. Being unable to find hope i n fleshly love, he

supplants i t with spiritual love; In this last sonnet

earthly love i s seen as t r a n s i t o r y : i t "i.reachest but t o

dust" and " f a d i n g pleasure brings." The P l a t o n i c i d e a l of

rising to s p i r i t u a l love through fleshly love i s the only

end which the sonneteer can accept:

Then f a r e w e l l , world; t h y uttermost I see;
E t e r n a l L o v e , m a i n t a i n t h y l i f e i n me.33

In the Arcadia,, Sidney deals more comprehensively

with ladies, c o u r t i e r s , and courtly love than he could i n

Astrophel and S t e l l a . , I n the longer work, there i s an

idealistic treatment o f honour, courage, valour, endurance,

and self-denying devotion — 1

a l l the things that make up

knightly character.

Sidney, i n h i s imaginary A r c a d i a . . .
expressed with ingenuous confidence h i s

31 Hebel and Hudson, op,, c i t , . , p. 112.

' 32 I b i d . , p.. 107.

33 I b i d . , p. 120.
 41

cherished i d e a l s of v i r t u e , heroic
energy and c h i v a l r o u s l o v e . 3 4

G a b r i e l Harvey's d e s c r i p t i o n o f the A r c a d i a w i t h i t s

p a r e n t h e t i c a l comments on S i d n e y i s worth q u o t i n g :

Here are amourous c o u r t i n g (he was young

i n y e a r s ) , sage c o u n s e l l i n g (he was
r i p e i n judgement), v a l o r o u s f i g h t i n g
( h i s s o v e r e i g n p r o f e s s i o n was arms),
and d e l i g h t f u l pastime by way o f
pastoral exercises.35

The A r c a d i a i s , t h e n , a prose romance, s e t i n a f a i r y l a n d

atmosphere, h a v i n g a s t r a i n o f c h i v a l r o u s a d v e n t u r e , and

d e a l i n g w i t h love-making and attempted l o v e - m a k i n g . Within

i t s pages can be found a code o f b e h a v i o u r which c o u l d s e r v e

as a moral and s o c i a l guide t o the E l i z a b e t h a n c o u r t l y

society. I t s v a l u e t o t h a t s o c i e t y cannot be o v e r l o o k e d :

The A r c a d i a p e r p e t u a t e d and d i f f u s e d
the ideal~"which S i d n e y ' s l i f e had
c r e a t e d . I t t r a n s m i t t e d t o the next
age h i s c o n c e p t i o n s o f s p i r i t e d and
d e l i c a t e manhood, l o y a l and i n t e l l i g e n t
womanhood, j u s t i c e , government, f r i e n d -
s h i p and p i e t y . . . .3°

I n the A r c a d i a , S i d n e y combined the m e d i e v a l chivalric

t r a d i t i o n and the c l a s s i c a l p a s t o r a l t r a d i t i o n i n t o a

romance o f people who were e i t h e r good o r bad. However,

emphasis i s p l a c e d upon the good, and the c h i v a l r i c ideal

34 E.A. B a k e r , The H i s t o r y o f _ t h e J S n g l i s h N o v e l ,
E d i n b u r g h , The . R i v e r s i d e P r e s s , L i m i t e d 7 " ~ v o l 7 27~19297~"p. 85.
35 M. W i l s o n , S i r P h i l i p _ S i d n e y , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y
-

P r e s s , 1932, p. 143.

3 6 I b i d . , p. 1 5 5 .
always t r i u m p h s i n the i d y l l i c land. Most o f the

characters are nobly b o r n ; even the shepherds and

shepherdesses u t t e r the sentiments and c o n v e n t i o n s of the

courtly and t h e r e f i n e d . The s e t t i n g i s a highly artificial

o n e , where y o u n g n o b l e l o v e r s can s u c c e s s f u l l y disguise

themselves a n d embark u p o n r o m a n t i c l o v e quests. Never-

theless, w i t h a l l the fantastic i n t r i g u e and adventure,

the purpose of love i s clearly a happy e n d i n g i n m a r r i a g e .

The s t o r y i s , b r i e f l y , as f o l l o w s : two noble

f r i e n d s , M u s i d o r u s o f M a c e d o n and P y r o c l e s of Thessaly are

separated i n a s h i p w r e c k and go t o d i f f e r e n t lands where

each i s g i v e n command o f a n a r m y . They f i n a l l y confront

each other i n h a n d - t o - h a n d combat ( b e i n g heads o f opposing

armies) and r e c o g n i z i n g e a c h o t h e r , make p e a c e . They then

embark u p o n a l o v e quest t o g a i n t h e h a n d o f two A r c a d i a n

princesses. Musidorus disguises h i m s e l f as a shepherd,

Dorus, and p u r s u e s P r i n c e s s P a m e l a . Pyrocles disguises

himself as a woman, Z e l m a n e , to gain Princess P h i l o c l e a .

Confusion follows Pyrocles 1

disguise, f o r he a t t r a c t s the

love of the parents of the P r i n c e s s e s . B a s i l i u s (the king)

falls i n l o v e w i t h Zelmane (Pyrocles) as d o e s G y n e c i a

(the l u s t f u l q u e e n who r e a l i z e s t h a t Zelmane i s a man).

In unfolding this tale, S i d n e y uses the current courtly

conventions: the extreme b e a u t y of the l a d y , the suffering

that love causes, the i n f e r i o r p o s i t i o n o f the l o v e r who

begs the l a d y for p i t y , a n d t h e e n n o b l i n g power o f virtuous

love. A l l of these aspects of courtly love c a n be s e e n in

 43

the pleading of Zelmane (Pyrocles) to Philoclea:

0 l e t n o t , l e t n o t f r o m y o u be p o u r e d
u p o n me d e s t r u c t i o n ; y o u r f a i r face
h a t h many t o k e n s i n i t o f a m a z e m e n t a t
my w o r d s : t h i n k t h e n what t h i s
a m a z e m e n t i s , f r o m w h e n c e t h e y come,
s i n c e no w o r d s c a n c a r r y w i t h t h e m t h e
l i f e of the inward f e e l i n g , I d e s i r e t h a t
my d e s i r e may be w e i g h e d i n t h e b a l a n c e s
o f h o n o u r , and l e t v i r t u e h o l d them. For
i f t h e h i g h e s t l o v e i n no b a s e p e r s o n
may a s p i r e t o g r a c e , t h e n may I hope y o u r
b e a u t y w i l l n o t be w i t h o u t p i t y , i f
o t h e r w i s e you be, a l a s 1 but l e t i t not be
s o r e s o l v e d , y e t s h a l l n o t my d e a t h b e
c o m f o r t l e s s , r e c e i v i n g i t by y o u r s e n t e n c e . 3 7

Just as Philoclea can condemn h e r lover to death, so can

Pamela condemn h e r s . In a letter to Pamela, Dorus(Musidorus)

tells that he will die because Pamela w i l l s i t (since she

will not promise to love him). Yet, like Pyrocles, he

gladly accepts the sentence of death since i t is Pamela's

38

heavenly will. However, Pamela, i n true courtly fashion,

has been forced to consider the plight of her lover because

of his courtliness and his willingness to do anything for

her:
. . . can I w i t h o u t the d e t e s t a b l e stain
of ungratefulness a b s t a i n from l o v i n g
h i m , who ( f a r exceeding the beautifulness
of h i s shape w i t h the b e a u t i f u l n e s s o f h i s .
m i n d , and t h e g r e a t n e s s o f h i s e s t a t e
w i t h the g r e a t n e s s o f h i s a c t s ) i s c o n t e n t
so t o a b u s e h i m s e l f , as t o become
D a r a e t a s ' s s e r v a n t f o r my s a k e ? 39

37 S i r P h i l i p S i d n e y , A r c a d i a , L o n d o n , George
Routledge a n d S o n s , L i m i t e d , 1907, p.~*213.

38 I b i d . , pp. 150-151.

39 Ibid., p. 148.
Pamela's d e s c r i p t i o n o f Musidorus recalls Castiglione's

ideal, and, i n d e e d , we f e e l that Musidorus i s Sidney's ideal

when he i s d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g

. . . a mind o f most e x c e l l e n t c o m p o s i t i o n ,
a p i e r c i n g wit quite devoid of ostentation,
high e r e c t e d thoughts seated i n a heart
o f c o u r t e s y , an e l o q u e n c e as sweet i n t h e
u t t e r i n g as i t was s l o w t o come t o t h e
u t t e r i n g , and a b e h a v i o u r so n o b l e as gave
a m a j e s t y t o a d v e r s i t y . . . .40

Such i s the i d e a l that Sidney upheld i n h i s l i f e and i n h i s

A r c a d i a and p a s s e d on t o h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s and s u c c e s s o r s .

Spenser was one o f t h e s e who saw i n S i d n e y t h e

epitome o f a l l t h a t was n o b l e , v i r t u o u s , and g e n t l e . I n one

o f t h e many e l e g i e s where S p e n s e r i d e a l i z e s S i d n e y , he s a y s

o f him:

Knowledge her l i g h t hath l o s t , v a l o r

hath slaine her knight,
Sidney i s d e a d , dead i s my f r i e n d ,
dead i s the worlds d e l i g h t . 4 1

(11. 7-8)
Though S p e n s e r ' s h a n d l i n g o f t h e c o u r t l y theme differed

from S i d n e y ' s , s t i l l he c h e r i s h e d t h e same v a l u e s and i d e a l s .

He t o o m e a s u r e d t r u e n o b i l i t y by t h e s t a n d a r d s o f

Castiglione's courtier and h e l d that a knight should combine

learning and c h i v a l r y . The m o r a l n o t e was s t r o n g i n S p e n s e r ,

40 Q u o t e d f r o m P e a r s o n , L o v e _ C o n v e n t i o n s , p. 102.

41 J . C . S m i t h and E . de S e l i n c o u r t , ed.,, T h e J P o e t i c a l
Works o f Edmund S p e n s e r , L o n d o n , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y ~ P r e s s , "
19l>07 "Another""of t h e Same," p. 559.
A l l references to
S p e n s e r ' s poems a r e f r o m t h i s book.
 45

there being a perpetual emphasis upon patriotic duty,

stedfast loyalty, faithful love, a n d v i r t u o u s women full

of modesty and grace.

M e d i a e v a l c h i v a l r i c i d e a l s were
fundamental i n h i s system o f conduct;
h u t he d e l i b e r a t e l y u n i t e d them w i t h
metaphysical conceptions o f moral
principle . . . . 4 2

Not only d i dSpenser hold up these values f o ra l l t o admire,

but h e made i t h i s p u r p o s e t o teach them. I n doing s o he

appealed t o the poets that followed h i m a n d d i d much to f i x

the chivalric ideals which came out o f the E n g l i s h

Renaissance.

Of great importance was h i s a t t i t u d e t o women a n d

his handling of.c o u r t l y love. I n h i s poetry, woman h a s a n

honorable p l a c e , o f t e n being equal and s u p e r i o r ( i n c e r t a i n

43 -
w a y s ) t o man. A c t u a l l y b e was a d e v o t e d s p o k e s m a n o f

the existing position o f women i n s o c i e t y .

A t t h e c o u r t o f E l i z a b e t h women n o
l o n g e r r e c e i v e d a n empty homage w h i c h
e x c l u d e d them f r o m a l l t h e more
serious interests of l i f e . Their
culture, their education, their
a r t i s t i c accomplishments, enabled
them t o s h a r e i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l
l i f e o f t h e i r time: t h e y were n o t
m e r e l y l o v e r s , t h e y h a d become .
companions and f r i e n d s . ^

42 S c h o f i e l d , Chivalry., pp. 147-148. -

43 T h i s f a c t i s b o r n e - o u t i n Book I I I o f t h e F a i r i e
Queene, where B r i t o m a r t , t h e symbol o f c h a s t i t y , i s c a p a b l e "
o f g a i n i n g S c u d a m o u r s q u e s t when h e , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t
1

he l o v e s A m o r e t t r u l y a n d w a n t s t o r e s c u e h e r , f a i l s b e c a u s e
h e i s t o o i m p a t i e n t a n d g i v e s way t o a n g e r .

44 S m i t h a n d de S e l i n c o u r t , o_). c i t . , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , "

p. x i v .
 46

I n
C o l i n C l o u t \ s Come Home A g a i n , S p e n s e r h a s much t o s a y

in p r a i s e o f women. They a r e equal i nnobility, grace,

and courtesy t o men and t h e i r b e a u t y i s a l l - p o w e r f u l . In

one p a s s a g e where S p e n s e r p r a i s e s one o f E l i z a b e t h ' s m a i d s , .

he uses a l l the medieval conventions i n describingh i s

devotion to her:

F o r t h a t my s e l f e I do p r o f e s s e t o be
V a s s a i l t o o n e , whom a l l my d a y e s I s e r u e ;
The beame o f b e a u t i e s p a r k l e d f r o m aboue,
The f l o u r e o f v e r t u e and p u r e c h a s t i t i e ,
The b l o s s o m e . o f sweet i o y and p e r f e c t l o u e ,
The p e a r l o f p e e r l e s s e g r a c e and m o d e s t i e :
To h e r my t h o u g h t s I d a i l y d e d i c a t e ,
To h e r my h e a r t I n i g h t l y m a r t y r i z e :
To h e r my l o u e I l o w l y do p r o s t r a t e ,
To h e r my l i f e I w h o l l y sacrifice:
My t h o u g h t , my h e a r t , my l o u e , my l i f e i s s h e e ,
A n d I h e r s e u e r o n e l y , e u e r one . . . .
(11. 466-477)
Though t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f the lady and h i s d e v o t i o n t o

her i s conventional, we must r e c o g n i z e t h a t S p e n s e r was

sincere i n his veneration o f Women.

In h i s treatment o f l o v e , Spenser carries f o r t h the

Italian tradition advanced by P e t r a r c h o f d i g n i f y i n gthe

passion. However, S p e n s e r , u n l i k e P e t r a r c h who t h o u g h t

that spiritual l o v e was t h e o n l y w o r t h w h i l e goal, combines

the l o v e o f body w i t h the love o f s o u l . The E n g l i s h poet

maintained a h e a v y emphasis upon t h e s p i r i t u a l aspect o f

love while he d i d n o t condemn t h e p h y s i c a l . To him t h e

natural consummation o f t r u e l o v e was t o be r e a l i z e d i n

45
m a r r i a g e where a s p i r i t u a l union o f s o u l s m i g h t be r e a c h e d .

45 C f . , f o r example, The E p i t h a l a m i u m .
Though h i s conception of l o v e had no place f o r the e a r l y

c o u r t l y l o v e t r a d i t i o n which c o u l d allow a d u l t e r y under

c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , i t d i d not overemphasize the spiritual

s t r a i n of the P e t r a r c h a n theme. Rather, i t sought to

r e c o n c i l e the p h y s i c a l and s p i r i t u a l s i d e s of love and to

urge h i g h moral standards. H i s conception of love placed

it as the h i g h e s t goal of the t r u e knight. Courtly love,

as known to the e a r l y medieval w r i t e r s , i s openly condemned

and a more r e f i n e d , i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e d , and moral type of

c o u r t l y love i s favored.

In the F a i r i e Queene. Spenser f i n d s i t c o n g e n i a l to

d e a l with the "twelve p r i v a t e moral v i r t u e s " hy a s s i g n i n g a

knight to undertake p e r i l o u s combats with v i c e i n v a r i o u s

forms and to be the champion o f each v i r t u e . Still the

poem i s not e n t i r e l y a medieval one. I n r e a l i t y , the day

of medieval adventures and quests was gone and the knight

of E l i z a b e t h ' s day was not the knight of Henry II's.- The

F a i r i e Queene, though set i n medieval times w i t h medieval

f i g u r e s , r e f l e c t s the k n i g h t l y s o c i e t y and the

k n i g h t l y values of E l i z a b e t h a n England. Spenser introduces

a l l the problems that were of concern to the c o u r t i e r of h i s

day f o r , a f t e r a l l , h i s purpose to " . . . f a s h i o n a

gentleman or noble person i n vertuous and gentle discipline

46

. . ." n e c e s s i t a t e d a s t o r y t h a t could be a p p l i e d to h i s

own society. The Middle Ages o f f e r e d a l l that he would

46 Smith and de S e l i n c o u r t , op,, c i t . , "A L e t t e r

o f the A u t h o r s . . . to . . . S i r Walter R a l e i g h . . .,"
p. 407.
 48

teach as b e i n g good i n h i sFairie Queene:

0 g o o d l y u s a g e o f t h o s e a n t i q u e times,.
I n w h i c h t h e s w o r d was s e r u a n t u n t o r i g h t ;
When n o t f o r m a l i c e a n d c o n t e n t i o u s c r i m e s ,
But a l l f o r p r a i s e , and proofe o f manly might,
The m a r t i a l l b r o o d a c c u s t o m e d t o f i g h t :
T h e n h o n o u r was t h e meed o f v i c t o r i e ,
And y e t t h e vanquished had no d e s p i g h t :
L e t l a t e r age t h a t n o b l e u s e e n u i e ,
V i l e rancour t o auoid, and c r u e l l s u r q u e d r i e .
(III.i.13)

In h i s attempt t o guide the courtier o f h i s day,

Spenser shows t h e rewards of following the highest ideals

of the courtly life a n d , b y c o n t r a s t , he shows the e v i l and

misery, which result from indulgence i h lust and v i c e . In

Book I I I o f t h e F a i r i e .Queene, t h e l u s t f u l side of courtly

love i s condemned. Britomart, t h e symbol of Chastity,'

leaves the C a s t l e Ioyeous when she sees what goes on there

between k n i g h t s and l a d i e s :

F o r n o t h i n g would she l e n g e r t h e r e be s t a y d ,
Where s o l o o s e l i f e , a n d s o u n g e n t l e trade
Was u s d o f K n i g h t s a n d L a d i e s s e e m i n g
gent . . . .
(III.1.67)

Again i n this same b o o k S p e n s e r clearly distinguishes

between sensual and true love:

Most s a c r e d f i r e , t h a t b u r n e s t m i g h t i l y
In living brests, ykindled first aboue,
Emongst t h e t e r n a l l s p h e r e s and l a m p i n g s k y ,
1

A n d t h e n c e p o u r i n t o men, w h i c h man c a l l L o u e ,
N o t t h a t s a m e , w h i c h d o t h b a s e a f f e c t i o n s moue
I n b r u t i s h minds, and f i l t h y l u s t i n f l a m e ,
. B u t t h a t sweet f i t , t h a t d o t h t r u e b e a u t i e l o u e ,
A n d c h o s e t h v e r t u e f o r h i s d e a r e s t Dame,
Whence s p r i n g a l l n o b l e d e e d s a n d n e u e r d y i n g
fame . . . .
(III.iii.1)

In Canto X o f Book I I I , Spenser shatters the romantic

 49
atmosphere of the early medieval brand of courtly love. In

this canto, Paridell, a false knight, rapes H e l l e n o r e , the

wife of h i s host and makes o f f with her. Nothing but

unhappiness and evil comes from this kind of love which

Spenser abhors. On the other hand, he praises the chastity

and virtue o f Amoret, who, though she i s held captive

and i s tortured by Busirane., remains true t o Scudamour, to be

finally r e s c u e d by Britomart. In a l l his handling of love,

Spenser emphasizes chastity, not i n the sense of self-denial,

but i n the sense of virtue and constancy. The reward of

such chastity i s t o be marriage and a happy life, not just

pleasure f o r the moment:

T h e s t o r y he t e l l s i s . . . t h e f i n a l
s t r u g g l e between the romance o f
m a r r i a g e a n d t h e r o m a n c e o f a d u l t e r y . ^"7

In Spenser courtly love, which goes back beyond the

days of the troubadours, has been transformed from a

convenient social convention to a method of gaining true and

ideal love. Spenser will have no part of courtly love, i n

its original medieval sense. The love which he sanctions

is courtly love i n that i t can be realized o n l y by the noble,

courtly person who has the highest moral standards. Courtesy,

by h i s time, has come t o mean more than the willingness to

undertake love service. I t implies gentlemanly conduct,

refined manners, intellect., and a high moral purpose. Thus,

47 Lewis, Allegory of Love, p. 340.

courtly love, which grew so r a p i d l y i n t h e age o f m e d i e v a l

chivalry, changed with the development of society t i l l , by

the time of Elizabeth, i t showed the r e f i n i n g e f f e c t s o f man 1

study of himself.

It i s this tradition of courtly love, i n a l l i t s

intricacy and d i v e r s i t y , which Shakespeare took up i n t h e

great decade of the Elizabethan era, the 1590's and

continued to deal with f o r the remainder of h i s career as

a playwright. Since h i s greatest i n t e r e s t wa^s man, he

could not f a i l t o give h i s attention t o the t r a d i t i o n of

courtly love w h i c h was a very real, living influence i n his

society. Such great men as Chaucer, Castiglione, Sidney,

and Spenser had a l l contributed something important to the

tradition and Shakespeare could n o t b u t be alive t o each

man's contribution. The s o c i e t y o f h i s own day took a

keen interest i n the Middle Ages and such topics as

chivalry and t h e e f f e c t s o f l o v e were studied seriously

for their relationship to real life. The c o u r t l y love

tradition a t t r a c t e d Shakespeare, f o r i n h i s plays he i s

always concerned with love and i t s r e l a t i o n to the l i f e of

human b e i n g s . T h o u g h he p r e s e n t s the conventions of courtly

love i n their many divergences, poses, and f a n c i e s , he

normally treats the type of love which i s a natural passion

leading to marriage. With this i n mind, we can turn now

to a study o f Shakespeare's treatment o f t h e theme.

 CHAPTER I I I

THE COURTLY THEME AND SATIRE

Lov,els..Labqur^s ..Lost

The_Tj?o_,GenU

As__You_Li.ke_.It_.
 52

CHAPTER I I I

Shakespeare's e a r l i e s t treatment o f the courtly-

theme I n h i s p l a y s gives evidence t h a t he was able to present

what t h e p u b l i c wanted and still make o b v i o u s h i s own

o p i n i o n o f the convention. When two of h i s e a r l i e s t plays

a p p e a r e d , L o v e ' s Labour',s L o s t and The Two Gentlemen, o f

Veronaj, the c o u r t l y theme was enjoying great popularity i n the

romances o f L y l y and Greene, the pastoral tales of Sidney

and S p e n s e r , and the- s o n n e t s e q u e n c e s o f numerous Elizabethan

poets. T h o u g h S h a k e s p e a r e , i n h i s p l a y s , showed a w i l l i n g n e s s

to provide popular entertainment, still he was not prepared

to.abandon h i m s e l f to a world o f c o m p l e t e u n r e a l i t y as the

r o m a n c e r s and sonneteers o f t e n had done. Instead, he saw the

insincerity and a f f e c t a t i o n inherent i n the courtly conventions.

T h o u g h he accepted these conventions as part of h i s heritage,

he d i d not l o s e s i g h t o f the t r u e meaning o f friendship, love,

virtue, or t r u t h . R a t i o n a l l o v e was always p r e f e r r e d t o

courtly l o v e , and sincerity to a f f e c t a t i o n , even i n h i s

earliest plays.

I n
Love's, Labour',s L o s t , S h a k e s p e a r e makes f u n o f the

folly connected with courtly love and the pursuit of the

courtly ideal. Pedantry, sonnet-writing, and affectation are

all ridiculed and the extravagances of c o u r t l y love are parodied

by t h e would-be c o u r t i e r , Don Armado. Even the principal

characters of t h i s p l a y make mock o f c o u r t l y l o v e i n their

ineffectual suits to t h e i r ladies.

 The main action of Lovers Labour'.s . L o s t is a satire

on courtly love, since the courtly lovers are made the dupes

of the more sensible ladies and their love suits virtually end

in failure. Ferdinand, the King of Navarre, and his three

lords, Berowne, L o n g a v i l l e , and Dumain, foolishly renounce the

society of ladies and vow to turn the court into 11

a little

Academe.' 1
An embassy from the King of France comprised of the

Princess and her ladies, Rosaline, Maria, and Katherine,

forces them to break their vow. Despite their intentions,

the King and his nobles fall in love with the Princess and

her l a d i e s , becoming typical courtly lovers. The ladies'do

not accept the men, however, but mock them instead. The play

ends in disappointment for the men when a messenger brings

word that the Princess' father i s dead. The ladies break off

their frivolity, only promising to consider the suit of each

after a year of trial has passed.

The satirical treatment of the courtly theme in this

play i s not a bitter denunciation, but rather a light-hearted

mockery. At a l l times simplicity and naturalness are

favoured by Shakespeare. B e r o w n e , who is the play's most

important character, i s , generally speaking, the spokesman

for these qualities. He sees the i m p r a c t i c a l i t y and the

unnaturalness•of the oath that the four men have taken:

Why should p r o u d summer b o a s t

B e f o r e the b i r d s have any c a u s e t o sing?
Why should I joy i n any a b o r t i v e b i r t h ?
A t C h r i s t m a s I no more d e s i r e a r o s e
T h a n w i s h a snow i n May's n e w f a n g l e d shows,
 But l i k e o f each t h i n g t h a t i n season growsi
So y o u — t o s t u d y now i t i s t o o l a t e —
Climb o ' e r t h e house t o u n l o c k t h e l i t t l e gate.
(I.i.102-109)

Though Berowne enters into the conspiracy against love, he

warns a l l h i s companions o f the obstacles which confront them.

It i s no s u r p r i s e t o us that he f a l l s i n love rapidly, along

with h i s companions, f o r he h a s a l w a y s had a high regard f o r

love. He r i d i c u l e s h i s f e l l o w noblemen on d i s c o v e r i n g that

they have allowed themselves t o become the victims of love

and denies he h a s b e e n groaning f o rlove when he says:

. . . I betray'd by you:
I t h a t am h o n e s t ; I t h a t h o l d i t s i n
T o b r e a k t h e v o w I am e n g a g e d i n .
I am b e t r a y ' d b y k e e p i n g c o m p a n y
W i t h men l i k e y o u , men o f i n c o n s t a n c y .
When s h a l l y o u s e e me w r i t e a t h i n g i n r h y m e ?
Or groan f o r l o v e ? o r spend a minute's time
I n p r u n i n g me? When s h a l l y o u h e a r t h a t I
W i l l p r a i s e a hand, a f o o t , a f a c e , an eye,
A g a i t , a s t a t e , a brow, a b r e a s t , a w a i s t ,
A l e g , a limb?
(IV.iii.176-186)
However, we feel that this i s done more f o r the purpose o f

ridiculing h i s friends than f o r the purpose of revealing h i s

true opinions. After the king discovers that Berowne i s also

in love, the l a t t e r repeats h i s early a p p r a i s a l o f the passion:

A s t r u e we a r e a s f l e s h a n d b l o o d c a n b e .
T h e s e a w i l l e b b a n d f l o w , h e a v e n show h i s f a c e
Young b l o o d doth n o t obey an o l d decree.
We c a n n o t c r o s s t h e c a u s e why we w e r e b o r n ;
T h e r e f o r e o f a l l h a n d s m u s t we b e f o r s w o r n .
(IV.iii.215-219)
Berowne here sees that love i s a natural passion which

cannot be ignored.

In accepting Berowne as t h e spokesman f o ra natural

attitude to love, one c a n n o t deny t h a t he b e l o n g s i n t h e g r o u p

of courtly lovers i n this play. He t o o , like Ferdinand,

Longaville, a n d Dumain, i s a t y p i c a l c o u r t i e r , caught i n

the customary snares o f c o u r t l y l o v e . Each i s described by the

l a d y he a d o r e s w i t h the usual epithets: "sole inheritor of

all p e r f e c t i o n s , " "beauteous h e i r , " " w e l l fitted i n arts,"

"glorious i n arms," and " a l l t h a t v i r t u e l o v e for virtue

lov d"•(III.1.1-75)•
1
Furthermore, each experiences love i n

the conventional c o u r t l y manner. T h e men w r i t e love poetry t o

the ladies of their a f f e c t i o n s which parodies t h e extremes

and the a b s u r d i t i e s o f contemporary l o v e - p o e t r y and r i d i c u l e s

the suffering lover. Berowne, i n a r a r e moment, b e r a t e s

himself for f a l l i n g i n love and t r i e s to describe women i n

unromantic terms:

What,I? I love? I sue? I seek a w i f e ?

A woman, t h a t i s l i k e a German c l o c k ,
S t i l l a - r e p a i r i n g , ever out o f frame,
And n e v e r g o i n g a r i g h t , b e i n g a w a t c h ,
B u t b e i n g w a t c h ' d t h a t i t may s t i l l go r i g h t ' .
Nay, t o be p e r j u r ' d , w h i c h i s w o r s t o f a l l ,
And, among t h r e e , t o l o v e t h e w o r s t o f a l l ,
A w h i t e l y wanton, w i t h a v e l v e t brow,
W i t h two p i t c h - b a l l s s t u c k i n h e r f a c e f o r e y e s
Ay, and b y h e a v e n , one t h a t w i l l do t h e d e e d
Though A r g u s were h e r e u n u c h and h e r guard'.
And I t o s i g h f o r h e r 1 t o w a t c h f o r her'.
To p r a y f o r h e r I. Go t o I i t i s a p l a g u e
T h a t C u p i d w i l l impose f o r my n e g l e c t •
Of h i s a l m i g h t y d r e a d f u l l i t t l e might.
Well, I w i l l l o v e , w r i t e , s i g h , pray, sue,
and g r o a n .
Some men must l o v e my l a d y , a n d some J o a n .

(III.i.191-207)
Despite his efforts t o deny t h e power o f Woman's b e a u t y ,

Berowne g i v e s i n to love. S o o n he i s c o m p e t i n g w i t h his

friends i n praising their ladies. I n Act I V , Scene i i i , each

of t h e f o u r men t r i e s t o outdo the other i n his lavish praise

of his loved one. Such p r a i s e i s c o n v e n t i o n a l in its

extravagance and r e v e a l s that a l l are caught i n the throes

of c o u r t l y l o v e . The power o f woman!s beauty and o f l o v e

have c a p t i v a t e d the men, and Berowne speaks f o r a l l i n h i s

lengthy d i s c u s s i o n o f woman and love (IV.iii.290-364) which

r e c a l l s Castiglione's doctrine o f the power o f woman's

beauty.

The theme o f c o u r t l y l o v e i n t h i s p l a y i s d e a l t

w i t h , a l s o , on a lower l e v e l . Armado, the S p a n i a r d who

a f f e c t s c o u r t l y manners and graces, i s presented as an

example o f the a b s u r d i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with c o u r t l y l o v e .

Jaquenetta i s only a country wench, but Armado pursues her

i n courtly style. H i s scenes o f love-making are r i d i c u l o u s

as i s h i s l e t t e r , cast i n a c o u r t l y s t y l e , which sings

1

her praises. He experiences the u s u a l melancholy and i s

addicted t o w r i t i n g poetry i n praise of h i s "lady." The

extreme end'to which c o u r t l y love b r i n g s him, a burlesque

1 'By heaven, that thou a r t f a i r i s most

i n f a l l i b l e ; true t h a t thou a r t beauteous;
t r u t h i t s e l f t h a t thou a r t l o v e l y . More
f a i r e r than f a i r , b e a u t i f u l than beauteous,
t r u e r than t r u t h i t s e l f , have commiseration
on thy h e r o i c a l vassal'. . . . S h a l l I
command thy love? I may. S h a l l I enforce
thy love? I could. S h a l l I e n t r e a t thy
love? I will. What s h a l t thou exchange f o r
rags? Robes. F o r t i t t l e s ? T i t l e s . F o r
t h y s e l f ? Me. Thus expecting thy r e p l y ,
I profane my l i p s on t h y f o o t , my eyes on
thy p i c t u r e , and my heart on thy every p a r t .
'Thine, i n the dearest design o f i n d u s t r y ,
Don A d r i a n o de Armado.'
' (IV.i.60-89)
figure of a courtier, is s e e n when C o s t a r d reveals that

Jaquenetta has been pregnant f o r two months. Armado

finally admits his folly and, like the King and his lords

who are put on trial for a year, is dismissed, having

"vow'd to Jaquenetta to hold the plough for her sweet

love three year" (V.ii.892-894).

No courtier in this play is successful in love.

Despite the attention paid to the l a d i e s , none yields to

her lover. Unlike the traditional courtly lady who is

cruel at first, but i s not deaf to her lover's suit, the

Princess and her companions remain firm in their answers

to their lovers. In disguising themselves to mock the

men, the ladies show t h a t they are more than conventional

figures. Rosaline, for example, seems to be anything but

a courtly lady in s t a t i n g her opinion o f Berowne and in

her desire to make a fool of him:

They are worse f o o l s to purchase mocking so.

T h a t same B e r o w n e I ' l l t o r t u r e e r e I go.
0 t h a t I fenew he w e r e b u t i n b y t h ' w e e k 1
How I w o u l d make h i m f a w n , a n d b e g , a n d seek,
A&d w a i t t h e s e a s o n , and o b s e r v e t h e t i m e s ,
And spend h i s p r o d i g a l w i t s i n b o o t l e s s rhyme
A n d s h a p e h i s s e r v i c e w h o l l y t o my hests,
A n d make h i m p r o u d t o make me p r o u d t h a t jest
So p e r t a u n t - l i k e w o u l d I o'ersway h i s s t a t e
T h a t he s h o u l d b e my f o o l , a n d I h i s f a t e .
(V.ii.59-68)

This is a devastating mockery of courtly love and its

conventions. Before the ladies have finished with their

wooers, a l l four men h a v e b e e n made to feel foolish. The

Princess describes the noblemen's abandonment of their oath

in apt terms:
 58

That sport b e s t p l e a s e s t h a t d o t h l e a s t know how:

Where z e a l s t r i v e s t o c o n t e n t , and the contents
D.ies i n t h e zeal of that which i t presents.
T h e i r form c o n f o u n d e d makes most f o r m i n m i r t h
When g r e a t things labouring perish i n their
birth.
(V.ii.517-521)

Berowne can but reply:

A right d e s c r i p t i o n of o u r s p o r t , my lord.
(V.ii.522)

Shakespeare's satirical treatment of courtly love

is sustained to the end of the play. There i s no repentance

on the part of the l a d i e s who,, even a f t e r news i s brought

of the King of France's death, have time t o make astute

appraisals of their lovers and to set a trial period of one

year on each before they depart for the court of France. Each

lady, we see, w a n t s more than the lip-service of courtly

love. Therefore they do not take their men at face value

but put the love of each on trial. Berowne summarizes the

ending of the play:

Our w o o i n g d o t h n o t end l i k e an o l d p l a y :
Jack hath not G i l l . These l a d i e s ' courtesy
M i g h t w e l l h a v e made o u r s p o r t a c o m e d y .
(V.ii.883-885)

Courtly love t has not been triumphant and the play closes

leaving us thinking that unless true love, upon which

marriage can be based, grows freely i n the year of trial,

then surely love's labour will be lost.

Shakespeare's treatment of the courtly theme in

The Two Gentlemen of Verona i s not as gay as in Love's

Labour's Lost. Various attitudes to courtly love are

 59

presented by the characters in the play, and very few of these

attitudes leave a favorable impression upon the audience.

Furthermore, the conflict, a traditional one, between

friendship and love pushes the sacrifice of love for friend-

ship to an absurdity and thus degrades the nobler passion

of love. Though courtly love ends in fruition and happiness

for a l l ,still the satire in the play exposes the absurdities

and unrealities inherent in the c o u r t l y code and makes the

audience aware of i t s weaknesses.

The plot o f The Two Gentlemen of Verona gives the

dramatist ample opportunity to examine courtly love and to

satirize i t . Valentine, the main character in the play,

scorns love and chides his friend, Proteus, for being i t s

slave. While Proteus, who loves Julia, stays in Verona,

Valentine is sent to the court at M i l a n . However, Antonio,

the father of Proteus soon cuts short his son's love-making

and sends him after Valentine. Upon joining Valentine,

Proteus finds that love has captured his friend who reveals

his planned elopement with Silvia. Proteus is so overcome

with love for Silvia, upon seeing her, that he betrays the

sacred bond of brotherhood and tells Silvia's father (the

Duke of Milan) of the planned elopement. Valentine is

banished from the court and Proteus is free to pursue Silvia.

In the meantime, Julia disguises h e r s e l f as a page and

enters the service of her lover, Proteus, where she is free

to observe his unfaithfulness. Silvia rejects this false

lover and renounces him as a traitor to love and friendship.

With the a i d of the f a i t h f u l knight, S i r Eglamour, she

goes i n search of Valentine who i s now the noble captain

of a band o f brigands. I n the melodramatic denouement,

Proteus rescues Silvia from this band of brigands and

demands a reward from her f o r this service. Before he c a n

force h e r t o submit t o h i s demands, V a l e n t i n e appears.

After Proteus repents, Valentine o f f e r s t o renounce a l l

his claim to Silvia; but a f i n a l revelation, that t h e page i s

the faithful Julia, facilitates a satisfactory reunion of

each couple.

The situation revealed i n the plot i s well suited

to satire. Proteus, who a c t u a l l y gains more o f our a t t e n t i o n

than the protagonist, degenerates from an i d e a l courtly

2

lover t o an i n c o n s t a n t friend and l o v e r , filled with lust

and deceit. When we s e e h i m i n the. e a r l y part of the play

he i s the true lover of Julia and the c h e r i s h e d friend of

Valentine. Valentine says o f him:

Yet hath S i r Proteus ( f o r t h a t ' s h i s name)
Made u s e a n d f a i r a d v a n t a g e o f h i s d a y s —
H i s years but young, but h i s experience o l d ;
H i s head unmellowed, b u t h i s judgment r i p e ;
And i n a word ( f o r f a r b e h i n d h i s w o r t h
C o m e s a l l t h e p r a i s e s t h a t I now b e s t o w )
He i s c o m p l e t e i n f e a t u r e a n d i n m i n d
W i t h a l l good grace t o grace a gentleman.
( I I . i v . 67-74-)

Proteus' father also thinks highly o f h i s son and, i n sending'

2 The estrangement o f the f r i e n d s , V a l e n t i n e and

P r o t e u s , r e c a l l s the t h e m e o f C h a u c e r ' s Knight,,'s, T a l e w h e r e ,
b e c a u s e b o t h l o v e the same l a d y , P a l a m o n ~ a n d " A r c i t e b e c o m e
b i t t e r enemies i n t h e i r p u r s u i t o f Emelye.
him t o the c o u r t o f M i l a n , he hopes t h a t P r o t e u s w i l l become

the c o u n t e r p a r t of the i d e a l courtier. When P a n t h i n o d e s c r i b e s

to Proteus' father the advantages of t r a i n i n g i n this court,

as follows:

T h e r e s h a l l he p r a c t i c e t i l t s and tournaments,
H e a r sweet d i s c o u r s e , c o n v e r s e w i t h n o b l e m e n ,
And be i n eye o f e v e r y e x e r c i s e
W o r t h y h i s y o u t h and n o b l e n e s s o f b i r t h .
(I.iii.30-33)

we can expect Proteus to r e t u r n a c o u r t i e r worthy of

Castiglione's ideal. Before parting f o r M i l a n , Proteus

t a k e s a solemn oath o f faithfulness:

H e r e i s my hand f o r my t r u e c o n s t a n c y ;
And when t h a t h o u r o ' e r s l i p s me i n t h e day
Wherein I s i g h n o t , J u l i a , f o r thy sake,
The n e x t e n s u i n g h o u r some f o u l m i s c h a n c e
Torment me f o r my l o v e ' s f o r g e t f u l n e s s 1

(II.ii.8-12)

We soon l e a r n t h a t he i s neither the t r u e l o v e r Julia

e x p e c t s him t o be n o r t h e n o b l e courtier his father intends.

T r e a c h e r y becomes h i s f a v o r i t e pastime as he betrays

Valentine and seeks t o dupe t h e d u l l c o u r t i e r , T h u r i o , out

of the love-match b e i n g a r r a n g e d by S i l v i a ' s father, the

Duke o f M i l a n . There i s a strongly s a t i r i c a l v e i n i n the

instructions on how t o woo a l a d y which P r o t e u s delivers to

Thurio:
Y o u must l a y l i m e t o t a n g l e h e r d e s i r e s
B y w a i l f u l s o n n e t s , whose composed rhymes
S h o u l d be f u l l f r a u g h t w i t h s e r v i c e a b l e vows.
• • •
Say t h a t upon the a l t a r o f h e r beauty
You s a c r i f i c e your t e a r s , your s i g h s , your
heart,
W r i t e t i l l y o u r i n k be d r y , and w i t h y o u r
tears
M o i s t i t a g a i n ; and frame some f e e l i n g l i n e
T h a t may d i s c o v e r such, i n t e g r i t y .
 A f t e r your dire-lamenting e l e g i e s ,
V i s i t by n i g h t y o u r l a d y ' s chamber window
W i t h some sweet c o n s o r t . To t h e i r
instruments
Tune a d e p l o r i n g dump. The n i g h t ' s dead
silence
W i l l w e l l become s u c h s w e e t - c o m p l a i n i n g
grievance.
T h i s , or e l s e n o t h i n g , w i l l i n h e r i t her.
(III.ii.68-87)

H e r e i s an u n m i s t a k a b l e d e p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e fashionable

Petrarchan love conventions."" The Duke's answer t o Proteus

underlines the satire and insincerity i n this d e s c r i p t i o n of

courting:

This discipline shows t h o u h a s t been i n l o v e .

(III.ii.88)

I n d e e d , S h a k e s p e a r e seems t o be saying, "If this is the

discipline o f l o v e , c a n n o t you see the falsity and

shallowness behind the doctrines of c o u r t l y love?" Proteus,

the a n t i t h e s i s o f c h i v a l r y and c o u r t l i n e s s , i s made t o

question one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t ideals of courtly love,

constancy, i n h i s l a s t s i g n i f i c a n t speech:
'Tis true. 0 h e a v e n , were man
B u t c o n s t a n t , he were p e r f e c t . T h a t one e r r o r
1

F i l l s him w i t h f a u l t s , makes him r u n t h r o u g h

a l l th' sins.

(V.iv.110-112)

T h i s man who failed as a c o u r t i e r and who c o u l d not be

constant seems t o be saying that constancy i s r a r e r than the

conventions will admit. In r e a l i t y , l o v e i s ' c h a n g e f u l and .

unpredictable i n i t s course, and constancy i s impossible,

except as an i d e a l w h i c h can n e v e r be attained.

Just as P r o t e u s i s a m a j o r s o u r c e o f the satire on

courtly love i n this play so i s V a l e n t i n e . Valentine is the

perfect friend and l o v e r who maintains a romantic idealism

but can renounce love for f r i e n d s h i p i n the end. When we

first meet him, he appears t o be a realistic young

, n o b l e m a n who scorns courtly love and i t s conventions:

To be i n love, where s c o r n i s bought w i t h

groans;
Coy l o o k s w i t h h e a r t - s o r e s i g h s ; one fading
moment's m i r t h
With twenty w a t c h f u l , weary, tedious n i g h t s :
I f h a p l y won, perhaps a hapless gain;
I f l o s t , why then a grievous labour won;
However — but a f o l l y bought with w i t ,
Or e l s e a w i t - b y f o l l y v a n q u i s h e d .
( I . I . 29-35)

This scoffing attitude to love i s s h o r t - l i v e d and soon

Valentine s u f f e r s the usual symptoms in falling i n love with

Silvia (II.iv.128-142). He remains constant in his love

for her until friendship intervenes. E v e n when P r o t e u s is

revealed as evil and deceitful, Valentine readily surrenders

his loved one i n response to a brief superficial apology.

In this episode Shakespeare makes i t clear that courtly love

can be superficial. In doing so, he ultimately degrades

, 3

Valentine whom he had built up as an ideal courtier, for

Valentine, in a final a p p r a i s a l , appears to be an ineffectual

hero who i s duped because of his own sentimentality and his

artificial devotion to his friend.

3 Even the murderous b r i g a n d s c o u l d see t h a t

Valentine fulfilled the requirements o f the i d e a l c o u r t i e r :

. . . And p a r t l y , s e e i n g you are b e a u t i f i e d

W i t h g o o d l y s h a p e , a n d b y y o u r own report
A l i n g u i s t , a n d a man of such p e r f e c t i o n .
A s we d o i n o u r q u a l i t y m u c h w a n t —
(IV.i.55-58)
 64

In a d d i t i o n to Proteus and V a l e n t i n e , another

c o u r t i e r i s a source of s a t i r e on c o u r t l y love i n t h i s play.

T h u r i o , who has been a contender f o r S i l v i a ' s hand, does not

deserve the name of c o u r t i e r . He cannot make love effectively,

in the customary manner, and he i s i n c a p a b l e of d i s p l a y i n g

the c h i v a l r y expected of him. When threatened lby V a l e n t i n e ' s

sword, he h a s t i l y r e s i g n s h i s c l a i m to S i l v i a and makes a

comment which i s r e a l i s t i c but unbecoming t o one of h i s c l a s s :

I h o l d him but a f o o l that w i l l endanger

H i s body f o r a g i r l that l o v e s him not.
( V . i v . 133-134)

T h i s knight i s not of the s t u f f of Sidney's or Spenser's heroes.

In a d d i t i o n to n o t i n g the mockery which the c o u r t l y

c l a s s makes of c o u r t l y l o v e , one cannot miss the reflections

cast upon i t by the low comic c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s p l a y . As in

Love's Labour's L o s t , Shakespeare's treatment of love i n

these low c h a r a c t e r s i s a s i g n i f i c a n t part of h i s a t t i t u d e s

towards c o u r t l y l o v e . Speed and Launce, on the low level,

provide the c h i e f c r i t i c i s m of l o v e and serve as c o n t r a s t s to

the c o u r t l y l o v e r s . Speed's comments on the conventional

l o v e r are an important source of s a t i r e . His description

of how he can t e l l that V a l e n t i n e i s i n l o v e i s worth

quoting i n f u l l .

Marry, by these s p e c i a l marks: f i r s t , you

have l e a r n d , l i k e S i r Proteus, to wreathe
1

your arms l i k e a malcontent; to r e l i s h a

love song l i k e a r o b i n redbreast; to walk
alone l i k e one that had the p e s t i l e n c e ; to
s i g h l i k e a schoolboy that had l o s t h i s
ABC; to weep l i k e a young.wench that had
b u r i e d her grandam; to f a s t l i k e one that
 6
5
takes d i e t ; t o watch l i k e one that f e a r s
robbing; t o speak p u l i n g l i k e a beggar at
Hallowmas. You were wont, when you laughed,'
to crow l i k e , a cock; when you walk'd, to
walk l i k e one o f the l i o n s ; when you f a s t e d ,
i t was p r e s e n t l y a f t e r dinner; when you
l o o k d s a d l y , i t was f o r want o f money.
1

And now you are metamorphis d with a 1

m i s t r e s s , t h a t , when I l o o k on you, I can

h a r d l y t h i n k you my master.
( I I . i . 18-34-)

Here i s keen o b s e r v a t i o n and an astute a p p r a i s a l o f the l o v e r .

I n a d d i t i o n t o f u n c t i o n i n g as a c r i t i c i s of l o v e , Speed

serves another purpose. Though he i s only a f o o l i n the p l a y ,

he can see through deceptions that h i s master cannot. Speed

q u i c k l y sees t h a t S i l v i a has t r i c k e d V a l e n t i n e i n t o w r i t i n g

a love l e t t e r to h i m s e l f ( I I . i . I l . l 5 4 f f . ) . T h i s episode

serves t o point t o the true value o f the clown as a

commentary on the a c t i o n o f the p l a y .

Launce i s a l s o important i n h i s r o l e , as a source

of s a t i r e on the c o u r t l y theme. He d e s c r i b e s h i s own l o v e

a f f a i r i n a coarse, unromantic manner i n an i n t e r l u d e with

Speed which f o l l o w s on the banishment o f V a l e n t i n e . It i s

s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t Shakespeare should present t h i s low comedy

i n t e r l u d e at a point i n the play when we are most i n t e r e s t e d

i n the s e p a r a t i o n o f the l o v e r s . We cannot f a i l t o n o t i c e

that Launce, as he catalogues the charms o f h i s wench,

4
parodies the Petrarchan lady. One i n c i d e n t r e g a r d i n g Launce,

4 Some o f her charms i n c l u d e : "She can m i l k , " "She

brews good a l e , " "She can wash and scour," and "She can s p i n . "
Launce a l s o l i s t s her v i c e s : "She i s not t o be k i s s ' d f a s t i n g ,
i n respect o f her b r e a t h , " "She doth t a l k i n her s l e e p , " "She
i s proud," "She hath no t e e t h , " and "She i s too l i b e r a l . "
(III.I.260-374)
may be t a k e n as an important comment on t h e whole theme o f

courtly love. I n A c t IV, Scene i v , he sacrifices h i s own

dog i n place o f t h e one w h i c h Proteus gave him t o present

to Silvia. He thinks he i s d o i n g the r i g h t thing, but

actually he i s n o t . This episode i s recalled when

Valentine sacrifices h i s love f o r the friendship o f

Proteus. Again this i s t h e wrong .thing t o do. The

sacrifice o f Launce, w h i c h was well-meant b u t wrong, serves

to underline the incompatibilities and u n r e a l i t i e s of the

courtly conventions. Shakespeare i s pointing t o the

unsatisfactory aspects of courtly love from the low level

as well as from the high. Though his criticism of courtly

love i s not destructive or b i t t e r i t i s condemning.

I n
4sJTou_Lj.ke_.lt, a play w r i t t e n much later than the

two we have considered, the s a t i r i c a l attitude to courtly

love i s continued. Shakespeare takes a common Elizabethan

plot i n which a c o u r t i e r i s pursued by a d i s g u i s e d lady

who loves him. In this story are found typical exiled

courtiers who lead a, h a p p y life i n an i d y l l i c , imaginary .

forest which, somehow, is. i n h a b i t e d by the shepherds of

pastoral tradition. The d r a m a t i s t , i n accepting this

material, makes full use o f t h e s i t u a t i o n s and the c o n t r a s t s

of various characters which i t provides i n order to reveal

the artificiality o f the c o u r t l y theme. An emphasis i s

placed upon realism and n a t u r a l n e s s i n love and even such

a typical courtly lover as O r l a n d o who sighs, suffers,

and writes insipid love lyrics becomes a genuine lover,

finally. The triumph of natural love pushes aside courtly

love, after the latter has b e e n much satirized.

Here again, as i n Lovers Labour' s u Lost and The

Tlo„.£gn£le.Sen .of V e r o n a , Shakespeare satirizes courtly

love through a l l groups in the play. The love of the

clown, Touchstone, for Audrey provides a comment on

courtly love and a burlesque of i t . Touchstone has only

a crude opinion of love: i t i s the animal desire of man

for woman. His love-making is grotesque but through him,

with his dislike for insincerity and affectation, WE realize

just how false are the principles underlying the pastoral

fantasies which e n t e r t a i n the courtly society. His scorn

for the artificial land where c o u r t i e r s and ladies are

freed from their cares stamps him as the common sense man:

Ay, now am I i n Arden, the more fool

I i When I was a t home, I was in a better
p l a c e ; b u t t r a v e l l e r s must be content.
(II.iv.16-18)

Arden lacks the realities that Touchstone so values, but

he tries hard to point out the artificialities found there,

and i n doing so he constantly reminds us that a common

everyday world exists. His attitude to courtly love is

seen when he ridicules Orlando, the typical courtly lover.

His parody of Orlando's sonnets depreciates the convention

of sonneteering and mocks the custom of p r a i s i n g the lady:

I f a h a r t do l a c k a h i n d ,
L e t him seek out Rosalinde.
I f the c a t w i l l a f t e r k i n d ,
S o be s u r e w i l l Rosalinde.
W i n t e r g a r m e n t s must be lin'd,
So must s l e n d e r Rosalinde.
 T h e y t h a t r e a p must s h e a f a n d h i n d ,
Then t o cart with Rosalinde.
Sweetest nut hath sourest rind,
Such a nut i s Rosalinde.
He t h a t s w e e t e s t rose w i l l find
Must f i n d l o v e ' s p r i c k , and R o s a l i n d e .
(III.ii.106-118)

The love-making of Silvius and Phebe helps

to r e i n f o r c e Touchstone's satire of the courtly

lovers i n a pastoral setting. These two a r e n a t i v e

to this setting and parody the language of pastoral

lovers. Silvius, the sentimental shepherd, employs

the usual extravagant conceits of the courtier i n

his wooing o f Phebe, and i n doing s o he shows

how absurd a courtier wooing a shepherdess can

5
be. Phebe i s cruel i n her replies, as a c o u r t l y

5 He describes what being i n love i s :

I t i s t o b e a l l made o f s i g h s and t e a r s ;
A n d s o am I f o r P h e b e .
» • •
I t i s t o be a l l made o f f a i t h and s e r v i c e
A n d s o am I f o r Phebe.
• • •
I t i s t o be a l l made o f f a n t a s y ,
A l l made o f p a s s i o n , a n d a l l made o f
wishes,
All a d o r a t i o n , duty, and o b s e r v a n c e ,
All humbleness, a l l p a t i e n c e , and
impatience,
All p u r i t y , a l l t r i a l , a l l obedience;
And s o am I f o r P h e b e .
(V.ii.91-105)
 69

6
l a d y might be, and i n b e i n g c r u e l she h e l p s t o s a t i r i z e

courtly love. I n the denouement, l o v e f i n a l l y triumphs

but i t i s not because o f the c o u r t l y wooing o f S i l v i u s , b u t

r a t h e r because he remained f a i t h f u l , even when Phebe was

i n f a t u a t e d w i t h the d i s g u i s e d R o s a l i n d .

Another i m p o r t a n t source of the s a t i r e on c o u r t l y

l o v e i s t o be found i n Jaques. H i s c y n i c a l comments on the

i d y l l i c s i t u a t i o n s i n the p l a y h e l p t o support the s a t i r e o f

Touchstone. As a p r o f e s s e d s a t i r i s t , Jaques' p o s i t i o n i s

v e r y c l e a r and he becomes an i m p o r t a n t c r i t i c o f c o u r t l y

s o c i e t y as he seea i t . Much o f h i s s c o r n i s d i r e c t e d at the

c o u r t l y lover.. I n h i s famous d e s c r i p t i o n of the seven ages

o f man, he n e a t l y tags the c o n v e n t i o n a l l o v e r :

And t h e n the l o v e r ,
Sighing l i k e furnace, with a woful b a l l a d
Made t o h i s m i s t r e s s ' eyebrow.
(II.vii.147-149)
T h i s u n f a v o r a b l e o p i n i o n o f the l o v e r i s u p h e l d i n Jaques'

encounter w i t h Orlando i n A c t I I I , scene i i . Here he t a k e s

a f r a n k d i s l i k e t o l o v e r s such as Orlando and c h i d e s the

courtier:

I would not be t h y e x e c u t i o n e r .
I f l y t h e e , f o r I would not i n j u r e t h e e ,
Thou t e l l ' s t me t h e r e i s murder i n mine eye:
' T i s p r e t t y , sure and v e r y p r o b a b l e
That e y e s , t h a t are the f r a i l ' s t and s o f t e s t
things,
Who shut t h e i r coward gates on a t o m i e s ,
S h o u l d be c a l l d t y r a n t s , b u t c h e r s , m u r t h e r e r s i
1

Now I do frown on thee w i t h a l l my h e a r t ;

And i f mine eyes can wound, now l e t them k i l l
thee '.
Now c o u n t e r f e i t t o swound ....
(III.v.8-17)
 The worst fault you have i s to he in love.
(1. 299)

Though Jaques is perhaps too bitter in his satire he takes a

definite stand against u n r e a l i t y and artificiality. He sees

the court as "pompous" and does not want to return to i t .

Furthermore, his condemnation of love cannot be taken to

mean t h a t he d i s t r u s t s and condemns i t altogether. In the

end, he says to Orlando w h e n he i s pairing together the

couples to conclude the play:

You to a love that your true f a i t h doth

merit . . . .7
(V.iv.194)

Because he recognizes true love we can attach some s i g n i f i c a n c e

to his satire and not merely dismiss i t as the grumbling of

a discontented misfit.

The most effective satire on courtly love i n As You

Like It comes from R o s a l i n d . She is a perfect example of the

high-born, cultivated, witty c o u r t l y lady,- y e t she is real.

In her constant ridiculing of courtly love she retains her

dignity and womanly charm. Here is a voice for a natural

realistic love, stripped of artificiality and affectation.

This courtly lady has no delusions about her own sex. Her

description of the loved one and wife is far removed from

the conventional idealized lady:

M a i d s a r e May when t h e y a r e m a i d s ,
b u t t h e s k y c h a n g e s when t h e y a r e w i v e s .
I w i l l be more j e a l o u s o f t h e e t h a n a
B a r b a r y c o c k - p i g e o n o v e r h i s hen, more
clamourous than a parrot against rain,

7 It must be remembered, though, that Jaques is

performing a mechanical function of putting :
a l l things
straight for the conclusion.
 more newfangled than an ape, more giddy i n
my d e s i r e s than a monkey. I w i l l weep f o r
nothing, l i k e Diana i n the f o u n t a i n , and
I w i l l do that when you are dispos'd
to be merry; I w i l l laugh l i k e a hyen,
and that when thou a r t i n c l i n ' d to s l e e p .
(IV. i . 148-157)

S t i l l more s a t i r i c a l i s the account o f a c o u r t l y lady being

wooed which R o s a l i n d gives t o Orlando when she ( d i s g u i s e d as

Ganymede) t e l l s how she took the part o f a lady t o cure a

lover:

He was to imagine me h i s l o v e , h i s
m i s t r e s s ; and I set him every day t o
woo me. At which time would I , being a
moonish youth, g r i e v e , be effeminate,
changeable, l o n g i n g , and l i k i n g , proud,
f a n t a s t i c a l , a p i s h , shallow, and i n c o n s t a n t ,
f u l l o f t e a r s , f u l l o f s m i l e s ; f o r every
p a s s i o n something and f o r no p a s s i o n
t r u l y anything, as boys and women are f o r
the most part c a t t l e o f t h i s c o l o u r . . . .
(III.ii.427-436)

Rosalind's p e r c e p t i o n here i s as sharp as i t i s i n her

d e s c r i p t i o n o f the customary c o u r t l y l o v e r . She has been

taught t o recognize him by her Uncle and i n t e l l i n g Orlando

that he does not have the appearance o f such a l o v e r , she

mocks t h i s type::

A l e a n cheek, which you have not; a blue

eye and sunken, which you have not;
a beard n e g l e c t e d , which you have n o t .
• . . Then your hose should be ungarter'd,
your bonnet unhanded, your sleeve
unbutton'd, your shoe u n t i e d , and
e v e r y t h i n g about you demonstrating a
careless desolation.
(III.ii.392-401)

Rosalind's s a t i r e - o f the l a d y and the c o u r t i e r i s

matched with her s a t i r e o f c o u r t l y l o v e . She condemns

love as madness ( I I I * i i . 4 2 0 - 4 2 4 ) , but r e c o g n i z e s that a l l

are susceptible t o i t , even h e r s e l f . Still she cannot abide

the nonsense found i n the c o u r t l y code. She sees love as

d e s i r a b l e but sees i t i n i t s true r e l a t i o n s h i p t o man and

life. The c o u r t l y l o v e r , l i k e Orlando, who would d i e f o r

l o v e i s denounced:

The poor world i s almost s i x thousand

years o l d , and i n a l l t h i s time there
was not any man d i e d i n h i s own person,
v i d e l i c e t , i n a l o v e cause. T r o i l u s
had h i s b r a i n s dash'd out w i t h a Grecian
club; y e t he d i d what he could t o d i e
b e f o r e , and he i s one o f the patterns
of l o v e . . . . But these are a l l l i e s .
Men have d i e d from time t o time, and
worms have eaten them, but not f o r l o v e .
(IV.i.94-108)

T h i s i s not a c y n i c a l a p p r a i s a l o f r e a l l o v e , f o r Rosalind,

i n the same scene, i s quick t o admit t o C e l i a that she i s

in love:

0 coz, coz, coz, my p r e t t y l i t t l e coz,

that thou d i d s t know how many fathoms
deep I am i n l o v e .
(11. 209-211)

Though she i s quick t o r i d i c u l e the a r t i f i c i a l love banter

of Phebe, S i l v i u s , and Orlando as the "howling o f I r i s h

wolves against the moon" ( V . i i . 1 1 9 ) , R o s a l i n d i s a l s o quick

to recognize the true worth o f genuine devotion. Her

advice t o Phebe may be given f o r a l l sincere lovers:

Down on your knees,

And thank heaven, f a s t i n g , f o r a good man's
love . . . .
(III.v.57-58)
R o s a l i n d ' s a p p r a i s a l o f l o v e i n which she upholds s i n c e r i t y

and f a i t h f u l n e s s and condemns a r t i f i c i a l i t y and sham,

l a b e l s c o u r t l y love as egregious. There i s no m i s t a k i n g

the i n t e n t i o n o f the dramatist who uses n e a r l y every

character i n As Y o u L i k e I t t o c o n v e y some a t t i t u d e towards

love and, i n h i s p r o c e s s o f c o n t r a s t i n g the d i f f e r e n t kinds

o f l o v e r s , makes one o f t h e most active, wittiest, and b e s t

o f h i s women t h e spokesman f o r r e a l and s i n c e r e love.

C l e a r l y , S h a k e s p e a r e was on t h e s i d e o f t r u e , n a t u r a l love.

L n
L o v e ^ s _ L a b o u r _ . s _ L o s t , The Two G e n t l e m e n o f

Veron,a, and A s J _ o u _ L j J c e _ I t , Shakespeare demonstrates h i s

ability t o j u d g e a s e t o f c o n v e n t i o n s w h i c h were o f common

vogue i n h i s day. He does n o t t r e a t them d e s t r u c t i v e l y o r

denounce them as u n a c c e p t a b l e b u t r a t h e r u s e s them t o

point o u t t h e common w e a k n e s s e s o f m a n k i n d . By showing us

how human b e i n g s conduct t h e m s e l v e s when t h e y a c c e p t false

i d e a l s , Shakespeare suggests that there i s a more g e n u i n e

set of values. Since he was aware o f t h e w o r s t aspects o f

courtly love, i t i s t o be e x p e c t e d t h a t satire should

8

recur i n many o f h i s p l a y s . However, S h a k e s p e a r e ' s

interest i n t h e c o u r t l y theme e x t e n d e d b e y o n d t h a t o f

satirizing i t as one may s e e b y e x a m i n i n g other plays.

8 F o r example, i n Romeo and J u l i e t , much o f t h e

f i r s t a c t i s g i v e n t o s a t i r i z i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l pose o f
Romeo i n h i s l o v e f o r t h e c r u e l , u n h e e d i n g R o s a l i n e .
 CHAPTER IV

THE COURTLY" THEME MD COMEDY

A Midsummer N i g h t ' s Dream

Twelfth,Night

Henry IV (Part I)

Henry V
 CHAPTER I V

T h e r e i s one g r o u p o f p l a y s i n w h i c h S h a k e s p e a r e

uses the c o u r t l y theme i n a v e i n o f comedy. Though, i n

doing s o , he i s o f t e n n o t f a r removed f r o m satire, still

t h e r e i s a g e n t l e r and more f u n - l o v i n g a i r about t h e

treatment o f l o v e i n these p l a y s than t h e r e was i n t h o s e

we have just considered. I n A, Midsummer N i g h t ' s Dream,

T w e l f t h N i g h t , Henry, IV .(Part I),, and Henry, V c o u r t l y love

is a source o f amusement. Shakespeare, i n these plays,

avoids t h e s e r i o u s n e s s w i t h w h i c h many o f h i s contemporaries

treated t h e theme. As a r e s u l t , h i s love of fun finds vent

in these plays and no s e r i o u s i s s u e i s a l l o w e d t o mar t h e

comic atmosphere i n which c o u r t l y love i s presented.

The comic atmosphere i s p a r t i c u l a r l y dominant i n

A Midsummer N i g h t ' s , Dream. There a r e ample l o v e

adventures i n t h e c o u r t o f T h e s e u s and i n t h e e n c h a n t e d

wood n e a r A t h e n s where t h e v a r i o u s c o u r t l y love sentiments

are bandied about. I n the imaginary world of this play

the irrationality of love i s given free rein and t h e comedy

arises out o f l u d i c r o u s s i t u a t i o n s . The i m p u l s i v e n e s s of

love causes Lysander, D e m e t r i u s , Hermia, and H e l e n a t o

flee i n t o t h e wood where t h e n a t u r e of their passion i s

exposed f o r a l l t o laugh at. Their courtly p o i s e i s soon

abandoned and t h e y become u n r e s t r a i n e d , quarrelsome

individuals. In this same wood, T i t a n i a (the f a i r i e s '

counterpart of a courtly l a d y ) becomes i n f a t u a t e d w i t h

Bottom, the weaver w i t h the head of an ass. This episode

reduces love to the level of farce and provides a contrast

to the love of the courtly-figures. No harm comes of the

strange incongruities i n the wood, for, before the lovers

can injure one another and before Titania can carry her

love-making too far, a l l i s righted with the magic herb.

Though we are made to realize that l o v e has i t s extravagances

and absurdities, we also realize that i t has i t s amusing

side.

A Midsummer N i g h t ' s Dream, i s a r o m a n t i c comedy which

appeals to the fancy with i t s fairies, magic herbs, and i t s

flowing, lyrical poetry. Infidelity i n love is handled

trivially amidst the impossible reverses of the play,

adequately commented upon by Bottom, when he states the

themes " . . . reason and love keep little company . . ."

(III.i.136-137). The plot, which i s frivolous, unfolds

the adventures of two pairs o f young lovers (Hermia and

Lysander and Helena and Demetrius) who struggle through

adversity, hindrances, and cross relationships to a

conclusion which i s acceptable to all. This happy denoue-

ment i s brought about by supernatural agents. Oberon,

assisted by Puck, tangles and untangles the plot with the

juices from magic herbs. This capricious activity of the

fairies finally leads to the happy union of Helena and

Demetrius while doing no s e r i o u s harm to the love of

Hermia and Lysander. A l l this magic i s hardly the

machinery of s e r i o u s drama, but i s rather that of light

entertainment designed to delight and amuse the E l i z a b e t h a n

audience.

The play has two settings: one placed in ancient

Athens where the anachronistic figures from English rustic

life are seen and where the court o f Duke T h e s e u s holds

sway in a rational, daylight world. The other, in direct

contrast to the first, i s placed in an enchanted wood where

the fairies rule;- and where a l l i s permeated by fancy and

1

enchanting moonlight. Such a plot and setting give ample

opportunity for the comedy which Shakespeare presents in

his handling of courtly love in this play.

Those characters which are presented as courtly

figures include Theseus, Hippolyta, Lysander, Hermia,

Helena, and Demetrius. Theseus is a noble gentleman of the

Renaissance. He possesses the qualities which Shakespeare

most admired In the Elizabethan nobleman: leadership,

superiority, and an awareness of his duty as a leader

accompanied with tolerance, kindness, a sense of authority,

2

and a cool reason. His betrothed, Hippolyta, is only

lightly sketched as a haughty courtly lady possessing a

1 This fanciful setting recalls the idyllic locale

of Sidney's Arcadia.

2 W i t h the l o v e o f T h e s e u s and H i p p o l y t a ,
S h a k e s p e a r e i n j e c t s a s e r i o u s n o t e i n t o t h e theme o f c o u r t l y
love. T h e s e two d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t l o v e s h o u l d l e a d t o a
r a t i o n a l , s u b s t a n t i a l , and s a t i s f y i n g u n i o n a f t e r t h e
frenzied over-emotional p e r i o d o f y o u t h f u l c o u r t s h i p has
passed. T h e l o v e o f t h e s e two i s n o t s o m u c h t h e c o u r t l y
t y p e o f l o v e as i s t h a t o f t h e y o u n g c o u p l e s . Rather, i t
i s the l o v e o f a s e n s i b l e , r e s p o n s i b l e c o u p l e and s e r v e s to
u n d e r l i n e the e x t r a v a g a n c e s o f l o v e which the young couples
indulge i n .
distinct pleasure i n the noble sport of hunting. The t w o

young couples a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l c o u r t l y l o v e r s , H e l e n a and

H e r m i a b e i n g more d i s t i n c t l y d r a w n t h a n D e m e t r i u s a n d

Lysander. I n the e a r l y s c e n e s o f t h e p l a y we s e e a l l f o u r

at the court i n Athens where they a r e g u i d e d b y t h e manners

and p o l i t e n e s s customary i n t h e i r s o c i e t y . When a l l h a v e

fled i n t o t h e wood a n d t h e men h a v e b e e n c h a r m e d w i t h t h e

magical herbs, the l o v e r s abandon t h e i r c o u r t l y poise

and p r o c e e d from a b u s i n g each o t h e r t o open q u a r r e l i n g .

Such behavior exposes the c o u r t l y c o n v e n t i o n s and h e l p s

us t o see t h e c o u r t i e r and t h e l a d y i n a t r u e light.

In t h e i r pursuit of love, Helena, Hermia, Lysander,

and D e m e t r i u s a r e c o u r t l y l o v e r s . They o f t e n r e f e r to love

and t o e a c h o t h e r i n conventional d i c t i o n which r e c a l l s the

chivalric love code i n s u c h w o r d s as " l o y a l t y , " "knight,"

"gentleness," and " c o u r t e s y . " Hermia says t o L y s a n d e r ,

when t h e y are together i n t h e wood:

But gentle f r i e n d , for love of courtesy

Lie further off . . . .
^11.ii.56-57)
.and L y s a n d e r , promising to love and p r o t e c t her, replies:

. . . t h e n e n d l i f e when I e n d l o y a l t y I
(II.ii.63)
L a t e r i n t h e same s c e n e when L y s a n d e r h a s b e e n c h a r m e d b y

Oberon's magic juice a n d wakes t o a d o r e H e l e n a , she appeals

t o h i s honor by s a y i n g :

I t h o u g h t y o u l o r d o f more t r u e gentleness.
(II.ii.132)
He r e p l i e s to this i n true courtly fashion:

A n d a l l my p o w e r s , a d d r e s s y o u r l o v e a n d m i g h t
T o h o n o u r H e l e n , a n d t o be h e r k n i g h t .
(II.ii.143-144)
 79

In addition to using these stock courtly phrases, Lysander

and Demetrius protest their love i n a highly stylized manner.

The former, i n Act I, scene i , carries on a conversation with

Hermia which contains a l l the balance and artificiality of

popular euphuism. Later, Lysander, when w o o i n g Helena, speaks

with this same e u p h u i s t i c manner i n speeches which are care-

3
fully balanced and contain extravagant conceits. In contrast

to the style of Lysander's protestations, Demetrius follows

with an elaborate, Petrarchan catalogue of Helena's charms.

He calls her lips cherries and says her hand i s whiter than
"Taurus' snow" after having referred to her cruelty as
4

murdering him. The play is full of such conventions and one

cannot miss the fun that Shakespeare i s having with them.

One important source of the fun i s found in the

Pyramus and Thisby interlude which burlesques courtly love.

Here the rude artisans present a play which parodies the

extravagant courtly love phrases. Everything i s absurd in

their presentation: the language of l o v e making, the

¥ h y s h o u l d y o u t h i n k t h a t I s h o u l d woo i n s c o r n ?
S c o r n a n d d e r i s i o n n e v e r come i n t e a r s .
L o o k , w h e n I vow, I Weep; a n d v o w s s o b o r n ,
In t h e i r n a t i v i t y a l l t r u t h appears.
How c a n t h e s e t h i n g s i n me s e e m s c o r n t o y o u
B e a r i n g t h e badge o f f a i t h t o p r o v e them t r u e ?
(III.ii.122-127)

So s h o u l d t h e m u r t h e r e d l o o k , and so s h o u l d I
P i e r c ' d through the h e a r t w i t h your s t e r n c r u e l t y ,
Y e t y o u , the m u r t h e r e r , l o o k as b r i g h t , as clear,
As yonder Venus i n her glimmering sphere.
(III.ii.58-61)
 80

situation where both lovers k i l l themselves because they

draw h a s t y conclusions that the other i s dead, and the

artificial poetry spoken by each before dying. In this

scene, one of the funniest Shakespeare ever wrote, courtly

love i s thoroughly mocked.

Another source of amusement in A Midsummer Night'^s

Dream i s the wood setting and i t s effect upon those who enter

it. Titania, i n addressing Oberon, recalls a theme p o p u l a r i z e d

by Sidney i n h i s Arcadia:,

. . . . b u t I know
When t h o u h a s t s t o l ' n away f r o m fairyland,
And i n t h e shape o f C o r i n s a t a l l day,
P l a y i n g on p i p e s o f c o r n , and v e r s i n g l o v e
To amorous P h i l l i d a .
(II.i.64-68)

This serves to remind us of the fanciful notion of noblemen

and ladies being lost i n some idyllic l a n d where they could

sport with shepherds and shepherdesses. H o w e v e r , we notice

how this n o t i o n i s mocked, indirectly, w h e n we observe

Bottom transformed into a grotesque figure with an ass 1

head

being wooed by the queen of the fairies and w h e n we observe

how this idyllic setting can alter the affections of

Demetrius and Lysander with unpleasant results*

When S h a k e s p e a r e gets the four courtly lovers, Hermia,

Helena, Lysander, and Demetrius into the wood he i s free to

have his fun. w i t h their love-making.. On entering the

enchanted world of the fairies, these four enter a world

where only the illogicalness of a dream rules. Here the

unreason of human e x p e r i e n c e triumphs and the lovers who oaly

 81
)

a few hours before were d e c l a r i n g vehemently their love and

devotion are soon, q u a r r e l i n g . Lysander, who at court loved

Hermia, now declares his love f o r Helena. Demetrius, who

once loved Helena but who turned his affection to Hermia, is

once more (this time by the means of magic) attracted to

Helena. To complicate things f u r t h e r , the two fast friends,

Helena and Hermia, soon fall out. One can see immediately

that Shakespeare was having fun with these lovers who

demonstrate how capricious love really i s . The changefulness,

irrationality, and brevity of love are clearly seen. The

courtly love adventures i n the wood are a source of light-

hearted, carefree enjoyment, on the surface. Underneath i t

all, we realize the extreme to which this irrational type of

fanciful love can go. Titania, the d e l i c a t e queen of the

fairies, is found making love to a weaver with an ass' head:

there i s nothing c o u r t l y about this. Underlying the whole

amusing treatment of love is another theme which only gently

points out another side. This i s the love of Theseus and

Hippolyta which grows out of a steady, seasoned, and balanced

attitude to the emotion which clearly idealizes marriage.

In this play, Shakespeare chose to treat love in a gay manner

and in so doing had considerable fun with the courtly love

theme.

The same gay, comic mood i s to be found in Twelfth

Night. In A Midsummer Night',s Dream S h a k e s p e a r e had exposed

the true nature of the young courtly lovers. Here, in

Twelfth_Night, he reveals that courtly love can mislead lovers.

As i n the former p l a y , t h i s r e v e l a t i o n i s made on various

l e v e l s , hut no c o m p l i c a t i o n i s s e r i o u s enough t o mar the

happy e n d i n g . Olivia, Orsino, S i r Andrew A g u e c h e e k and

Malvalio are a l l misled i n their pursuit of courtly love

and the c o n f u s i o n has an i m p o r t a n t effect on V i o l a and

Sebastian. However, c o u r t l y l o v e ends i n h a p p i n e s s for

O l i v i a , Orsino, V i o l a , and Sebastian, and no one i s much

concerned w i t h the f a t e o f S i r Andrew and Malvolio.

The main p l o t of t h i s play provides comedy on a

5

high level. There i s superb i r o n y i n the role of Viola,

whose d i s g u i s e as a page, C e s a r i o , i s a s o u r c e of confusion

to her a s s o c i a t e s and a source o f amusement t o the audience.

Coming t o t h e c o u r t o f I l l y r i a , i n disguise, Viola falls in

l o v e w i t h Duke O r s i n o while engaged as h i s l o v e - m e s s e n g e r to

the Countess O l i v i a . Olivia, who u s e s the death of her

brother as an excuse t o remain s e c l u d e d f r o m a l l would-be

courtiers and fortune-hunters, s p u r n s t h e Duke's l o v e -

messages, f a i t h f u l l y r e c i t e d by V i o l a (as C e s a r i o ) , but

falls desperately i n love with the young page. To add to

5 V i o l a gives the c o m i c . s i t u a t i o n o f t h i s main plot

in r e f e r r i n g t o O l i v i a and Orsino:

My m a s t e r l o v e s h e r d e a r l y ;
And I ( p o o r m o n s t e r ) f o n d as much on him;
And she ( m i s t a k e n ) seems t o d o t e on me.
What w i l l become o f t h i s ? A s I am man,
My s t a t e i s d e s p e r a t e f o r my m a s t e r ' s l o v e .
As I am woman (now a l a s t h e d a y . ) , 1

What t h r i f t l e s s s i g h s s h a l l p o o r O l i v i a
breathe.
(II.ii.34-40)
 '83

the confusion, Viola's twin brother, Sebastian, appears

and i s mistaken for his disguised sister. Olivia immediately

urges Sebastian to e n t e r a bond of marriage and Viola

finally makes a l l clear by revealing her true sex. The Duke

has a rapid, convenient shift of affection which satisfies

6

the yearning of Viola. The situation i n this main plot

gave Shakespeare a natural source of comedy which he

utilized to show the humorous aspects of courtly love.

These humorous aspects can be seen a l l through

Twelfth Night i n the futile love of Orsino for Olivia, in the

futile love of O l i v i a for Viola, and i n the seemingly futile

love of V i o l a for Orsino. The Duke first appears as the

traditional melancholy courtier who i s suffering for love.

Olivia recognizes his nobility. He i s a l l that i s expected

of the Ideal courtier:

Yet I s u p p o s e h i m v i r t u o u s , know h i m n o b l e ,
O f g r e a t e s t a t e , o f f r e s h and s t a i n l e s s y o u t h ;
In v o i c e s w e l l d i v u l g ' d , f r e e , l e a r n ' d , and
valiant,
And i n d i m e n s i o n and the shape o f n a t u r e
A gracious person. But y e t I cannot l o v e him.
He m i g h t h a v e t o o k h i s a n s w e r l o n g ago.
(I.v.277-282)

6 We m i g h t b e a m u s e d b y h i s p r u d e n t s h i f t o f a f f e c t i o n
if we r e m e m b e r how h e e a r l i e r b o a s t e d t o h i s p a g e t h a t h e was
an ideal lover:

Come h i t h e r , b o y . I f ever thou shalt love,

I n t h e sweet p a n g s o f i t remember me;
For s u c h a s I am a l l t r u e l o v e r s a r e ,
U n s t a i d and s k i t t i s h i n a l l m o t i o n s else
Save i n the c o n s t a n t image o f the c r e a t u r e
. That i s belov'd.
(II.iv.15-20)
 84

O l i v i a ' s r e f u s a l o f one so n o b l e and c o u r t l y shows t h e p r o g r e s s

t h a t woman has made towards independence s i n c e t h e days o f

the t r o u b a d o u r s when ishe was bound t o r e c i p r o c a t e w i t h h e r

l o v e i f h e r l o v e r were d e s e r v i n g . O l i v i a , however, does n o t

y i e l d and O r s i n o ' s p e r s i s t e n t s u i t , c a r r i e d by V i o l a ,
7
becomes q u i t e amusing. V i o l a has l e a r n e d h e r message w e l l

and h e r r e c i t a l o f O r s i n o s l o v e , s e t i n P e t r a r c h a n
1
language,

i s funny t o t h e audience who know what i s b e h i n d t h e d i s g u i s e

and what V i o l a ' s t r u e f e e l i n g s a r e . One f e e l s when V i o l a i s

d e l i v e r i n g , i n high c o u r t l y tone, the Petrarchan praise of

O l i v i a which O r s i n o has taught h e r t h a t i t i s o n l y h a l f -

hearted:
' T i s beauty t r u l y b l e n t , whose r e d and w h i t e
N a t u r e ' s own sweet and cunning hand l a i d on.
Lady, you a r e t h e c r u e l l ' s t she a l i v e
I f you w i l l l e a d these graces t o t h e g r a v e ,
And l e a v e t h e w o r l d no copy.
(I.v.257-261)
O l i v i a remains deaf t o such p r a i s e b u t t h e g e n t l e n e s s and t h e

vat of V i o l a f a s c i n a t e her:

M e t h i n k s I f e e l t h i s youth's p e r f e c t i o n s
W i t h an i n v i s i b l e and s u b t l e s t e a l t h
To creep i n a t mine eyes.
(I.v.315-317)

Despite the e f f o r t s o f V i o l a t o d i s c o u r a g e t h e advances o f

O l i v i a , t h i s courtly lady f a l l s hopelessly i n love. How amused

we a r e when we see h e r abandon a l l h e r c o u r t l y p o i s e

Most r a d i a n t , e x q u i s i t e , and unmatchable

beauty — I pray you t e l l me i f t h i s be t h e
l a d y o f t h e house, f o r I never saw her. I
would be l o a t h t o c a s t away my speech; f o r ,
b e s i d e s t h a t i t i s e x c e l l e n t l y w e l l penn'd,
I have taken great pains t o con i t . Good
b e a u t i e s , l e t me s u s t a i n no s c o r n . I am
v e r y c o m p t i b l e , even t o t h e l e a s t s i n i s t e r
usage.
(I.v.181-188)
 85

C e s a r i o by t h e r o s e s o f the s p r i n g ,
By m a i d h o o d , h o n o u r , t r u t h , and everything,
I l o v e t h e e so t h a t , maugre a l l t h y p r i d e ,
N o r w i t n o r r e a s o n c a n my p a s s i o n h i d e .
Do n o t e x t o r t t h y r e a s o n s f r o m t h i s c l a u s e ,
F o r t h a t I woo, t h o u t h e r e f o r e h a s t no c a u s e ;
But r a t h e r reason thus w i t h reason fetter:
Love sought i s good, but g i v e n unsought i s
better.
(III.i.161-168)

Viola's reply is full of irony and, f o r the enjoyment of the

audience, gives the true situation while i t only serves to

make O l i v i a more desperate:

B y i n n o c e n c e I s w e a r , a n d b y my youth,
I h a v e one h e a r t , one b o s o m , a n d o n e truth,
A n d t h a t n o woman h a s ; n o r n e v e r n o n e
S h a l l m i s t r e s s be o f i t , s a v e I a l o n e .
(III..1.1-69-172)

So desperate Is Olivia that she urges the page to return,

suggesting that she may yet heed Orsino's message. Of course

we knowthat she will not. Her'love for Cesario has

captivated her to the point where she becomes reckless:

What s h a l l y o u a s k o f me t h a t I ' l l deny,

That h o n o u r , s a v ' d , may upon a s k i n g give?

(III.iv.231-232)

Only the arrival on the scene of V i o l a ' s twin brother, Sebastian,

saves Olivia. A f t e r Shakespeare has extracted a maximum of

fun from the confusion i n this plot, everything is explained

and the courtly lovers are bound in marriage.

The confusion evident i n the main plot i s echoed on

a lower level, with the same amusing effect. Both Malvolio,

Olivia's steward, and S i r Andrew Aguecheek, the dupe and

drinking companion of S i r Toby B e l c h , are led astray by their

aspirations. Malvolio is a pompous, proud, and narrow-minded

individual who thinks he may win Olivia's hand and become

Count Malvolio. Though he has ambitions to become a courtier,

 86

he i s hardly noble and makes no efforts to woo Olivia in the

courtly style. Of course, to the Elizabethans, the idea that

this man should hope to rise from steward to master of his

lady's estate would be ludicrous. Malvolio is degraded for

his stupidity, conceit, and self-regarding pride by being

i m p r i s o n e d b y t h e r i o t o u s m e m b e r s o f O l i v i a ' s h o u s e , whom he
8
scorns. However, h i s d e g r a d a t i o n i s not m a l i c i o u s but

becomes the source of much of the comedy in the play. Maria,

in disclosing her plan to make a fool of Malvolio, states

clearly that i t i s to be done in fun:

He h a s b e e n y o n d e r i ' t h e s u n practising
b e h a v i o u r t o h i s own shadow t h i s h a l f
hour. Observe him, f o r the l o v e of mockery;
f o r I know t h i s l e t t e r w i l l make a
contemplative i d i o t o f him. Close, i n
t h e name o f j e s t i n g ' .
(II.v.17-22)

Malvolio, as we would expect, falls for the trick. He is too

proud and foolish to realize that i t is unlikely that such a

courtly lady as Olivia would write such a letter as he finds.

This letter, composed by Maria, is a source of much fun, for

we realize that this i s her idea of a courtly character:

Some a r e b o r n g r e a t , some achieve

g r e a t n e s s , a n d some h a v e g r e a t n e s s thrust
u p o n 'em. Thy F a t e s open t h e i r hands;
l e t t h y b l o o d and s p i r i t embrace them;
and t o i n u r e t h y s e l f t o what t h o u a r t l i k e

8 M a l v o l i o i s o f t e n p l a y e d t r a g i c a l l y b u t i t seems
u n l i k e l y that Shakespeare intended t h i s . Malvolio provides us
w i t h much a m u s e m e n t w h e n we c o n s i d e r w h a t h i s a m b i t i o n s to
become a c o u r t l y l o v e r do t o him. That Shakespeare d i d not -
want us t o a t t a c h t o o much s i g n i f i c a n c e t o h i s p u n i s h m e n t
seems e v i d e n t f o r O l i v i a d i s m i s s e s him f r o m o u r m i n d s w i t h her
p a t r o n i z i n g comment:

He hath been most notoriously abus'd.

(V.i.387)
 o7

t o be, c a s t t h y humble s l o u g h and a p p e a r

fresh. Be o p p o s i t e w i t h a k i n s m a n , s u r l y
with servants. L e t thy tongue tang
arguments o f s t a t e ; put t h y s e l f i n the
t r i c k of s i n g u l a r i t y . T h u s she a d v i s e s
thee t h a t s i g h s f o r thee. Remember who
commended t h y y e l l o w s t o c k i n g s and w i s h ' d
t o see t h e e e v e r c r o s s - g a r t e r ' d .
(II.v.157-167)
Alas'. Malvolio follows this foolish advice and i n doing so

becomes no courtier. In a d d i t i o n , he bewilders the lady he

would win and makes h e r t h i n k he i s mad. When O l i v i a turns

him o v e r t o S i r Toby B e l c h , M a l v o l i o i s made the laughing

stock o f the servants and the two r i o t o u s k n i g h t s , S i r Toby

and. S i r Andrew. C o u r t l y l o v e has made a g u l l of Malvolio

and the ridicule he s u f f e r s seems t o be his just reward.

S i r Andrew A g u e c h e e k , i n h i s a s p i r a t i o n s , r o u n d s out

the comedy on courtly love. This shadow o f a> k n i g h t is no

soldier, s c h o l a r , or l o v e r . So s t u p i d i s he t h a t he lets

Sir T o b y s p e n d h i s income o f three thousand ducats a year,

on the p r o m i s e t h a t S i r Toby w i l l win his niece, Olivia, for

him. ' S i r Andrew has not followed the normal p u r s u i t s of the

courtier, as he tells us, himself:

I w o u l d I had b e s t o w e d t h a t t i m e i n
t h e t o n g u e s t h a t I have i n f e n c i n g ,
d a n c i n g , and b e a r - b a i t i n g . 0, had
I b u t f o l l o w e d t h e a r t s '.
(I.iii.97-99)
F u r t h e r m o r e , he could never qualify as a courtly lover. He has

no i d e a o f how t o go about w o o i n g a l a d y and when he hears

Viola delivering the extravagant praises of Orsino to Olivia,

S i r Andrew b e l i e v e s he i s seeing j u s t how one makes l o v e and

so he writes down the p h r a s e s f o r h i s own use:

 88

That youth's a r a r e c o u r t i e r .
'Rain odours' — well'.
• • •
'Odours, r
' p r e g n a n t , ' and
' v o u c h s a f e d ' — I ' l l g e t 'em a l l
three a l l ready.

(III.i.97-102)

We a r e amused a t S i r Andrew who becomes jealous o f V i o l a and

imagines that O l i v i a i s b e i n g prevented from paying attention

t o him. I n A c t I I I , scene i i , S i r Andrew i s r e a d y t o l e a v e b u t

S i r Toby t r i e s t o arouse t h e v a l o r w h i c h S i r Andrew does n o t

possess. A n amusing c h a l l e n g e i s w r i t t e n o u t and s e n t t o

V i o l a who, b e i n g a woman, s h r i n k s from a d u e l . S i r Andrew

is rewarded finally for his asflninity when, m i s t a k i n g

S e b a s t i a n f o r V i o l a , he s t r i k e s the youth and, i n r e t u r n ,

has h i s "head broke across." Like Malvolio, t h i s would-be

courtly lover g e t s j u s t what he d e s e r v e s . I n S i r Andrew

A g u e c h e e k and M a l v o l i o , S h a k e s p e a r e rounds o u t t h e comedy w i t h

which courtly love i s treated i n Tw^elfth^Night.

I n two h i s t o r y p l a y s , H e n ^ _ I V _ _ _ P a r t _ I J . and Henry__V,

Shakespeare a l s o uses comedy i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e c o u r t l y

theme w h i c h i s -not, however, t h e m a i n i n t e r e s t o f the

play as i t was i n A J _ i i d s j u m m e r a n d Twelfth_J_ight.

Courtly love enters i n c i d e n t a l l y b u t t h e comic tone i s c l e a r .

I n a few b r i e f scenes o f Henry IV ( P a r t I ) we s e e t h e a u t h o r

p l a y i n g w i t h t h e theme when he p r e s e n t s t h e l o v e s o f H o t s p u r

and M o r t i m e r f o r t h e i r wives. Hotspur i s a courtly

nobleman whom K i n g H e n r y praises:

A s o n who i s t h e theme o f h o n o u r ' s t o n g u e ,

Amongst a g r o v e t h e v e r y s t r a i g h t e s t p l a n t ;
Who i s sweet F o r t u n e ' s m i n i o n a n d h e r
pride . . . .
(I.i.81-83)
However, H o t s p u r i s hardly the all-round Renaissance courtier,

for he i s too fond of making war. The King makes t h i s clear

hy referring to him as

. . . Mars i n swathling clothes,

This infant warrior . . . .
, (III.ii.112-113)

This aspect of Hotspur* s character i s so pronounced that i t

puts his love for his wife, Lady K a t h e r i n e , in a subordinate

position. The scene where these two are parting reveals the

relationship. So filled with war i s Hotspur's' mind that i t

makes him melancholy and makes h i m neglect his wife. She reports

how she has been !'.a b a n i s h ' d woman f r o m my Harry's bed"

(II.iii.42) and how his dreams are of war:

I n t h y f a i n t s l u m b e r s I by t h e e have w a t c h ' d ,
A n d h e a r d t h e e murmur t a l e s o f i r o n w a r s ,
S p e a k t e r m s o f manage t o t h y b o u n d i n g steed,
C r y 'Courage , t o the f i e l d . ' And t h o u has
1 1

talk'd
Of s a l l i e s and r e t i r e s , o f t r e n c h e s , tents,
Of p a l i s a d o e s , f r o n t i e r s , parapets,
Of b a s i l i s k s , of cannon, c u l v e r i n ,
Of p r i s o n e r ' s ransom, and o f s o l d i e r s s l a i n ,
And a l l the c u r r e n t s o f a heady f i g h t .

(II.iii.50-58)

This courtly lover i s unlike the traditional one who suffers

restless sleeps because of his love for his lady. So engrossed

is Hotspur with war that he scarcely hears his lady protest,

even though they are to part within two hours. Katherine

must ask:
Do you not l o v e me?
Nay, tell me i f y o u s p e a k i n jest or no.

. (II.iii.101-102)

If Hotspur were to deny h i s love there should be no humor in

the situation. H o w e v e r , he does not:

. . . w h e n I am a - h o r s e b a c k I will swear
I love thee I n f i n i t e l y .
 T h i s e v e n i n g must I l e a v e you, g e n t l e K a t e .
I know y o u w i s e ; h u t y e t n o f a r t h e r w i s e
Than H a r r y P e r c y ' s w i f e ; c o n s t a n t you are,
B u t y e t a woman; a n d f o r s e c r e c y ,
No l a d y c l o s e r , f o r I w e l l b e l i e v e
T h o u w i l t n o t u t t e r what t h o u d o s t n o t know,
And so f a r , w i l l I t r u s t t h e e , g e n t l e K a t e .

( I I . i i i . 109-115)
We can see that Hotspur loves her, but with a brusqueness not

found i n the usual courtly lover.

One other situation in this play is a source of

humor. We are amused by the love scene between Mortimer and

his wife, the daughter of Glendower. Mortimer states

the situation:

T h i s i s the d e a d l y s p i t e t h a t a n g e r s me —
My w i f e c a n s p e a k no E n g l i s h , I no W e l s h .

(III.I.192-193)

In spite of this handicap, we are told by Glendower that his

daughter weeps and i s almost distracted for love. Glendower,

to our amusement, must act as an interpreter for the lovers,

and i t is through him that the intensity of Lady Mortimer's

passion is conveyed. Though this episode is brief, i t serves

to point out that Shakespeare could treat courtly love with

comedy, w i t h o u t degrading i t .

In Henrj^J/, there is an amusing i n t e r l u d e when Henry

is wooing the Princess Katherine. Though Henry i s the ideal

prince, being c o u r t l y , wise, s c h o l a r l y , and brave in war,

he i s very straightforward in his lovermaking. In speaking

his true mind to fair Katherine, he l i g h t - h e a r t e d l y mocks the

courtiers who can make love i n the accepted, traditional

manner. He claims to be a rude soldier, ignorant of the

usual language of love:

 W i l l you v o u c h s a f e to teach a s o l d i e r terms
S u c h as w i l l e n t e r at a l a d y ' s ear
And p l e a d h i s l o v e s u i t to her gentle heart?

(V.ii.99-101)

This plain king, as he calls himself, i s indeed no usual

courtier:
I know no ways t o m i n c e i t i n l o v e
but d i r e c t l y t o say 'I l o v e you.' Then,
i f you u r g e me f a r t h e r t h a n t o s a y , 'Do
you i n faith?' I w e a r o u t my suit.
G i v e me y o u r answer; i ' f a i t h ?do'.
And so c l a p hands and a b a r g a i n .
How say you, lady?
(V.ii.129-136)

Henry follows this colloquial-sounding avowal of love with

a coarse jest that would have shocked the courtiers, Sidney

or Castiglione:

I f I c o u l d win a lady at l e a p f r o g ,
o r b y v a u l t i n g i n t o my s a d d l e with
my a r m o u r o n my b a c k , u n d e r t h e
c o r r e c t i o n o f b r a g g i n g be i t
spoken, I should q u i c k l y l e a p i n t o
a wife.
(V.ii.142-145)

It is clear that Henry has neither the manners nor the

sensibility of the traditional courtier. In the same speech

he becomes satirical i n denouncing the usual courtly lover:

For these fellows of i n f i n i t e tongue

t h a t c a n rhyme t h e m s e l v e i n t o l a d i e s '
f a v o u r s , t h e y do a l w a y s r e a s o n t h e m s e l v e s
out a g a i n . What'. A s p e a k e r i s b u t a
p r a t e r ; a rhyme i s but a b a l l a d . A good
leg w i l l f a l l , a s t r a i g h t back w i l l
stoop, a b l a c k beard w i l l turn white,
a c u r l ' d p a t e w i l l grow b a l d , a f a i r
f a c e w i l l w i t h e r , a f u l l eye w i l l wax
h o l l o w ; but a good h e a r t , K a t e , i s the
s u n and t h e moon, o r r a t h e r , t h e sun,
and n o t t h e moon, f o r i t s h i n e s b r i g h t
and n e v e r c h a n g e s , but keeps h i s c o u r s e
truly.
(V.ii. 164-175)
Despite this satirical and realistic account of the lover,

the love scene between Henry and K a t h e r i n e retains i t s

humor. We a r e amused when H e n r y actually wins this courtly

lady, i n spite o f h i s u n o r t h o d o x method of wooing her.

This play, along with Henr^_IV_^Part^Ij)., Twe 1 f t h _ M g h t ,

and A Midsummer Night',s Dream. serves t o show that

Shakespeare could deal with the conventions of courtly

love and still keep an open mind. His treatment o f the

courtly theme as comedy does not spoil the plays and does

not depreciate t h e theme. Actually, the Shakespeare

canon i s r i c h e r because of such treatment.

 CHAPTER V

THE COURTLY THEME AND ROMANTIC LOVE

Romeo, a n d . J u l i e t

TheJ_;inter_.s_Tale

Cymbeline
 CHAPTER V

Another example of the variety with which

Shakespeare treats the courtly theme may h e s e e n i nthe

three plays, Romeo and J u l i e t , The W i n t e r ' s T a l e , and

Cjrmheline. I n these three, Shakespeare takes t h e theme

and shows i ti n relation to romantic love. One cansee,

from these plays, that the dramatist renders romantic love

as a deep, genuine passion which i s experienced by t h e

young couples involved. Each o f these romantic lovers

gives himself fully to the l y r i c a l beauty o f the emotion

and, i n so d o i n g , shows that he h a s r e a l heart and s o u l .

All the characters who experience romantic love-in these

plays either have o r want t h e permanence of a satisfying,

married life. Such iove gives strength t o a l l t o meet

and overcome adversity. I n The Winter's, T a l e a n d Cy.mbel.ine,

the adversity so o f t e n suffered by a l l young lovers nearly

results i n tragedy b u t ends i n happiness. I n Romeo^and

1

Juliet, this i s not the case. S t i l l the determination

which leads both lovers to prefer death to separation

and disgrace comes from t h e same source as i n t h e other two

plays. In a l l three, romantic love grows into an i d e a l , true

1 5SS§g-^§S<L.j ,ilet e n d s i n t r a g e d y b u t t h i s i s n o t t h e
u

n a t u r a l outcome o f t h e i r l o v e . C i r c u m s t a n c e s made t h e i r l o v e
an i l l - f a t e d one a n d , b u t f o r a mere a c c i d e n t w h i c h c a u s e d
F r i a r John t o be q u a r a n t i n e d and thus prevented him from
d e l i v e r i n g F r i a r L a u r e n c e ' s m e s s a g e t o Romeo, t h e i r l o v e
would have l e d t o a happy l i f e . Later, i n studying the
c o u r t l y t h e m e a n d t r a g e d y , we s h a l l s e e t h a t t h e t r a g i c
conclusion o f O t h e l l o follows n a t u r a l l y because o f the
j e a l o u s l o v e o f t h e v a l i a n t Ifloor.
 96

love which means more than life or death to the young lovers

concerned. The artificiality, extravagance, and poise of

courtly love are abandoned for a more sincere and mature

attitude towards love. However, the courtly personalities

of the plays we have considered are still met i n Romeo .and

Juliet, TheJVinter.'.s,,Tale, and Cy_mbeline. Courtly values are

s t i l l evident and are upheld, generally, by the main lovers

of these three plays.

Perhaps i n no other p l a y has Shakespeare b e t t e r drawn

the d i s t i n c t i o n between the extravagances of c o u r t l y l o v e and

the genuineness which grows from romantic l o v e than he has

i n Romeo and Juliet. E a r l y i n the p l a y we see Romeo

languishing i n a hopeless i n f a t u a t i o n f o r the cool Rosaline.

His f a t h e r d e s c r i b e s Romeo's r e a c t i o n which i s so typical

of the r e b u f f e d courtly lover:

Many a morning hath he there been seen,

With t e a r s augmenting the f r e s h morning's dew,
Adding to clouds more clouds with h i s deep s i g h s ;
But a l l so'soon as the a l l - c h e e r i n g sun
Should i n the f a r t h e s t East begin to draw
The shady c u r t a i n s from Aurora's bed,
Away from l i g h t s t e a l s home my heavy son
And p r i v a t e i n h i s chamber pens h i m s e l f ,
Shuts up h i s windows, l o c k s f a i r d a y l i g h t out,
And makes h i m s e l f an a r t i f i c i a l n i g h t .
B l a c k and portentous must t h i s humour prove
Unless good counsel may the cause remove.
(I.i.138-149)

We are soon convinced that t h i s i s an accurate description

when we hear Romeo d e s c r i b i n g the P e t r a r c h a n c r u e l t y of h i s

lady:
She'11 not be h i t
With Cupid's arrow. She hath Dian's w i t ,
And, i n strong proof of c h a s t i t y w e l l arm'd
From Love's weak c h i l d i s h bow she l i v e s
unharm'd.
 She w i l l n o t s t a y t h e s i e g e o f l o v i n g terms,
Nor b i d e t h encounter of a s s a i l i n g
1
eyes,
Nor ope h e r l a p t o s a i n t - s e d u c i n g g o l d .
0, she i s r i c h i n beauty; o n l y poor
T h a t , when she d i e s , w i t h b e a u t y d i e s h e r
store.
(I.i.215-223)

So overcome w i t h this affected love i s Romeo that h e i s made

helpless and cannot join i n the revelry o f h i s companions.

In refusing to join them he s a y s of Cupid:

I am t o o s o r e e n p i e r c e d w i t h h i s s h a f t
To s o a r w i t h h i s l i g h t f e a t h e r s ; and so bound
I c a n n o t b o u n d a p i t c h a b o v e d u l l woe.
Under l o v e ' s heavy b u r t h e n do I s i n k .
(I.iv.19-22)

This i s a l l a pose, however, s i n c e Romeo i s not really i n

love. When h e s e e s Juliet he s u d d e n l y forgets h i s Petrarchan

lady and h i s l u x u r i a t i n g i n love:

Did my heart love t i l l now? Forswear i t ,

sight i
For I ne'er saw t r u e b e a u t y t i l l this night.

( I . v . 54—55)

Romeo i s s o o n overcome by a p a s s i o n a t e love. H i s very first

words with Juliet are a r t i f i c i a l and r e c a l l Lancelot s 1

treatment of h i s lady as a r e l i g i o u s s h r i n e i n C h r e t i e n de
2
Troyes' Roman de l a . C h a r r e t e :
I f I p r o f a n e w i t h my u n w o r t h i e s t h a n d
This holy shrine, the gentle fine i s this:
My l i p s , t w o b l u s h i n g p i l g r i m s , r e a d y s t a n d
To smooth t h a t rough t o u c h w i t h a t e n d e r k i s s ,
(I.v.95-98)

H o w e v e r , Romeo i s recognized by J u l i e t as b e i n g more than a

worshipper who m o u t h s artificialities. He i s w o r t h y o f

her love. Even her father who h a t e s Romeo's f a m i l y says

of the courtly youth:

2 C f . Chapter I , page 20, above.

 'A b e a r s h i m l i k e a p o r t l y g e n t l e m a n ,
And, t o say t r u t h , Verona brags o f him
To be a v i r t u o u s and w e l l - g o v e r n ' d youth.
(I.v.68-70)

The remaining four acts which follow the encounter o f Romeo

and Juliet bear out o l dCapulet's appraisal. Romeo i s no

3
longer the lover of the conventional Petrarchan love poetry.

Despite the intense rivalry between t h e Capulets

and t h e M o n t a g u e s , b o t h Romeo and J u l i e t l e t no obstacle

prevent their love from coming to fruition. Juliet i s so

in love that she would willingly give up h e r f a m i l y name,.

regardless o f the consequences o f such a step i n her society:

0 R o m e o , Romeo , w h e r e f o r e a r t t h o u R o m e o ?
1

D e n y t h y f a t h e r a n d r e f u s e t h y name '.
O r , i f t h o u w i l t n o t , b e b u t s w o r n my l o v e ,
And I ' l l no l o n g e r be a C a p u l e t .
(II.ii.33-36)

The feud o f t h e two f a m i l i e s c a n n o t bar the love o f these two

nor can t h e walls of the Capulet orchard. Romeo overcomes

all fear of the Capulets and r i s k s hislife i n entering the

forbidden- grounds:

3 One s h o u l d n o t m i s s S h a k e s p e a r e ' s c o m i c treatment

of c o u r t l y l o v e i h A c t I I , scene i . Here M e r c u t i o i s making
f u n o f Romeo a n d h i s l o v e f o r R o s a l i n e :

Romeo', humours', madman', p a s s i o n ' , l o v e r ' .

Appear thou i n t h e l i k e n e s s o f a s i g h ;
S p e a k b u t o n e r h y m e , a n d I am s a t i s f i e d ' .
C r y b u t ' A y me'.' p r o n o u n c e b u t ' l o v e ' a n d
'dove* . . . .
(11. 7-10)

O f c o u r s e R o m e o (who o v e r h e a r s t h i s mocking of himself) i s

now s i n c e r e l y i n l o v e w i t h Juliet.
 99

With love's light w i n g s do I o'erperch

these w a l l s ;
For stony l i m i t s cannot h o l d love out,
A n d what l o v e c a n do, t h a t d a r e s l o v e a t t e m p t
T h e r e f o r e t h y k i n s m e n a r e no l e t t o me.
(II.ii.66-69)

While Romeo i s w o o i n g Juliet in this beautiful moonlight scene

there is still some of the old, conventional lover in him:

I have night's cloak to

h i d e me f r o m t h e i r
sight;
A n d b u t t h o u l o v e me, l e t t h e m f i n d me here.•
My l i f e w e r e b e t t e r e n d e d b y t h e i r h a t e
Than death prorogued, wanting' of thy l o v e .

(II.ii.75-78)

Juliet, in disclosing her love t o Romeo, shows that her

values are not merely conventional:

0 g e n t l e Romeo,
I f thou dost l o v e , pronounce i t f a i t h f u l l y .
O r i f t h o u t h i n k e s t I am t o o q u i c k l y won,
I ' l l f r o w n , and be p e r v e r s e , and say t h e e nay,
S o t h o u w i l t woo; but e l s e , not f o r the w o r l d .
I n t r u t h , f a i r M o n t a g u e , I am t o o fond,
A n d t h e r e f o r e t h o u m a y s t t h i n k my h a v i o u r light;
B u t t r u s t me, g e n t l e m a n , I ' l l p r o v e more t r u e
T h a n t h o s e t h a t h a v e more c u n n i n g t o be strange.
I s h o u l d h a v e b e e n more s t r a n g e , I must confess,
But that thou o v e r h e a r d ' s t , e r e I was ware,
My t r u e - l o v e p a s s i o n . Therefore pardon me,
And not impute t h i s y i e l d i n g t o l i g h t l o v e ,
Which the d a r k n i g h t h a t h so discovered.
(II.ii.93-106)

In this romantic scene, true love i s valued highly. As so

often happens i n Shakespeare's plays, here the woman presents

the n a t u r a l , reasoned view of love. Juliet, i n answer to

Romeo's r e q u e s t that each exchange vows, sees that this is

not necessary to those whose love i s deep and sincere:

My b o u n t y i s a s b o u n d l e s s a s t h e sea,
My l o v e a s d e e p ; t h e m o r e I g i v e t o t h e e ,
The more I h a v e , f o r b o t h a r e infinite.
(II.ii.133-135)

This kind of love has only one s u i t a b l e end, which

Castiglione advised the courtly lady to seek. Juliet

 100

recognizes this i n h e r promise t o Romeo:

I f t h a t t h y bent o f l o v e he honourable,
T h y p u r p o s e m a r r i a g e , 'send me w o r d t o - m o r r o w ,
• • •
A n d a l l my f o r t u n e s a t t h y f o o t I ' l l l a y
A n d f o l l o w t h e e my l o r d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d .
(II.ii.143-148)

This avowal i s the natural result of their courtship. Friar

Laurence, after h e a r i n g Romeo confess that he n e v e r really

4

loved R o s a l i n e and a f t e r h e a r i n g t h a t Romeo i s truly i n love,

agrees t o marry them i n secret. H i s advice t o Romeo m i g h t be

the advice t o a l l impetuous lovers, and s e r v e s t o suggest

the difference between the Imagined type of courtly love which

Romeo felt f o rR o s a l i n e and the r e a l , permanent, and b a l a n c e d

5
love he s h o u l d f e e l f o r a wife:
These v i o l e n t d e l i g h t s have v i o l e n t ends
And i n t h e i r triumph d i e , l i k e f i r e and
powder,
Which a s t h e y k i s s , consume. The sweetest
honey
I s l o a t h s o m e i n h i s own d e l i c i o u s n e s s
And i n t h e t a s t e confounds t h e a p p e t i t e .
Therefore love moderately: long love doth so;
Too s w i f t a r r i v e s as t a r d y as t o o slow.
(II.vi.9-15)

4 Romeo says to the F r i a r :

T h e n p l a i n l y k n o w my h e a r t ' s d e a r l o v e i s s e t
On t h e f a i r d a u g h t e r o f r i c h C a p u l e t ;
As mine on h e r s , so h e r s i s s e t on mine,
A n d a l l c o m b i n ' d , s a v e what t h o u must combine
By h o l y m a r r i a g e .
(II.iii.57-61)

5 We m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t t h i s new l o v e w h i c h R o m e o
e x p e r i e n c e s h a s j u s t b e e n r e v e a l e d t o t h e F r i a r who a c t u a l l y
k n o w s h i m a s t h e c o u r t l y l o v e r who h a s l o n g s o r r o w e d because
Rosaline spurned h i s a r t i f i c i a l love.
 101

The love which Romeo and Juliet feel f o r each other

has a firm f o u n d a t i o n which helps each t o meet the events

that follow on the brawl between the Capulet and Montague

factions. With Romeo s 1

banishment for killing Juliet's

cousin, Tybalt, the tragedy which ends i n the death of the

lovers i s precipitated.

The Romeo o f the later play i s essentially a

different man. However, once, upon learning that he i s

banished and must part with his bride, he returns to his

old habit of being extravagant, artificial, and pitiful i n

demonstrating h i s sorrow. Even the coarse nurse sees that

his d e s p a i r i s unmanly and must admonish him:

S t a n d up, s t a n d up . S t a n d , and y o u be a
1
man.
For J u l i e t ' s s a k e , f o r h e r s a k e , r i s e and stand'.
Why s h o u l d you f a l l i n t o so deep an 0?
(III.iii.88-90)

The Friar's scolding i s essentially the same w h e n h e prevents

Romeo from using the dagger he has drawn:

H o l d thy d e s p e r a t e hand:
Art t h o u a man? Thy form c r i e s out thou a r t ;
Thy t e a r s are womanish, t h y w i l d a c t s denote
The unreasonable fury of a beast.
(III.iii.108-111)

His appeal i s to a real courtier, not to a sham one:

Thy n o b l e shape i s but a form o f wax,

D i g r e s s i n g from the v a l o u r of a man;
Thy d e a r l o v e sworn but a h o l l o w p e r j u r y ,
K i l l i n g t h a t l o v e w h i c h t h o u h a s t vow'd t o
cherish;
Thy w i t , t h a t ornament t o shape and l o v e ,
M i s s h a p e n i n t h e c o n d u c t o f them b o t h .
• • •
W h a t , a r o u s e t h e e , man'. Thy J u l i e t i s a l i v e
For w h o s e d e a r s a k e t h o u was b u t l a t e l y dead.
(III.iii.126-136)
 102

We soon learn that this reaction o f Romeo i s short-lived, for

the true love he h a s e x p e r i e n c e d g i v e s him courage to rise to

action. When he r e c e i v e s the faulty news that Juliet i s dead,

his immediate response i s manly:

Is i t e'en so? Then I defy you, stars'.

(V.i.24)

Romeo could n o t have made this courageous response earlier.

Juliet i s courageous, likewise, i n her true love.

She keeps h e r head when h e r f a t h e r hastens the plans f o r her

marriage with Paris and keeps her secret marriage from h e r

domineering mother. Though Juliet i s young i n years she meets

the situation with strength and s e l f - p o s s e s s i o n . She fears

she may n e v e r wake f r o m the drugs which the Friar gives her,

yet she r i s k s death f o r true love. Though she h a t e s t h e

thought of being put i n t o the family tomh and o f waking among

the decaying corpses, including the recent one o f h e r c o u s i n ,

Tybalt, still this girl whose p a r e n t s have turned against her

is resolute. She i s just as d e t e r m i n e d a s R o m e o who quickly

devises a plan:

Well, Juliet, I will l i e with thee to-night.

(V.i.34)

He fearlessly buys the drugs which will be h i s sudden death.

There i s beauty and pathos i n the tragedy which follows. The

love b e t w e e n Romeo and J u l i e t remains romantic t o the end. In

Romeo's last speech h i s praising of Juliet s 1

beauty i s sincere

and ironic:
0 my l o v e '. my w i f e '.
Death, t h a t h a t h suck'd t h e honey o f t h y b r e a t h ,
H a t h h a d no power y e t - U p o n t h y b e a u t y .
Thou a r t n o t conquer'd. Beauty's ensign y e t
I s crimson i n t h y l i p s and i n t h y cheeks,
 103

And death's pale flag i s not advanced there.

(V.iii.91-96)

Romeo d i e s with a kiss as does Juliet when she revives to see

her husband dead. We do not feel that death triumphs over

such love which Shakespeare shows t o be deep and sincere.

But f o r an accident, this love would have brought happiness

to a l l and united the quarrelsome families. The Friar's

comment on the tragedy bears this out:

A g r e a t e r p o w e r t h a n we c a n c o n t r a d i c t
Hath thwarted our i n t e n t s .
(V.iii.153-154)

H o w e v e r , we feel that the romantic love o f Romeo and Juliet

stood a l l tests of life and death.

In The, W i n t e r ' s Tale,. Shakespeare presents courtly

figures who find happiness i n marriage through romantic love.

This i s s h o w n i n two plots, that of Leontes, Polixenes, and

Hermione and that of F l o r i z e l and Perdita. In the first plot

we see the love of King Leontes f o r h i s Queen, Hermione,

disrupted by jealousy. When the play opens, Leontes and

Hermione are happily married and Leontes i s honored with a

visit from his dear friend, King P o l i x e n e s , whom h e calls his

brother. The a i r of happiness and friendship i s soon marred,

however, when L e o n t e s becomes jealous upon seeing Hermione

playfully persuading Polixenes to stay l o n g e r i n the Sicilian

6
court. In spite of Hermione's avowal of love, Leontes

6
 104

rapidly becomes insanely jealous:

Too h o t , t o o hot I
To m i n g l e f r i e n d s h i p f a r , i s m i n g l i n g bloods.
I h a v e t r e m o r c o r d i s o n me; my h e a r t d a n c e s ,
But not f o r j o y ;not j o y .
(I.ii.108-111)

He h a s no r e a l proof of h i s lady's infidelity, but unrestrained

7
in h i s delusion, Leontes does n o t heed the advice of h i s court

but has h i s wife imprisoned and p l o t s to poison h i s dear friend.

Happily, Polixenes i s told of the plot i n time t o escape. In

commenting on t h e j e a l o u s y of h i s friend who now terms

Polixenes h i s enemy, P o l i x e n e s recognizes the courtly character

8
of Hermione and r e a l i z e s how dangerous i s jealousy:
This jealousy
Is f o r a precious creature. As she's r a r e ,
Must i t be g r e a t ; and as h i s p e r s o n ' s m i g h t y ,
Must i t be v i o l e n t ; and as he does conceive
H e i s d i s h o n o u r ' d b y a man w h i c h e v e r
P r o f e s s ' d t o h i m , why, h i s r e v e n g e s m u s t
I n t h a t b e made m o r e b i t t e r . Fear o'ershades
me.
(I.ii.452-457)

Leontes 1
jealous hatred and rage i s n o t c o u r t l y and causes

much u n n e c e s s a r y misery. When H e r m i o n e has a l i t t l e girl,

Leontes i s further enraged, having convinced himself of his

7 Camillo appraises the king's state o f mind

a c c u r a t e l y , i n a d v i s i n g him:

G o o d , my l o r d , b e c u r ' d
Of t h i s d i s e a ' d o p i n i o n , and betimes;
F o r ' t i s most dangerous.
(I.ii.296-298)

8 T h e theme o f a l a d y c a u s i n g j e a l o u s y b e t w e e n
two s w o r n b r o t h e r s r e c a l l s C h a u c e r ' s K n i g h t _ . s _ T a . l e a n d
S h a k e s p e a r e ' s Two, G e n t l e m a n o f V e r o n a . I n " l h e W i n t e r ' s , T a l e , ,
jealousy i s dealt with d i f f e r e n t l y . " I t i s potentially"""*"
t r a g i c and the tragedy i s b a r e l y averted.
 105

wife's unfaithfulness. The baby i s c a r r i e d away at h i s

o r d e r and Hermione i s r e p o r t e d t o be dead. To add t o the

m i s e r y , the son o f the r o y a l c o u p l e d i e s f o r g r i e f because

he has been s e p a r a t e d f r o m h i s mother, l e a v i n g S i c i l y without

an h e i r . The unhappy, f o o l i s h k i n g i s brought down i n d e s p a i r .

D u r i n g the s i x t e e n y e a r s which f o l l o w these

unhappy i n c i d e n t s , Leontes has time t o r e p e n t . His

repentance i s genuine and we see how d e a r l y he really

l o v e d h i s queen and how he r e a l i z e s h i s m i s t a k e s when he

stands b e f o r e what he supposes t o be the s t a t u e o f Hermione:

0 thus she s t o o d ,
Even w i t h such l i f e of majesty (warm l i f e ,
As now i t c o l d l y s t a n d s ) , when f i r s t I woo'd
her i
I am asham d. Does not the stone rebuke me
1

F o r b e i n g more stone than i t ?

(V.iii.34-38)

I n t h i s w i n t e r ' s t a l e , much l i k e a f a i r y s t o r y , the s t a t u e

s t e p s down and i t i s r e v e a l e d t h a t Hermione has been a l i v e

a l l these y e a r s and has been i n h i d i n g t o escape Leontes'

9
wrath. True l o v e i s a g a i n r e s t o r e d t o t h i s couple and we

have f i n a l p r o o f t h a t Leontes has been s p i r i t u a l l y re-born

when he c o n f e s s e s h i s f o l l y and i s r e c o n c i l e d w i t h h i s w i f e

and h i s f r i e n d :
B o t h your pardons,
That e'er I put between your h o l y l o o k s
My i l l - s u s p i c i o n .
(V.iii.147-149)

9 I t was customary i n the m e d i e v a l romances f o r the

l a d y who had been u n f a i t h f u l t o r e t i r e i n t o a nunnery where
she c o u l d have ample time t o r e p e n t . The r e t i r e m e n t o f
Hermione from the c o u r t r e c a l l s t h i s c o n v e n t i o n , though, of
c o u r s e , she i s b l a m e l e s s i n t h i s p l a y .
With this request, the happy marriage and t h e happy

friendship which we witnessed i n the opening of the play

are both restored.

The secondary plot of The^interJ^s^Talej. that of

Perdita and F l o r i z e l , also shows the c o u r t l y theme i n

relation to romantic love. In this plot, which deals with

the adventures of Leontes 1

lost daughter who has been brought

up by a shepherd, we are taken into the world of Sidney s 1

Arcadia. Perdita, who has been raised as a s h e p h e r d e s s , i s

wooed by F l o r i z e l , the son of King Polixenes o f Bohemia.

Though their love story i s placed i n an i d y l l i c setting and

has the appearance of a conventional courtly love, still i t

is i n t e r e s t i n g t o note how Shakespeare depicts this love.

It i s treated romantically b u t i s more than a diversion i n

the play. Florizel and P e r d i t a a r e more t h a n mere types:

they are credible individuals. Shakespeare makes i t plain

that out of t h e i r love grows a r e a l , lasting relationship

which leads to marriage. Love i s more than a sporting

pastime.

When we first meet these two they are already

happily i n love. Prince Florizel, as P e r d i t a tells us,

has disguised himself as a shepherd, i n t r a d i t i o n a l manner,

in order t o woo h e r :

Your high self

The g r a c i o u s m a r k o' t h ' l a n d , y o u h a v e
obscur'd
W i t h a s w a i n ' s w e a r i n g ; a n d me, p o o r lowly
maid,
Most g o d d e s s - l i k e prank'd up.
(IV.:"iv.7-10)
 107

She, even i n her role as a shepherdess, equals the courtly

ladies i n her beauty and chastity and Florizel vows she is

the object of his true love. Speaking of the gods that

disguised themselves for love, Florizel says:

Their transformations
Were n e v e r f o r a p i e c e o f b e a u t y r a r e r ,
N o r i n a way s o c h a s t e , s i n c e my desires
R u n n o t b e f o r e m i n e h o n o u r , n o r my l u s t s
B u r n h o t t e r t h a n my faith.
( I V . i v . 31-34-)

Even her supposed father recognizes she i s no mere shepherdess:

You are retir'd,

As i f you were a f e a s t e d one, and not
The h o s t e s s o f the meeting.
(IV.iv.62-64)

This observation is s i m i l a r to that of the disguised Polixenes

(who is trying to discover why his son has been absent from

court):

T h i s i s the p r e t t i e s t low-born l a s s t h a t e v e r
-Ran o n t h e g r e e n s w a r d . N o t h i n g s h e d o e s o r s e e m s
B u t smacks o f s o m e t h i n g g r e a t e r t h a n h e r s e l f ,
Too n o b l e f o r t h i s place.
(IV.iv.156-159)

Just as Perdita cannot disguise her courtly birth and bearing,

10
so cannot Florizel. Perdita recognizes that his courtliness

10 I t was generally believed that a courtly lady and

gentleman c o u l d not conceal t h e i r b i r t h or b e a r i n g even i n the
garb of a shepherd. Spenser dealt very f u l l y with t h i s
c o n v e n t i o n i n the S i x t h Book o f the F a i r i e Queene. In this
p a s t o r a l i n t e r l u d e , S i r C a l i d o r e i s c o n t r a s t e d t o the
s h e p h e r d C o r i d o n , a n d t h e b a s e n e s s o f t h e l a t t e r i s made c l e a r .
Spenser says o f the shepherd:

Fit to keepe sheepe, u n f i t f o r l o v e s content:

The gentle heart scornes base disparagement.
(VI.x.37)

The c o u r t l y k n i g h t w i n s P a s t o r e l l whose c o u r t l y b e a r i n g
b e t r a y e d t h e f a c t t h a t s h e was n o b l e b o r n . I n the end she
l e a r n s of her true parentage.
 108

shows through the d i s g u i s e when she r e v e a l s her r e a c t i o n to

his love:

Your p r a i s e s are too l a r g e . But that your

youth,
And the true b l o o d which peeps so f a i r l y
through't,
Do p l a i n l y give you out an u n s t a i n ' d shepherd,
With wisdom I might f e a r , My D o r i c l e s ,
You woo'd me the f a l s e way.
(IV.iv.147-15D

T h i s speech i s very important i n showing us the nature of

love i n t h i s plot. Such l o v e i s the romantic l o v e of youth

which seeks happy f u l f i l l m e n t and a promise to l o v e forever.

The beauty of t h i s l o v e i s r e p o r t e d by P e r d i t a ' s supposed

father:

He says he l o v e s my daughter.
I t h i n k so too; f o r never gaz'd the moon
Upon the water as h e ' l l stand and read,
As 'twere, my daughter's eyes; and to be p l a i n ,
I t h i n k there i s not h a l f a k i s s to choose
Who l o v e s another b e s t .
(IV.iv.171-176)

T h e i r l o v e i s genuine and permanent. T h i s i s proved by

F l o r i z e l ' s w i l l i n g n e s s to give up h i s h e r i t a g e and his

f a t h e r f o r h i s t r u e l o v e , upon being d i s c o v e r e d by Polixenes:

L i f t up thy l o o k s .
From my s u c c e s s i o n wipe me, father'. I
Am h e i r to my a f f e c t i o n .
(IV.iv.490-492)

To P e r d i t a he vows h i s l o v e again:

Dear, l o o k up.
Though Fortune, v i s i b l e an enemy,
Should chase us, with my f a t h e r , pow'r ho jot
Hath she to change our l o v e s .
(v.i.215-218)
Such u n s e l f i s h devotion as i s found i n t h i s i d e a l love

deserves to be rewarded. True l o v e has grown from the

 109

conventional p a t t e r n of a c o u r t i e r d i s g u i s e d as a shepherd

wooing a shepherdess. When P e r d i t a i s f i n a l l y r e v e a l e d as

the l o s t daughter o f Leontes, the young l o v e r s are f r e e t o

marry. T h i s i s a f i t t i n g ending t o a t a l e where the wrong

kind o f jealous love brought misery t o a l l concerned, but

where the r i g h t k i n d o f u n s e l f i s h , f o r g i v i n g love finally

11
brought happiness.

Gj/mbeline i s another p l a y which, l i k e TheJ£int,er_s

T a l e , has a f a n t a s t i c p l o t . B u t , l i k e T h e J _ i n t ^ r _ s _ T a l e , i t

deals with the subject o f romantic love and presents some

very p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s towards i t . As i n The Winter's T a l e

and Romeo ^ d J u l i e t , the course o f l o v e i s not smooth but

the passion i s strong enough t o triumph over a d v e r s i t y i n the

end. While we must make allowances f o r the s e n s a t i o n a l

12
elements i n t h i s p l a y we cannot f a i l t o n o t i c e that various

aspects o f the c o u r t l y theme are presented with true love

finally triumphant.

11 Some i n c i d e n t a l s a t i r e should not be missed i n

t h i s play. The shepherd and h i s son, the clown, c l e a r l y
s a t i r i z e the u p s t a r t c o u r t i e r s . There are some amusing
scenes i n which the Clown brags o f h i s connections at c o u r t ,
now that h i s " s i s t e r " ( P e r d i t a ) i s found t o be a p r i n c e s s .

12 The improbable, s e n s a t i o n a l type o f play,

given impetus by the work o f Beaumont and F l e t c h e r , was i n
vogue when Cymbeline was w r i t t e n ( c . 1610). Some o f the
s e n s a t i o n a l elements i n t h i s play i n c l u d e : the t e s t i n g o f
a wife's v i r t u e by g i v i n g a l e t t e r o f recommendation t o a
companion, an attempted p o i s o n i n g , an attempted rape, a
d e c a p i t a t i o n (where C l o t e n ' s body i s found dressed i n the
c l o t h i n g o f Posthumus and i s mistaken by Imogen f o r her
husband), a l o s t p r i n c e s s d i s g u i s e d as a youth, who,
unknowingly, f i n d s her b r o t h e r s who were kidnapped as b a b i e s ,
and a supposed death where the p r i n c e s s i s b u r i e d and
"comes t o l i f e " again.
 The various aspects of the courtly theme which

Shakespeare presents i n Cymbeline may be seen i n the

characters of Cloten, the Queen, and I a c h i m o , i n addition

13
to t h e two lovers of the play, Posthumus and Imogen.

Prince Cloten, the a s p i r i n g son d f the e v i l Queen, serves

as a contrast t o the c o u r t l y Posthumus. This evil prince

is filled with lust f o r Imogen, the wife o f Posthumus,

and provides a satire on the base c o u r t i e r who pretends to

nobility i n h i s search f o r power. The w i c k e d , scheming

Queen i s contrasted t o the gentle, u n s e l f i s h Imogen. The

Queen.is no P e t r a r c h a n lady i n her love f o r Cymbeline,

which i s not a c t u a l l y love but ambition. Iachimo, whose

pride and t r i c k e r y cause the unhappiness between the two

lovers, i s another courtly type who learns through h i s

mistakes, what true honor and c h a s t i t y a r e . He admits this

in confessing h i s deception o f Imogen and Posthumus t o

Cymbeline:
W e l l may y o u , s i r ,
R e m e m b e r me a t c o u r t , w h e r e I was t a u g h t
Of your chaste daughter the wide d i f f e r e n c e
' T w i x t amorous and v i l l a n o u s .
(V. v . 192-195)
The evil i n this play serves to heighten t h e good which

overcomes i t i n t h e end. The strength of true love,

championed by Imogen, withstands a l lshocks, and happiness

13 A l s o , t h e t w o s o n s o f C y m b e l i n e , Guiderius
and A r v i r a g u s , a r e examples o f c o u r t l y y o u t h s whose u p -
b r i n g i n g i n a cave cannot hide t h e i r true g e n t i l i t y . Like
S p e n s e r ' s P a s t o r e l l and S h a k e s p e a r e ' s P e r d i t a and F l o r i z e l
t h e i r t r u e n a t u r e shows t h r o u g h t h e i r r u d e s u r r o u n d i n g s
and garb.
 Ill

is brought out of near-tragedy.

The main i n t e r e s t of Shakespeare's treatment of love

in this play centres around Imogen and Posthumus who are

secretly married w h e n we first meet them. T h o u g h Posthumus

is no prince, he i s the ideal courtly gentleman worthy of a

princess' love. One of Cymbeline's c o u r t i e r s says that

Posthumus:

. . . l i v ' d i n court
(Which r a r e i t i s to.do) most p r a i s ' d , most
lov'd,
A sample t o t h e . y o u n g e s t , t o t h e more m a t u r e
A g l a s s t h a t f e a t e d them, and t o the graver
A c h i l d that guided dotards. To h i s m i s t r e s s ,
F o r whom h e now i s banish'd — h e r own price
P r o c l a i m s how she e s t e e m ' d him and h i s v i r t u e .
B y h e r e l e c t i o n may be t r u l y read
W h a t k i n d o f man he i s .
(I.i.46-54)

His love for his wife is deep and his sorrow at parting

sincere:

My q u e e n , my m i s t r e s s I
0 l a d y , weep no m o r e , l e s t I g i v e c a u s e
To be s u s p e c t e d o f more t e n d e r n e s s
T h a n d o t h b e c o m e a man. I w i l l remain
The l o y a l ' s t h u s b a n d t h a t d i d e ' e r plight
troth . . . .

(I.i.92-96)

This oath which he takes i s never broken despite the

disillusion that Posthumus experiences when I a c h i m o returns

with apparent proof (which he obtained by being smuggled into

Imogen's bed-chamber in a trunk) that I m o g e n was unfaithful

to her banished husband. The romantic love which Posthumus

and Imogen experience i s never marred through unfaithfulness

on either side, regardless of the tests to which i t is

submitted. Thus the idealism associated with romantic love

is not shattered and the reconciliation at the end of the

play forms a natural, happy conclusion.

The unhappiness between the two lovers arises from

a wager w h i c h Posthumus makes on the chastity o f Imogen to

t h e Roman, I a c h i m o . Though this wager i s fantastic, since

it provides that Iachimo i s free t o woo-Imogen, i t i s

understandable, f o r the faith of true love i s strong. In

wagering h i s diamond ring, a precious keepsake from Imogen,

against Iachimo's ten thousand d u c a t s , Posthumus has utter

faith i n Imogen:

My m i s t r e s s e x c e e d s i n g o o d n e s s t h e h u g e n e s s
o f your unworthy t h i n k i n g . I dare you t o
t h i s match.
(I.iv.156-158)

Of c o u r s e Imogen i s unassailable. She i s told by Iachimo

that Posthumus has been unfaithful when he woos h e r i n an

uncourtly fashion:

Revenge i t i
I d e d i c a t e m y s e l f t o y o u r sweet pleasure,
More n o b l e than t h a t runagate t o your bed,
And w i l l c o n t i n u e f a s t t o your a f f e c t i o n ,
S t i l l c l o s e as s u r e .
(I.vi.135-139)

Imogen.is c o n s t a n t and courtly i n her reply, detecting

the falsehood:

I f t h o u were h o n o u r a b l e ,
Thou wouldst have t o l d t h i s t a l e f o r v i r t u e ,
not
F o r s u c h an end t h o u s e e k ' s t , as b a s e as
strange.
T h o u w r o n g ' s t a g e n t l e m a n who i s a s f a r
From t h y r e p o r t as t h o u from honour, and
S o l i c i t ' s t here a lady that disdains
T h e e and t h e d e v i l alike.
(I.vi.142-148)

When C l o t e n tries to seduce her she i s just as constant and

she makes clear the difference between this false courtier

 113

and her true lord i n spurning Cloten:

He n e v e r c a n m e e t m o r e m i s c h a n c e t h a n come
T o he nam'd o f t h e e . H i s meanest garment
That ever hath but c l i p p ' d h i s body i s dearer
I n my r e s p e c t t h a n a l l t h e h a i r s a b o v e t h e e ,
W e r e t h e y a l l made s u c h men.
(II.iii.137-14-1)

The one sustaining element i n the p l a y i s the faith,

hope, and d e v o t i o n o f Imogen. She never denounces her

husband, nor g i v e s up her belief that they will be re-united.

Sincerher love f o r him i s infinite, there i s never a

question of doubting his love. Even the noble Posthumus

becomes disillusioned when I a c h i m o brings apparent evidence

that he has been rewarded with Imogen's favors. His response,

which d e p r e c i a t e s a l l women, shows the bitter disappointment

he feels:

Let t h e r e be no honour
Where there i s b e a u t y ; t r u t h , where semblance;
love,
W h e r e t h e r e ' s a n o t h e r man'. T h e vows o f
women
O f n o m o r e b o n d a g e b e t o w h e r e t h e y a r e made
Than they are to t h e i r v i r t u e s , which i s
nothing 1
0, a b o v e m e a s u r e f a l s e !

(Il.iv.108-113)

In a soliloquy which follows, Posthumus becomes b i t t e r i n

his denunciation. This i s a f a r cry from the conventional

courtly praise of women:

F o r t h e r e ' s no motion
T h a t t e n d s t o v i c e i n man b u t I a f f i r m
I t i s t h e woman's p a r t . Be i t l y i n g , n o t e i t ,
T h e woman's; f l a t t e r i n g , h e r s ; d e c e i v i n g , h e r s ;
L u s t and rank t h o u g h t s , h e r e , h e r s ; r e v e n g e s ,
hers;
A m b i t i o n s , c o v e t i n g s , change o f p r i d e s , disdain,
, Nice longing, slanders, mutability —
A l l f a u l t s t h a t may b e n a m ' d , , n a y , t h a t hell
knows,
 114

Why, h e r s i n part or a l l ; but rather a l l !

For even to vice
They a r e not constant, but are changing s t i l l
One v i c e b u t o f a m i n u t e o l d f o r one
Wot h a l f so o l d as t h a t . I ' l lwrite against
them,
Detest them, c u r s e them.
(II.v.20-33)

Such i s the r e a c t i o n o f a young husband who has just received

evidence which seems t o be conclusive that h i s wife was

unfaithful. However, Shakespeare d i d not intend to leave us

with this view o f young love, f o r soon a l l i s righted.

Imogen i s restored to her father and husband, the lost

princes are also restored to their father, the wicked Queen

dies, and I a c h i m o confesses and i s f o r g i v e n . Before

Posthumus finds that Imogen still lives, he reveals that he

s t i l l loves h e r and t h a t he i s t o blame for thinking she •

could n o t be virtuous:

The temple
Of v i r t u e was s h e ; y e a , a n d she h e r s e l f .
• • •
0 Imogen'.
My q u e e n , my l i f e , my wife . 1
0 Imogen,
I m o g e n , Imogen'.

(V.v.220-226)

As they are happily re-united we may recall Iachimo's

reaction t o Imogen's r e f u s a l and r e a l i z e how prophetic his

wishes were:
0 happy Leonatus I I may s a y
The c r e d i t t h a t t h y l a d y h a t h o f thee
D e s e r v e s t h y t r u s t , and t h y most perfect
goodness
Her assur'd c r e d i t . Blessed live you long,
A lady t o the worthiest s i r that ever
Country c a l l d h i sI1
and you h i s mistress,
only
F o r t h e most w o r t h i e s t fit i
(I.vi.156-162)
The promise of romantic love is fulfilled and the play is

brought to a happy conclusion as Cymbeline says:

Pardon's the word to a l l .

(V.v.422)

In Romeo and J u l i e t , The Winter's Tale and

Cymbeline the romantic love of those courtly figures who

experience i t leads them through adversity to a permanent

relationship. After studying Shakespeare's treatment.of

this love, we feel that only a true, lasting love could

stand the trials i t is put to in these three plays.

 CHAPTER VI

REVERSAL OF THE THEME: THE LADY IN LOVE

(Venus and Adonis),

Much Ado about Nothing

Measure forJ^easure,

Richard II
 117

CHAPTER VI

A further example o f the v a r i e t y with which

Shakespeare treats courtly love may be found i n the four

plays All, 1
s, W e l l that, E n d s W e l l , Much Ado about Nothing

Measure for, M e a s u r e , and R i c h a r d II, I n each o f these, we

see a lady i n love, e v e n when h e r l o r d does not return her

love. I n each case t h e lady, i s t h e p u r s u e r . This theme h a s

b e e n met i n Twelfth^Night where Olivia was hopelessly i n

love with Cesario (Viola) and V i o l a was desperately i n love

with Orsino. However, i n this play, the course of love i s

complicated by mistakes which result from V i o l a ' s disguise.

Upon removing the d i s g u i s e , V i o l a wins her lord when he

discovers the true situation: Olivia has a l r e a d y found a

responsive lover i n the bewildered Sebastian and V i o l a loves

him dearly. I n the group of plays t o be considered i n this

chapter, the pursuing lady i s not misled o r hampered by

mistaken identities. Rather, when the disguise i s used (as

it i s i n a l l b u t Richard, I I ) i t i s used to t r i c k t h e man

into giving h i s love, where formerly he h a d r e f u s e d . In

these four plays, the male courtly lover i s degraded, t o

some extent, because the lady's devotion i s f a r more

instrumental i n bringing about a realization o f her love

than i s t h e man's constancy or h i s willingness t o woo her i n

the courtly fashion. Such love,:, w h e r e the lady i s so desperate

that she must stoop to trickery, i s not i n keeping with the

highest ideals of courtly love. Nevertheless, i t provides

an interesting study of Shakespeare's desire t o see t h e

 118

reality lying behind the convention.

This unusual variation o f the courtly theme, where

the lady i s t h e wooer, was foreshadowed i n the early Venus

and Adonis. In this poem t h e goddess of love pursues the

youthful, noble, but unheeding Adonis. She tries a l lthe

snares of the f l e s h , i n seeking t o win him, but h i s reason

overcomes h e r p a s s i o n and he r e j e c t s her suit:

Hunting he l o v ' d , b u t l o v e he l a u g h e d to scorn.

(1. 4)

Her praises o f Adonis are like the Petrarchan praises that the

courtier wrote to h i s lady:

•Thrice f a i r e r than myself, t h u s she b e g a n ,
1

'The f i e l d s c h i e f f l o w e r , s w e e t a b o v e c o m p a r e ,
S t a i n t o a l l n y m p h s , m o r e l o v e l y t h a n a man,
More white and r e d than doves o r r o s e s a r e ,
N a t u r e t h a t made t h e e , w i t h h e r s e l f a t s t r i f e ,
S a i t h that the world hath ending with thy l i f e .
(11. 7-12)

In spite o f h e r p l e a d i n g and weeping, Adonis cannot be won.

He i s like the cruel Petrarchan l a d y who was disdainful and

pitiless:

'Pity I she cries,

1
some f a v o u r , some
1
remorse'.'
Away h e s p r i n g s a n d h a s t e t h t o h i s h o r s e .
(11. 257-258)

So desperate i s Venus that she pretends t o be dead because of

his cruelty i n order to trick the youth. However, though she

falls down as i f dead and s c a r e s t h e boy, she never quite

triumphs. Adonis successfully stays her advances, making i t

plain that there i s a distinction between lust and love:

I hate not l o v e , but your device i n l o v e ,

That l e n d s embracements unto e v e r y s t r a n g e r .
Y o u do i t f o r i n c r e a s e . 0 strange excuse,
When r e a s o n i s t h e b a w d t o l u s t ' s a b u s e I
(11. 789-792)
Before she c a n d e v i s e new tricks to win her loved one, A d o n i s

is killed i n a boar hunt. In this poem we see the l i m i t s to

which the lady will go i n o r d e r to win the object of her love.

The comparison o f love and l u s t i s repeated constantly i n the

struggle between Venus and Adonis. The d e s p e r a t i o n o f Venus

and the struggle between love and l u s t are especially recalled

in All's, Well that Ends W e l l , and i n Measure f o r Measure.

I n
All's Well that Ends, W e l l , Shakespeare gives h i s

fullest treatment of the courtly theme r e v e r s e d , with the lady

pursuing t h e man. Helena i s i n love with the reluctant Bertram,

a c o u r t i e r who i s above her i n social station. She first

schemes t o make him h e r husband a n d i s s u c c e s s f u l when the king

allows h e r t o choose whomever she wishes as a reward for curing

his serious ailment. However, H e l e n a ' s quest does n o t end

when she o b t a i n s Bertram f o r h e r husband, b u t s h e must proceed

to win h i s love. She t h i n k s nothing of resorting to trickery

a second time, but has h e r s e l f substituted f o rDiana, the

object of Bertram's i l l i c i t love. Finally, her love and

devotion are rewarded when i t i s proved to Bertram that he h a s

kept a love tryst with h i s own w i f e , and he accepts her.

Though Helena seems t o be d r i v e n to desperate ends

when she wagers her l i f e i n order t o convince the king that she

can cure him i n r e t u r n f o r a husband of her choosing a n d when

she forms a plan to trick h e r husband and be w i t h him, still

1
Shakespeare emphasizes her true worth and h e r c o u r t l y bearing.

1 C f . C h a p t e r I I , p a g e 34 f o r t h e e s s e n t i a l
q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e c o u r t l y l a d y , as o u t l i n e d by c a s t i g l i o n e .
The irrationality of love seems to grip h e r b u t she remains

poised and courageous i n her undertakings and displays

intelligence, shrewdness, and d e t e r m i n a t i o n . The K i n g

recognizes her true worth:

Thy l i f e i s dear; f o r a l l t h a t l i f e c a n r a t e
W o r t h name o f l i f e i n t h e e h a t h e s t i m a t e —
Y o u t h , b e a u t y , wisdom, c o u r a g e , a l l
That h a p p i n e s s and prime c a n happy c a l l .

(II.i.182-185)

This appraisal strengthens that o f her guardian, the Countess

(Bertram's mother),, who praised Helena's education, honesty,

and goodness (I.i.43-53).• This young lady has a l lthe

qualities which make u p f o r B e r t r a m ' s noble rank, and which

are likely to qualify h e r a s a new lady i n the Elizabethan

aristocracy o f the nouveau riche.

Bertram, though o f noble rank, i s necessarily

degraded as a hero. This does n o t mean t h a t he i s t o t a l l y

unworthy of h i s class or of Helena. We are told, early i n

the play, of h i s potentialities. H i s mother tells us that

he i s an u n s c h o o l e d courtier who promises well:

Thy b l o o d and v i r t u e
Contend f o r empire i n t h e e , and t h y goodness
Share with thy birthright'.
• • o •
Farewell, my l o r d .
'Tis an unseason'd courtier; g o o d my lord,
Advise him.
(I.i.71-81)

Being a young courtier, he l o n g s f o r honor i n battle, a s we

see when h e c o m p l a i n s that he i s k e p t at the King's court:

I am commanded h e r e a n d k e p t a c o i l w i t h —
'Too y o u n g , ' a n d 'The n e x t y e a r , ' a n d ' T i s
too early.'
(II.i.27-28)
 121

In the matters of love he i s u n r e s p o n s i v e and even mean,

rejecting Helena because she l a c k s position:

S h e h a d h e r b r e e d i n g a t my f a t h e r ' s c h a r g e .
A p o o r p h y s i c i a n ' s d a u g h t e r my w i f e ? D i s d a i n
R a t h e r c o r r u p t me e v e r I
(II.iii.121-123)

The King's reply to this rejection i s truly Elizabethan i n

its evaluation o f rank and honor:

She i s y o u n g , w i s e , fair;
In these t o n a t u r e she's immediate heir;
And t h e s e b r e e d honour. That i s honour's
scorn
Which c h a l l e n g e s i t s e l f as honour's born
And i s n o t l i k e t h e s i r e .
• • •
I f thou c a n s t l i k e t h i s c r e a t u r e as a maid,
I can create the r e s t . V i r t u e and she
I s h e r d o w e r ; h o n o u r a n d w e a l t h f r o m me.
(II.iii.138-151)

When B e r t r a m still cannot accept Helana, we realize i t i s

his inability t o accept love and marriage. Though the King

decrees that Bertram must marry h e r , he vows not t o accept

this absolute decree:

0 my P a r o l l e s , t h e y h a v e m a r r i e d me'.
I ' l l t o t h e T u s c a n war's, a n d n e v e r b e d h e r .

(II.iii.289-290)

Bertram might be e x p e c t e d to rebel at this forced match, y e t

he never redeems himself as a c o u r t l y lover. When we see him

later wooing Diana, after he h a s f l e d from France and h i s w i f e ,

we are not really impressed with h i s performance. His

intentions are not honorable, and, indeed, only the substitution

of h i swife (unknown t o him.)' f o r D i a n a saves h i s honor. His

uncourtly action i s reported by Diana's mother i n her reply

to Helena's suggestion that Bertram solicit Diana i n his

unlawful purpose:
 122

He d o e s i n d e e d .1

And b r o k e s w i t h a l l t h a t can i n such a s u i t

C o r r u p t the tender-honour o f a maid;
B u t she i s arm'd f o r him, and keeps h e r g u a r d
In honestest defence.
(III.v.73-77)

When we see B e r t r a m wooing D i a n a i n the usual courtly manner

we are aware of his dishonorable intentions, and are not

impressed by the semblance of sincerity with which he seeks

to justify the abandonment of h i s wife:

I p r i t h e e , d o n o t s t r i v e a g a i n s t my v o w s .
I was c o m p e l l ' d t o h e r , b u t I l o v e t h e e
B y l o v e ' s own s w e e t c o n s t r a i n t , a n d w i l l f o r
ever
Do t h e e a l l r i g h t s o f s e r v i c e .
(IV.ii.14-17)

As he arranges for a secret love rendevous with Diana, he is

guided by lust and i s unconcerned with the sanctity of his

marriage vows:

Be not so holy-cruel. Love i s holy,

A n d my i n t e g r i t y ne' e r k n e w t h e c r a f t s
T h a t y o u do c h a r g e men w i t h . S t a n d no more o f f ,
B u t g i v e t h y s e l f u n t o my s i c k d e s i r e s ,
Who then recover.
(iv.ii.32-36)
His abandon to this lustful love i s complete and makes easy

Helena's plan to trick him and win his love:

H e r e , t a k e my ring!
My h o u s e , m i n e h o n o u r , y e a , my life, be thine,
A n d I ' l l be b i d b y t h e e .
(IV.ii. 51-53)
Such i s the man whom H e l e n a loves with a l l her heart. However,

Shakespeare saves Bertram from utter d e g r a d a t i o n and worth-

lessness and thus prevents the ending, where the reluctant

husband and the persistent wife are happily united, from

becoming incredible. The rash Bertram i s redeemed, to some

 123

extent,'when he r e a l i z e s that he has "been m i s g u i d e d hy the

2

false courtier, Parolles. Though he does not deserve Helena,

we feel, at least he shows promise of improving and "becoming

a true lover and husband.

Throughout the play, Helena holds our real interest

as a courtly lover. It is she who suffers for love and

must make a l l the advances, as the usual courtly lover had done,

In an early soliloquy, her despair is evident and her doting

upon B e r t r a m s 1
handsome features expresses her love:

T h e r e i s no l i v i n g , n o n e ,
I f B e r t r a m be away. ' T w e r e a l l one
That I should love a b r i g h t p a r t i c u l a r s t a r
And t h i n k t o wed i t , he i s s o a b o v e me.
I n h i s b r i g h t r a d i a n c e and c o l l a t e r a l light
M u s t I be c o m f o r t e d , n o t i n h i s s p h e r e .
Th' a m b i t i o n i n my l o v e t h u s p l a g u e s i t s e l f .
The h i n d t h a t w o u l d be m a t e d b y t h e lion
Must d i e f o r l o v e . 'Twas p r e t t y , t h o u g h a
plague,
T o s e e h i m e v e r y h o u r ; t o s i t a n d draw.
H i s a r c h e d brows, h i s hawking eye, h i s c u r l s ,
I n our h e a r t ' s table — heart too capable
Of e v e r y l i n e and t r i c k o f h i s sweet favour.
B u t now he's g o n e , a n d my i d o l a t r o u s f a n c y
Must s a n c t i f y h i s r e l i c s .
(I.I.95-109)

2 I n d e p i c t i n g P a r o l l e s as a f o o l i s h , upstart
c o u r t i e r and i n e x p o s i n g h i s c o w a r d i c e , S h a k e s p e a r e i s
s a t i r i z i n g t h e a m b i t i o u s c o u r t i e r o f h i s own day. The
bad i n f l u e n c e w h i c h P a r o l l e s has b e e n i s r e p o r t e d by
Lafew to the C o u n t e s s :

No, n o , no', y o u r s o n was misled with a

s n i p t - t a f f e t a f e l l o w t h e r e , whose
v i l l a n o u s s a f f r o n w o u l d h a v e made a l l
t h e u n b a k ' d and doughy y o u t h o f a n a t i o n
in his colour.
(IV.v.1-4)
 124

We may detect the c o n v e n t i o n a l d e j e c t i o n which the l o v e r

suffers for unrequited love. Helena r e v e a l s the symptoms

of the u s u a l l o v e r , as the Countess observes:

H-er eye i s s i c k on't.

• (I.iii.142)
v.

L i k e the u s u a l c o u r t l y l o v e r , Helena wishes to be a v a s s a l

i n love:

My master, my dear l o r d he i s , and I

H i s servant l i v e and w i l l h i s v a s s a l d i e .
(I.iii.164-165)

T h i s young l a d y does not accept the s i t u a t i o n p a s s i v e l y , but

q u i c k l y d e v i s e s the scheme which wins Bertram. Her deter-

m i n a t i o n to win h i s hand i s rewarded, as i s her determination

to win h i s l o v e . Though she has t o do t h i s by t r i c k e r y , her

p e r s i s t e n c e gains the d e s i r e d end. We may wonder why Helena

wanted Bertram so b a d l y , e s p e c i a l l y when he r e f u s e s to be

t r u t h f u l about the l o v e i n t r i g u e (with one whom he supposes

to be Diana):
Let your Highness
Lay a more noble thought upon mine honour
Than f o r to t h i n k that I would s i n k i t here.
(V.iii.179-181)

Again h i s u n c o u r t l y manner i s evident when h i s r i n g i s

d i s c o v e r e d i n the p o s s e s s i o n o f Diana and he must confess

what i s apparently a dishonorable l o v e affair:

C e r t a i n i t i s I l i k ' d her,
And boarded her i ' th' wanton way of youth.
She knew her d i s t a n c e and d i d angle f o r me,
Madding my eagerness with her r e s t r a i n t ,
As a l l impediments i n f a n c y s course 1

Are motives of more fancy; and, i n f i n e ,

Her i n f i n i t e cunning, with her modern grace,
Subdu'd me t o her r a t e . She got the r i n g ,
And I had t h a t which any i n f e r i o r might
At market p r i c e have bought.
(Y.iii.210-219)
This c o u r t i e r i s an unpleasant fellow, in that his account

of the affair is false and his depreciation of Diana's

reputation i s unjust. However, H e l e n a , who was really his

lover in this episode, loves him in spite of his attitude.

Such love cannot be explained but i t i s not necessary that

it should be. As a l l i s righted, the King strikes a happy,

forgiving note in his final speech:

All y e t seems w e l l ; and i f i t end so m e e t ,

The b i t t e r p a s t , more welcome i s t h e s w e e t .
(V.iii.333-334)

In Much Ado about Nothing the lady as pursuer may be

seen i n the Claudio-Hero plot. However, i n this play

Claudio really wants Hero's love but has not the aggressive-

ness of the usual courtly lover. He does not try to escape

from love as does B e r t r a m , but i s rather half-hearted in his

attempt to win i t . He is glad to l e t Don Pedro woo Hero

for him and when she i s won he is easily persuaded of her

supposed disloyalty. We might expect more of Claudio, the

young c o u r t i e r , w h e n we hear an early report of how the

Prince has rewarded him for his valor:

3 This plot i s subordinate i n i n t e r e s t to the one

o f B e a t r i c e and B e n e d i c k where l o v e i s t r e a t e d as comedy.
T h e c l a s h e s o f w i t i n w h i c h t h e s e two r a i l a g a i n s t love
p r o v i d e the a u d i e n c e w i t h amusement. F i n a l l y , i n agreement
w i t h the happy ending o f the C l a u d i o - H e r o p l o t , B e a t r i c e
and B e n e d i c k c o n f e s s t h e i r l o v e f o r e a c h o t h e r , even
t h o u g h t h e y h a d b e e n t r i c k e d i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h e one was in
l o v e with the other. T h e s e two w e r e m o c k e r s o f l o v e and
neither experienced i t as d i d the P e t r a r c h a n l o v e r or h i s
lady. T h e i r m a r r i a g e i s m o r e t h e u n i o n o f two equally
m a t c h e d i n t e l l e c t s t h a n t h e r e w a r d o f two d o t i n g c o u r t l y
lovers.
 Much d e s e r v ' d on h i s p a r t , and equally
remember'd b y Don P e d r o . He h a t h b o r n e
h i m s e l f beyond the promise of h i s age,
d o i n g i n the f i g u r e o f a lamb t h e
feats of a l i o n . He h a t h i n d e e d b e t t e r
b e t t e r ' d e x p e c t a t i o n t h a n you must
e x p e c t o f me t o t e l l y o u how.
(I.i.12-17)

When we meet Claudio, the l o v e r , we see one who is unsure

of himself. He reveals his hesitance w h e n he says to the

Prince:

How s w e e t l y y o u do m i n i s t e r t o l o v e ,
T h a t know l o v e ' s g r i e f b y h i s c o m p l e x i o n ' .
B u t l e s t my l i k i n g m i g h t t o o s u d d e n s e e m ,
I would have s a l v ' d i t w i t h a l o n g e r treatise.
(I.i.314-317)

After entrusting his wooing t o Don Pedro, Claudio easily

becomes distrustful of his friend and quickly despairs of

winning Hero:

The P r i n c e wooes f o r h i m s e l f .
Friendship i s constant i n a l l other things
S a v e i n t h e o f f i c e and a f f a i r s o f l o v e .
T h e r e f o r e a l l h e a r t s i h l o v e use y o u r own
tongues;
L e t e v e r y eye n e g o t i a t e f o r i t s e l f
And t r u s t no a g e n t ; f o r b e a u t y i s a w i t c h
A g a i n s t whose charms f a i t h m e l t e t h i n t o
blood.
T h i s i s an a c c i d e n t o f h o u r l y proof,
T/hich I m i s t r u s t e d not'. Farewell therefore
Hero 1
(II.i.181-189)

In spite of the ineffectiveness of Claudio as a lover, Hero

is won f o r him. His response, upon b e i n g informed by

Leonato (the father of Hero) that Hero is his, is prosaic

and formal:

S i l e n c e i s the p e r f e c t e s t h e r a l d o f joy.
I were but l i t t l e happy i f I c o u l d say
how m u c h . L a d y , as you a r e m i n e , I am
yours. I g i v e away m y s e l f f o r y o u and
dote upon the exchange.
(II.i.317-320)
 LZ'/

Claudio lacks the initiative of a courtly lover and we are

hardly surprised that i t i s the machination of Leonato, Hero,

Beatrice, and Benedick which finally brings a happy con-

clusion to the play.

Hero, like Helena in A l l _ _ s J M l ^

remains devoted to Claudio, e v e n when she is publicly

denounced and disgraced. Her lover accepts the story of the

discontented John the Bastard and upon very flimsy evidence

is persuaded that Hero i s false. His first thought is to

expose her, even before he has had proof of her infidelity:

If I see anything to-night why I should

not marry her to-morrow, i n the congregation
w h e r e I s h o u l d wed, t h e r e w i l l I shame h e r .
(III.ii.126-128)

When h i s i n t e n t i o n to shame h e r is fulfilled Claudio

expresses his regret for falling i n love and his disillusion:

0 H e r o 1 what a H e r o h a d s t t h o u b e e n
I f h a l f thy outward g r a c e s had been p l a c ' d
A b o u t t h y t h o u g h t s and c o u n s e l s o f t h y h e a r t ?
B u t f a r e t h e e w e l l , most f o u l , most f a i r I
Farewell,
T h o u p u r e i m p i e t y and i m p i o u s p u r i t y ' .
F o r t h e e I ' l l l o c k up a l l t h e g a t e s o f l o v e , .
A n d o n my e y e l i d s s h a l l c o n j e c t u r e h a n g ,
To t u r n a l l b e a u t y i n t o t h o u g h t s o f harm,
And n e v e r s h a l l i t more be gracious.
(IV.i.101-108)

Though Hero swoons from this false accusation, she recovers

and willingly enters into the Friar's plan to establish her

innocence and win back Claudio:

Your daughter here the princes left for dead,

Let h e r a w h i l e be s e c r e t l y k e p t in
And p u b l i s h i t t h a t she i s d e a d indeed . . . .
(IV. i . 203-205)
 128

Claudio i s soon overcome with remorse and i s so penitent

that, upon learning of John the Bastard's v i l l a i n y , he agrees

to marry Leonato's niece, i f i t will make the o l d man happy.

However, the niece turns out t o he Leonato's daughter, Hero,

who comes t o the wedding masked. By helping to deceive

Claudio into thinking she was dead and by coming to the

wedding masked, as a supposed cousin who was unknown to

Claudio, Hero f i n a l l y wins h e r l o v e r , w h o a we feel hardly

deserves her for, his foolishness and u n k i n d n e s s .

In Measure f o r Measure we return to the unpleasant

atmosphere of a lady d e v o t e d t o an unworthy man who has

foul intentions. As i n All^sJ[eJLl__t_iat_EndsJfell, the

pursuing lady wins t h e man she loves by substituting herself

for the lady whose honor t h e man intends to attack. The

evil nature of Angelo i s o f no consequence to Mariana who,

regardless of the fact that he,broke h i s promise to marry

her because her d o w r y was lost, and regardless of the fact

that he i s driven Tby l u s t to pervert the law, i s willing to

do anything to win him.

W h e n we first meet A n g e l o , t h e Duke i s surrendering

his power t o him, hoping that A n g e l o may be able to enforce

the law forbidding unmarried love. The Duke b e l i e v e s that

Angelo i s worthy of his trust:

I f any i n V i e n n a be o f w o r t h .
To u n d e r g o s u c h ample g r a c e and h o n o u r ,
It i s Lord Angelo.
( I . i . 23-25)
 129

However, the Duke i s not without his suspicions of this

seemingly virtuous man and, in temporarily surrendering his

p o w e r s , means to disguise himself as a friar and observe

his deputy:

. . . Lord Angelo i s precise,

S t a n d s , a t a. g u a r d w i t h e n v y , s c a r c e confesses
That h i s b l o o d flows or t h a t h i s a p p e t i t e
I s more t o b r e a d t h a n s t o n e ; h e n c e s h a l l we
see,
I f power change p u r p o s e , what our seemers be.
( I . i i i . 50-54)

The Duke's suspicions are justified f o r we see that i t is

possible to sway A n g e l o . When I s a b e l l a c o m e s to plead against

the death penalty imposed on her brother, Claudio, for his

love affair with Juliet, Angelo i s overcome with her beauty

and bearing. His lust f o r her knows no bounds and he

promises to spare Claudio i n return for Isabella's honor.

Honor i s prized very cheaply indeed by this unpleasant

courtier. His evil nature is revealed clearly after Isabella

has offered to expose him for his uncourtly advances:

Who w i l l b e l i e v e thee, Isabel?

My u n s o i l ' d n a m e , t h ' a u s t e r e n e s s o f my life,
My v o u c h a g a i n s t y o u , a n d my p l a c e i ' t h ' s t a t e
W i l l so y o u r a c c u s a t i o n o v e r w e i g h
T h a t y o u s h a l l s t i f l e i n y o u r own report
And s m e l l o f calumny. I have begun,
A n d now I g i v e my s e n s u a l r a c e t h e rein.
F i t t h y c o n s e n t t o my s h a r p a p p e t i t e ;
L a y by a l l n i c e t y and p r o l i x i o u s b l u s h e s
T h a t b a n i s h what t h e y sue f o r . Redeem t h y
brother
By y i e l d i n g u p t h y b o d y t o my will,
Or e l s e he must n o t o n l y d i e t h e d e a t h ,
But t h y u n k i n d n e s s s h a l l h i s d e a t h draw out
To ling'ring sufferance. A n s w e r me to-morrow,
Or, b y t h e a f f e c t i o n t h a t now g u i d e s me most,
I'l l prove a t y r a n t to himt As f o r y o u ,
Say w h a t y o u c a n ; my f a l s e o ' e r w e i g h s y o u r
true.
(II.iv.154-170)
 130

This i s the undisciplined hypocrite that Mariana is strongly

devoted to. One wonders how any courtly lady could remain

devoted to such a man, especially after the Duke (disguised

as a friar) tells I s a b e l l a how Angelo cast aside Mariana:

L e f t h e r i n h e r t e a r s and d r i e d n o t one of
them w i t h h i s c o m f o r t ; s w a l l o w e d h i s vows
whole, p r e t e n d i n g i n her d i s c o v e r i e s of
dishonour; a few, b e s t o w ' d h e r on h e r
own l a m e n t a t i o n , w h i c h she y e t w e a r s f o r h i s
s a k e ; and he, a m a r b l e t o h e r t e a r s , i s
washed w i t h them but r e l e n t s n o t .
(III.i.234-239)

The kind of devoted love which Mariana experiences can

hardly be explained. As in All^s Well_that Ends W e l l , love

causes the pursuing lady to ignore the faults of her loved

one. Thus, again, the lady is degraded because of her

efforts to win a man who most of us would agree was unworthy.

So strong i s Mariana's passion for Angelo that she

is willing to accept the Duke's plan to gain him by deception.

The Duke discloses his plan to Isabella, in asking for her

co-operation:

. . . we s h a l l a d v i s e t h i s w r o n g e d m a i d
t o s t e a d u p y o u r a p p o i n t m e n t , go i n y o u r
place. I f the encounter acknowledge i t s e l f
h e r e a f t e r , i t may compel him t o her recompense;
and h e r e , by t h i s , i s , y o u r b r o t h e r saved,
your honour u n t a i n t e d , the poor M a r i a n a
a d v a n t a g e d , and the c o r r u p t d e p u t y s c a l e d .
(III.i.60-66)

The plan works as the Duke intended,and a l l i s righted in the

end. The Duke, i n his disguise, prevents the deceptive

Angelo, who meant to hang Claudio and enjoy Isabella regardless

of his bargain, from turning the play into a tragedy. When

Angelo i s discovered and shamed he is truly repentant:

 1.31

Then, good p r i n c e ,
No l o n g e r s e s s i o n h o l d u p o n my shame,
B u t l e t my t r i a l b e m i n e own confession.
Immediate s e n t e n c e t h e n , and sequent death,
Is a l l the grace I beg.
(V.i. 3 7 5 - 3 7 9 )

Happily, the Duke is forgiving and commands A n g e l o to marry

Mariana who asks no other reward f o r her devotion:.

0 my d e a r l o r d 1
I. c r a v e n o o t h e r , n o r n o b e t t e r man.
(V.i.430-431)

Though her betrothed i s not the ideal courtier, the forgiving

Mariana holds hope for him:

T h e y s a y b e s t men are moulded out of f a u l t s ,

And, f o r t h e m o s t , become much more t h e b e t t e r
For being a l i t t l e bad.
( V . i . 444-446)

Shakespeare does not permit us to feel outraged but, in an

atmosphere of forgiving, wishes happiness to all. The Duke

voices this as Mariana i s triumphant i n her quest:

Joy t o you, Mariana'. Love her, Angelo.

I have c o n f e s s ' d her, a n d I know h e r v i r t u e .
(V.i.532-533)

In Richard^II we once more meet the lady who is

pursuing her loved one. Unlike the ladies i n the other plays

of this chapter, the Queen i s already married when t h e play

begins. However, she has failed to obtain the love of

Richard and longs to experience love i n the customary fashion.

Her longing i s not accompanied by any clever tricks to win

her lord. Only her pleading r e v e a l s her disappointment.

In All',,s„ W e l l „ t h a t _ j l n d s J f e l l . , Much Ado about Nothing, and

M§_lliE§,_-£2__l§,§i.li£§,>
a s
"the pursuing lady is finally triumphant.

In Richj.rd_I I, < this i s not the case. The Queen's pleas are
 132

spoken i n vain since Richard i s concerned only with his own

fate. However, though he i s weak, reckless, and self-pitying,

he i s capable of winning the Queen's firm devotion. When-

ever we see her she i s sad at the thought of parting:

Y e t I know n o cause
Why I s h o u l d welcome such a guest as g r i e f
Save b i d d i n g f a r e w e l l t o so sweet a guest
A s my s w e e t R i c h a r d .
(II.i.6-9)

She sadly realizes the full effects of Richard's deposition:

Ah, t h o u t h e model where o l d T r o y d i d s t a n d ,

T h o u map o f h o n o u r , t h o u K i n g R i c h a r d ' s tomb,
And not K i n g Richard'.

(V.i.11-13)

The futility of her devoted love f o r him i s made evident when

his only response to her grief i s to advise her to enter a

nunnery and forget him:

L e a r n , good s o u l ,
To t h i n k pur former s t a t e a happy dream;
F r o m w h i c h a w a k ' d , t h e t r u t h o f w h a t we are
Shows us b u t this.
• • «
Hie thee to France
And c l o i s t e r t h e e i n some r e l i g i o u s house.
(V.i.17-23)

His unkindness and thoughtlessness i s hardly worthy of his rank:

Think I am dead, and t h a t e v e n h e r e thou

takest,
As from my deathbed, thy l a s t l i v i n g leave.
(V.i.38-39)
As they take their final parting, the Queen realizes how

hopeless i t i s to give her heart to her husband:

G i v e ' me m i n e own a g a i n . 'Twere no good p a r t

T o t a k e o n me t o k e e p a n d k i l l t h y h e a r t .
S o , now I h a v e m i n e own a g a i n , b e g o n e ,
T h a t I may s t r i v e to k i l l i t with a groan.
(V.i.97-100)

Richard's refusal of her love is-sharp and final:

 133

We make woe wanton w i t h t h i s fond delay.

Once more a d i e u . The r e s t l e t s o r r o w s a y .
1

(V.i.101-102)

Such an attitude kills love and as the two part we realize

that the man fails as a courtly lover and the lady fails to

gain her love.

In presenting the unpleasant aspects of courtly love

in Alll^Jiell_ ta_at_ Ends

< < M_^h_Ado_.ab_out.Nothing, and

Measure for^Measure and the failure of courtly love in Richard

II, Shakespeare was probing i n t o the very heart of the

tradition and looking at i t realistically. Such plays as

these show t h a t he was aware that courtly love was not always

a matter of pleasant sporting and a happy pairing-up of noble

couples. In these plays, Shakespeare, caught i n the age of

humanism, l o o k s at man with a critical eye and presents

what he sees. Though the result i s not always pleasant,

we must not conclude that Shakespeare is denouncing man or

courtly love. We cannot, however, fail to detect the note

of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t which accompanies the p o r t r a y a l of such

courtly men as Bertram, Claudio, and Angelo. Also, we

cannot miss the true implication of such courtly ladies as

Helena, Hero, and Mariana, who seem to be willing to do

anything to win their man. When we look at Bertram we see

one who rebels at the established custom of arranged

marriages and in the same rebellion deserts the accepted

standard of courtly love. Claudio, i n M u c h Ado, about

Nothing, is also less than an ideal courtier. He is a weak

lover and i s too hasty in his treatment of Hero, giving

 134

credence to the flimsy story of the d i s r e p u t a b l e John the

Bastard. Both Helena, in All's Well that Ends W e l l , and

Hero, i n Much Ado a b o u t , Nothing!;, are too ready to pursue the

one they love, both resorting to trickery. I n Measure for

Measure, the c h a r a c t e r s are even more u n p l e a s a n t . Claudio,

the imprisoned lover who nearly loses his life because of his

dishonorable relations with Juliet, attaches no value to

chastity. He is willing to surrender his sister's honor to

save his own life. Claudio's despicableness is outdone

by Angelo. He spurns Mariana and i s desperate in his

lustful designs on Isabella. Finally, Mariana recovers her

loved one, Angelo, by substituting herself for Isabella and

submitting to his lust. Shakespeare's treatment of courtly

love i s f a r from idealistic here. He i s s h o w i n g men and

women a s they really are. Gone i s the conviction of the

early Renaissance belief i n man's essential goodness. We

realize that here are people that really exist. Such people

who allow their true natures to guide them and indulge their

low desires can end their lives i n tragedy. In these plays,

which show m a n ' s u n p l e a s a n t side, real tragedy i s barely

averted. Technically, they are comedies; but potentially,

they are tragedies. We have already seen that The Winter'.s

Tale and Cy^mbeline came close to ending i n tragedy due to

the j e a l o u s y and hatred of certain individuals and were only

saved in a twilight hope f o r man. In the three plays to

be dealt with next, Shakespeare actually looks deeper into

courtly love and presents i t as i t sinks into tragedy.

 CHAPTER V I I

THE COURTLY THEME AND TRAGEDY

Troilus and O r e s s i d a

Hamlet

Othello
 CHAPTER VII

In Troilus and Cressida, Hamlet and Othello,

written about the same time as the plays dealt with in the

last chapter, Shakespeare follows through his treatment of

the unpleasant and realistic aspects of the courtly theme

to i t s natural, tragic conclusion. Shakespeare, in Troilus

and Cressida — as i n no other play he wrote — shows how

shallow was the outmoded medieval c h i v a l r y , such as Spenser

idealized. Though he chooses a story from Greek antiquity to

do this, the characters are courtly knights and ladies and

the s i t u a t i o n s are medieval. When we reach the end of the

play, we realize that we have witnessed a vigorous realistic

criticism of the i d e a l s which guided the knight i n love and

war. We are aware that Shakespeare detected the true nature

of the courtly love r e l a t i o n s h i p and the true implication of

a war waged for unjust ends as we see Cressida left to enjoy

her new-found passion, Troilus defeated i n love with his

dreams shattered, and Hector barbarously slain when he is

caught unarmed by the supposedly knightly Achilles. The

sacred code of love and honor i s exposed in this play which

gives no hope of lasting happiness to any, but leaves us

musing on the shallowness of the doctrines of courtly love

and the hypocrisy of the code of chivalric honor. Troilus,

himself, says that honor is fundamentally irrational:

Nay, i f we t a l k o f reason,
Let s 1
shut o u r g a t e s and s l e e p . Manhood and
honour
Should have hare h e a r t s , would they but f a t
t h e i r thoughts
 137

With this cramm'd reason.

(II.ii.46-49)

Such an o p i n i o n o f honor hardly convinces" us t h a t i t could

be a value t o guide a l l men.

There i s much that i s conventional i n Shakespeare'js

presentation o f T r o i l u s and C r e s s i d a and y e t t h e r e i s a new

vision which sees through the idealism of traditional courtly

love. When we first see T r o i l u s he i s s u f f e r i n g f o r l o v e and

praising h i s incomparable lady i n the customary fashion:

I t e l l t h e e I am mad
In Gressid s love.
1
T h o u a n s w e r ' s t 'She i s
f a i r ' '.
P o u r ' s t i n t h e o p e n u l c e r o f my h e a r t
Her eyes,.her h a i r , h e r cheek, h e r g a i t ,
her voice;
H a n d i e s t i n t h y d i s c o u r s e , 0, t h a t h e r h a n d ,
I n whose c o m p a r i s o n a l l w h i t e s a r e i n k
W r i t i n g t h e i r own r e p r o a c h , t o whose s o f t
seizure
The c y g n e t ' s down i s h a r s h a n d s p i r i t o f s e n s e <
H a r d a s t h e p a l m o f ploughman'. T h i s t h o u
tell'st me,
A s t r u e t h o u t e l l ' s t me, w h e n I s a y I l o v e h e r ,
But s a y i n g t h u s , i n s t e a d o f o i l and balm
Thou l a y ' s t i n every gash that love hath
g i v e n me
T h e k n i f e t h a t made i t .
(I.i.51-63)
<

Cressida, likewise, i s conventional i n h e r seeming reluctance.

She spurns the s o l i c i t i n g s which Pandarus makes on b e h a l f •

of h i s friend, Troilus, e v e n when T r o i l u s i s d e s c r i b e d as

having a l l the requirements o f the ideal courtier:

Have y o u any e y e s ? D o y o u know w h a t
a man i s ? I s n o t b i r t h , b e a u t y , g o o d
shape, d i s c o u r s e , manhood, l e a r n i n g ,
gentleness, v i r t u e , youth, l i b e r a l i t y ,
and s u c h - l i k e , t h e s p i c e a n d s a l t that
s e a s o n a man?
(I.ii.274-278)
 138

Indeed, C r e s s i d a i s aware of T r o i l u s , as she shows in her

soliloquy which follows:

Words, vows, gifts,

t e a r s , and l o v e ' s f u l l
sacrifice
He o f f e r s i n a n o t h e r ' s enterprise.
B u t more i n T r o i l u s t h o u s a n d f o l d I see
T h a n i n t h e g l a s s o f P a n d a r ' s p r a i s e may he.
Y e t I h o l d o f f . Women a r e a n g e l s , w o o i n g :
T h i n g s won a r e d o n e ; j o y ' s s o u l l i e s i n t h e
doing.
T h a t she b e l o v ' d knows n a u g h t t h a t knows n o t
this'.
Men p r i z e t h e t h i n g u n g a i n ' d more t h a n i t i s .
T h a t s h e was n e v e r y e t t h a t e v e r k n e w
L o v e g o t so s w e e t as when d e s i r e d i d s u e .
T h e r e f o r e t h i s maxim out o f l o v e I t e a c h :
A c h i e v e m e n t i s command; u n g a i n ' d , beseech.
T h e n , t h o u g h my h e a r t ' s c o n t e n t f i r m l o v e
doth bear,
N o t h i n g o f t h a t s h a l l from mine eyes appear.
(I.ii.308-321)

Here we see a cool, calculating woman who knows what she i s

doing when she assumes the cruelty and aloofness expected of

her. Such scheming makes m o c k e r y of the device of cruelty

which supposedly tested the lover's sincerity and patience.

Cressida i s not alone i n h e l p i n g us to see through many of

the courtly doctrines. When T r o i l u s i s discussing, with his

brothers, the need for fighting t o keep H e l e n i n the Trojan

camp, h e urges them to take action, not because i t i s right to

keep H e l e n , but because i t i s a matter of honor. Here we are

1

reminded of T r o i l u s ^ earlier assertion that reason had nothing

to do with honor. In a speech, which abounds w i t h chivalric

phrases, Troilus states his views:

Were i t not glory that we more affected

Than the performance of our heaving s p l e e n s ,
I would not wish a drop o f T r o j a n b l o o d
S p e n t more i n h e r d e f e n c e . But, worthy H e c t o r ,
She i s a theme o f h o n o u r and renown,
A spur t o v a l i a n t and magnanimous deeds,
W h o s e p r e s e n t c o u r a g e may b e a t down o u r f o e s ,
A n d f a m e i n t i m e t o come c a n o n i z e u s .
F o r I presume b r a v e H e c t o r would n o t l o s e
 139

So r i c h advantage o f a p r o m i s ' d g l o r y
As s m i l e s upon t h e f o r e h e a d o f t h i s action
F o r t h e wide world's revenue.

(II.ii.195-206)

We cannot fail to detect the s e l f i s h motive behind this

appeal. Troilus sees that here i s an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r h i s

brothers t o gain fame a n d he a p p e a l s directly to the s e l f -

esteem of Hector who r e m i n d e d them that Helen was the l e g a l

wife of Sparta's king. There i s nothing noble i n keeping a

stolen wife i n order t o w i n fame. I f such selfishness be

behind courtly doctrines, we can expect them to lead to tragedy.

The tragedy of the play, by which Shakespeare

exposes the unhappiest possibilities of courtly love, stems from

the love of Troilus and C r e s s i d a . The former i s blind i n his

wooing, failing t o detect the obvious wantonness of Cressida's

first words o f love. When P a n d a r u s finally succeeds i n

2
bringing t h e t w o t o g e t h e r , we are told the nature of this union;

I f my l o r d g e t a b o y o f y o u ,
y o u ' l l g i v e h i m me. B e t r u e t o my l o r d .
I f h e f l i n c h , c h i d e me f o r i t .
(III.ii.112-114)

1 C f . Hotspur's speech, Henry IV .(Part I) , f o r t h e

same theme o f k n i g h t l y honor: ~" * ""

B y heaven, m e t h i n k s i t were an easy l e a p

To p l u c k b r i g h t h o n o u r f r o m t h e p a l e - f a c ' d moon,
Or d i v e i n t o t h e bottom o f t h e deep,
Where fadorn l i n e c o u l d n e v e r t o u c h t h e g r o u n d ,
And p l u c k up drowned honour by t h e l o c k s ,
So he t h a t d o t h redeem h e r t h e n c e might wear
Without c o r r i v a l a l l her d i g n i t i e s ;
But out upon t h i s h a l f - f a c ' d fellowship'.
(I.iii.201-208)

, 2 We a r e r e m i n d e d h e r e o f e a r l y m e d i e v a l c o u r t l y
love which p e r m i t t e d such unions r a t h e r than t h e l a t e r courtly
love o f the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y which h e l d m a r r i a g e t o be t h e
only a c c e p t a b l e end.
 140

T r o i l u s was not wrong, a c c o r d i n g to the code, i n a c c e p t i n g

t h i s type of l o v e . The mistake he made was in failing to

d e t e c t C r e s s i d a ' s r e a l nature and i n expecting t o b u i l d a

t r u e , l a s t i n g l o v e out of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . Cressida's f i r s t

words of l o v e show her smouldering desire:

Boldness comes to me now and brings, me h e a r t .

P r i n c e T r o i l u s , I have l o v ' d you n i g h t and day
For many weary months.
. . .
Hard to seem won; but I was won, my l o r d ,
With the f i r s t glance that e v e r . — pardon me I
I f I confess much, you w i l l p l a y the t y r a n t .
I love you now; but t i l l now not so much
But I might master i t . In f a i t h , I, l i e ' .
My thoughts were l i k e u n b r i d l e d c h i l d r e n , grown
Too headstrong f o r t h e i r mother. See, we
fools I
Why have I blabb'd?
(III.ii.121-132)

C r e s s i d a might be expected t o confess her l o v e , but here she

confesses much more, r e v e a l i n g her i n n e r n a t u r e . She desires

T r o i l u s , yet suddenly f e a r s she may l o s e him f o r her

indiscretion. In t h i s scene we witness more romantic l o v e -

making between these two than i n any other i n the p l a y . Still,

there i s an unhealthy atmosphere about i t . The vows of

constancy which the two exchange are not c o n v i n c i n g . I n the

midst of them, T r o i l u s expresses h i s doubt and s k e p t i c i s m :

0 that I thought i t could be i n a woman
(As, i f i t can, I w i l l presume i n you)
To feed f o r aye her lamp and flame of l o v e ;
To keep her constancy i n p l i g h t and youth,
O u t l i v i n g b e a u t i e s outward, w i t h a mind
That doth renew s w i f t e r than b l o o d decays I
Or that p e r s u a s i o n c o u l d but thus convince me,
That my i n t e g r i t y and t r u t h t o you
Might be a f f r o n t e d with the match and weight
Of such a winnowed p u r i t y i n l o v e I
How were I then u p l i f t e d , b u t , a l a s ,
1 am t r u e as t r u t h ' s s i m p l i c i t y
And simpler than the i n f a n c y of t r u t h .
(III.ii.165-177)
 141

If Troilus 1
intuition i s warning him here, in this brief

m o m e n t , he is incapable of heeding the warning. Cressida

swears her constancy and Troilus is lost:

I f I be f a l s e , o r s w e r v e a h a i r f r o m t r u t h ,
When t i m e i s o l d a n d h a t h f o r g o t i t s e l f ,
When w a t e r d r o p s h a v e w o r n t h e s t o n e s o f T r o y ,
And b l i n d o b l i v i o n s w a l l o w ' d c i t i e s up,
And m i g h t y s t a t e s c h a r a c t e r l e s s a r e grated
To d u s t y n o t h i n g — y e t l e t memory,
F r o m f a l s e t o f a l s e , among f a l s e m a i d s i n l o v e ,
U p b r a i d my f a l s e h o o d ! When t h ' h a v e s a i d
as
1
false
As a i r , as w a t e r , w i n d , or s a n d y e a r t h ,
As f o x t o lamb, or w o l f t o h e i f e r ' s calf,
P a r d t o the h i n d , or stepdame t o her son'—
'Yea,' l e t them say, t o s t i c k t h e h e a r t of
falsehood,
'As f a l s e a s C r e s s i d . '
(III.ii.191-203)

We soon realize how significant i s this speech in its

prophetic irony and how hollow are the vows of Cressida.

After they are spoken, Pandarus, the go-between, whose idea

of love is a purely physical one, refers to the union that

he has engineered i n a manner which strips love of i t s beauty

or idealism:

W h e r e u p o n I w i l l s h o w you. a c h a m b e r w i t h
a bed, w h i c h , because i t s h a l l not speak
o f your p r e t t y e n c o u n t e r s , press i t to death.'
Away!

(III.ii.215-218)

This is the culmination of the love of Troilus and Cressida

and the brief night spent together is a l l the reward which

the affair yields. In the morning, Cressida is parted from

Troilus, being exchanged to the Greeks for a Trojan prisoner,

Antenor. It is this parting which wrecks their love, giving

Cressida the opportunity to prove her true nature and

shatter Troilus' dreams.

 The tragic ending of courtly love i n this play is

emphasized clearly i n the scenes w h e r e we see Cressida

quickly yielding to the advances of the Greek, Diomedes. In

these scenes we realize that the tragedy of Troilus is his

folly in trusting a wanton. He was blind to the nature of he

passion, asserting his belief i n her fidelity, before they

parted:

I s p e a k n o t 'Be t h o u t r u e ' a s f e a r i n g thee,

F o r I w i l l t h r o w my g l o v e t o D e a t h h i m s e l f
T h a t t h e r e ' s no m a c u l a t i o n i n t h y h e a r t . . .
(IV.iv.64-66)

His trust i n her and his straightforwardness sharpen the

tragedy of her u n f a i t h f u l n e s s :

Whilst some w i t h cunning g i l d t h e i r copper

crown,
W i t h t r u t h and p l a i n n e s s I do wear m i n e b a r e .
F e a r n o t my t r u t h . The m o r a l o f my.wit
I s ' p l a i n and t r u e ' ; t h e r e ' s a l l t h e r e a c h
of i t .
(IV.iv.107-110)

His plainness and his t r u t h f u l n e s s make h i m worthy of her

love and constancy. Moreover, according to the code,

Troilus had a right to expect these. Cressida, however,

would rather become someone's m i s t r e s s , i f i t were to her

immediate advantage. Diomedes sees this, and his accurate,

instantaneous appraisal of her makes i t clear:

F a i r Lady C r e s s i d ,
So please you, save the t h a n k s t h i s p r i n c e
expects.
The l u s t r e i n your eye, heaven i n your cheek,
P l e a d s your f a i r usage; and t o Diomed
Y o u s h a l l b e m i s t r e s s a n d command h i m wholly.

(IV.iv.118-122)

She does become m i s t r e s s to Diomedes, contrary to the

established customs of courtly love, soon putting Troilus

 143

out of her h e a r t . T r o i l u s has an o p p o r t u n i t y t o spy on them

and w i t n e s s Diomedes' conquest. He hears C r e s s i d a say:

Sweet honey Greek, tempt me no more t o folly.

(V.ii.18)

Diomedes does tempt her and w i n her i n s p i t e o f her weak

protest. T r o i l u s sees her g i v e the s l e e v e t o Diomedes which

he had g i v e n t o her on p a r t i n g and hears C r e s s i d a weakly

f i g h t i n g w i t h her own c o n s c i e n c e :
You l o o k upon t h a t s l e e v e ? B e h o l d i t w e l l .
He l o v e d me — 0 f a l s e wench'. — G i v e ' t me
again.
(V.ii.69-70)
The unhappy T r o i l u s sees the one he l o v e d and t r u s t e d won

e a s i l y and h e a r s her b i d f a r e w e l l t o him:.-

Good n i g h t . I p r i t h e e come.
T r o i l u s , f a r e w e l l ' . One eye y e t l o o k s on t h e e ,
But w i t h my.heart the o t h e r eye doth see.
Ah,- poor our sex I t h i s f a u l t i n us I f i n d ,
The e r r o r o f our eye d i r e c t s our mind.
What e r r o r l e a d s must e r r . 0, then conclude
Minds sway'd by eyes are f u l l of t u r p i t u d e .
(V.ii.106-112)
The comment o f T h e r s i t e i s , which f o l l o w s t h i s speech, c l e a r l y

labels Cressida's actions:

A p r o o f o f s t r e n g t h she c o u l d not p u b l i s h more

U n l e s s she s a i d 'My mind i s now t u r n ' d whore.'
(V.ii.113-114)
T r o i l u s at l a s t r e a l i z e s he has l o s t her:

T h i s she? No t h i s i s Diomed's C r e s s i d a !
I f beauty have a s o u l , t h i s i s not she;
I f s o u l s guide vows, i f vows be s a n c t i m o n i e s ,
I f sanctimony be the god's d e l i g h t ,
I f t h e r e be r u l e i n u n i t y i t s e l f —
T h i s i s not she.
(V.ii.137-142)
H i s b i t t e r n e s s and unhappiness show h i s changed a t t i t u d e
to love:
 144

I n s t a n c e , 0 i n s t a n c e I s t r o n g as P l u t o ' s gates:
C r e s s i d i s mine, t i e d w i t h the bonds o f heaven.
I n s t a n c e , 0 i n s t a n c e ' , s t r o n g as h e a v e n i t s e l f :
The bonds o f h e a v e n a r e s l i p p ' d , d i s s o l v ' d ,
and l o o s ' d .
And w i t h another knot, f i v e - f i n g e r - t i e d ,
The f r a c t i o n s o f h e r f a i t h , o r t s o f h e r l o v e ,
The f r a g m e n t s , s c r a p s , t h e b i t s , and greasy
relics
Of her o e r e a t e n f a i t h , are g i v e n to Diomed.
1

(V.ii.153-160)

Troilus never recovers from the disillusion and disappointment

which courtly love brings to him. His denunciation of Cressida

remains with us to the end of the play:

0 Cressid'. 0 false Cressid'. false, f a l s e , false'.

Let a l l u n t r u t h s s t a n d b y t h y s t a i n e d name
And t h e y ' 1 1 seem g l o r y .
(V.ii.178-180)

Even his dear friend Pandarus i s denounced i n the last words.

which Troilus speaks:

Hence, b r o k e r , lackey'. I g n o m y a n d shame

P u r s u e t h y l i f e a n d l i v e a y e w i t h t h y name'.
(V.v.33-34)

Shakespeare, in showing the unhappiness and hatred

which could result from c o u r t l y l o v e , was aware that such an

ending was logical. The comments o f T h e r s i t e s when Troilus

is' fighting with Diomedes and when M e n e l a u s - i s f i g h t i n g with

Paris might easily be Shakespeare's own:

H o l d thy whore, Grecian'. Now f o r thy

W h o r e , T r o y a n l Now t h e s l e e v e ' , now the sleeve'.
( V . i v . 25-27)

The cuckold and the cuckold-maker are at i t .

(V.vii.9)

Gone i s the customary idealization o f women. We are left

to think how nasty courtly love can be. Even Chaucer had

more pity for his courtly lady, Criseyde, being reluctant to

treat the end of his narrative after presenting her love for
 145

Troilus as something beautiful. Shakespeare merely leaves

his faithless lady i n d u l g i n g her latest passion and leaves

his courtier fighting furiously because of the hatred and

bitterness which have grown out of his experience in courtly

love.

In Hamlet, the courtly theme also ends tragically.

In this play, the hero shows an inability to accept and return

the love which he had once experienced. He has come to

believe that women a r e shallow and that love is unpleasant,

having the example of h i s mother before him. Her hasty

marriage to the King which seems w i c k e d and incestuous to

him, shatters his ideal of womanhood. When O p h e l i a reminds

him of his past attentions to her, he seems regretful and

discourages her. Only after she i s dead does he openly

confess his love and then i t i s too late. She has been the

indirect victim of Hamlet's desire f o r revenge upon Claudius.

The full tragic effect of the failure of love in this

play i s borne out by the fact that both Hamlet and Ophelia

really want that love. However, Hamlet's inability to express

his love!,, a t the crucial moment, and Ophelia's inability to

understand his changed attitude and his real feelings make

love impossible. Apart from a few brief lines where Ophelia

3
is r e p o r t i n g Hamlet's early avowal of love or where Polonius

3 Ophelia reports Hamlet's honorable wooing to her

father:
My l o r d , he h a t h i m p o r t u n ' d me with love
In honourable fashion.
• • •
And h a t h g i v e n c o u n t e n a n c e t o h i s , s p e e c h , my lord,
W i t h a l m o s t a l l t h e h o l y vows o f h e a v e n .
(I.iv.110-114)
 146

4
is reading the letter Hamlet wrote to Ophelia, which is

composed in conventional courtly style, love is never

presented in a favorable light. Both Laertes and Polonius

give an unfavorable picture of love in their warnings to

Ophelia, making plain i t s dangers rather than i t s joys.

Laertes sayss

T h e n w e i g h w h a t l o s s y o u r h o n o u r may sustain
I f w i t h too c r e d e n t ear you l i s t h i s songs,
Or l o s e y o u r h e a r t , o r y o u r c h a s t e t r e a s u r e o p e n
To h i s u n m a s t ' r e d i m p o r t u n i t y .
F e a r i t , O p h e l i a , f e a r i t , my d e a r s i s t e r ,
And keep you i n the r e a r o f your a f f e c t i o n ,
Out o f t h e shot and d a n g e r o f d e s i r e .
The c h a r i e s t maid i s p r o d i g a l enough
I f s h e u n m a s k h e r b e a u t y t o t h e moon.
V i r t u e i t s e l f scapes not calumnious s t r o k e s .
The c a n k e r g a l l s the i n f a n t s o f t h e s p r i n g
Too o f t b e f o r e t h e i r b u t t o n s be disclos'd,
A n d i n . t h e m o r n a n d l i q u i d dew o f y o u t h
Contagious blastments are most imminent.
Be wary t h e n ; b e s t s a f e t y l i e s i n f e a r .
Y o u t h t o i t s e l f r e b e l s , t h o u g h none e l s e n e a r .
(I.iii.29-44)

Polonius echoes this warning:

I n few, Ophelia,
Do n o t b e l i e v e h i s v o w s ; f o r t h e y a r e b r o k e r s ,
Not o f t h a t dye w h i c h t h e i r i n v e s t m e n t s show,
B u t mere i m p l o r a t o r s o f u n h o l y s u i t s ,
B r e a t h i n g l i k e s a n c t i f i e d and p i o u s bawds,
The b e t t e r t o b e g u i l e .
(I.iv.126-131)

Another unfavorable picture of love i s given t o Hamlet by

the Ghost:

4 'To the c e l e s t i a l , a n d my s o u l ' s i d o l , the

most b e a u t i f u l Ophelia,'—
• • •
I n her e x c e l l e n t white bosom, these, &c'
• • •
0 d e a r O p h e l i a , I am i l l a t t h e s e n u m b e r s ; I
h a v e n o t a r t t o r e c k o n my g r o a n s ; b u t t h a t I
l o v e t h e e b e s t , 0 most b e s t , b e l i e v e i t .
Adieu.
(II.ii.110-122)
 ±4-7

Ay, t h a t i n c e s t u o u s , t h a t a d u l t e r a t e b e a s t ,
With witchcraft of his wit, with traitorous
gifts —
0 w i c k e d w i t and g i f t s , t h a t have t h e power
S o t o s e d u c e I : — won t o h i s s h a m e f u l lust
T h e w i l l o f my m o s t s e e m i n g - v i r t u o u s queen.
0 H a m l e t , w h a t a f a l l i n g - o f f was there,
F r o m me, w h o s e l o v e was o f t h a t d i g n i t y
T h a t i t went hand i n hand even w i t h the vow
1 made t o h e r i n m a r r i a g e , a n d t o d e c l i n e
Upon a w r e t c h whose n a t u r a l g i f t s were p o o r
T o t h o s e o f m i n e '.
B u t v i r t u e , as i t n e v e r w i l l be mov'd,
Though lewdness c o u r t i t i n a shape o f heaven,
So l u s t , t h o u g h t o a r a d i a n t a n g e l l i n k ' d ,
W i l l s a t e i t s e l f i n a c e l e s t i a l bed
And p r e y on garbage.
(I.v.42-57)

The young lovers, Hamlet and Ophelia, are both exposed to

these adverse views of love. Ophelia, i n her innocence, i s

hardly affected by them b u t they prey on H a m l e t ' s mind. The

ghost of his father has condemned h i s mother who was the

symbol o f womanhood to him. It is little wonder that he

fights against his love for Ophelia. The effect which

Hamlet's brooding and melancholy have upon him and the conflict

of attraction and repulsion f o r O p h e l i a may be detected in

Ophelia's account of Hamlet a c c o s t i n g her i n her closet:

He took me by the wrist and h e l d me hard;

T h e n g o e s he t o l e n g t h o f a l l h i s arm,
And, w i t h h i s o t h e r hand t h u s o'er h i s brow,
He f a l l s t o s u c h p e r u s a l o f my face
A s he w o u l d draw i t . L o n g s t a y ' d he s o .
At l a s t , a l i t t l e s h a k i n g o f mine arm,
A n d t h r i c e h i s h e a d t h u s w a v i n g up and down,
He r a i s ' d a s i g h s o p i t e o u s and profound
As i t d i d seem t o s h a t t e r a l l h i s b u l k
And end h i s b e i n g . T h a t d o n e , h e l e t s me go,
And w i t h h i s h e a d o v e r h i s s h o u l d e r t u r n ' d
He s e e m ' d t o f i n d h i s way w i t h o u t h i s e y e s ,
F o r o u t o ' d o o r s he w e n t w i t h o u t t h e i r h e l p
And t o t h e l a s t bended t h e i r l i g h t on me.
(II.i.87-100)

The full extent of Hamlet's desire to put a s i d e women and

love can be seen in his cruelty to Ophelia when he orders

her t o a nunnery:

Get thee t o a nunnery i Why wouldst thou

be a b r e e d e r o f s i n n e r s ?
• • •
I f thou dost marry, I ' l l g i v e thee t h i s
plague f o r t h y dowry: be thou as c h a s t e
as i c e , as pure as snow, thou s h a l t not
escape calumny. Get thee t o a nunnery.
Go, f a r e w e l l . Or i f thou w i l t needs marry,
marry a f o o l ; f o r wise men know w e l l enough
what monsters you make o f them. To a
nunnery, go; and q u i c k l y t o o . F a r e w e l l .
(III.i.122-146)
I n O p h e l i a ' s s o l i l o q u y which f o l l o w s , she d e s c r i b e s Hamlet

as the i d e a l c o u r t i e r and g i v e s v o i c e t o her own disappoint-

ment and d e f e a t i n l o v e :

0, what a noble mind i s here o ' e r t h r o w n !

The c o u r t i e r ' s , s c h o l a r ' s , s o l d i e r ' s , eye,
tongue, sword,
Th' expectancy and r o s e o f the f a i r s t a t e ,
The g l a s s o f f a s h i o n and the mould o f form,
Th' observed of a l l o b s e r v e r s — q u i t e ,
q u i t e down'.
And I , of l a d i e s most d e j e c t and wretched,
That suck'd the honey o f h i s music vows,
Now see t h a t n o b l e and most s o v e r e i g n r e a s o n ,
L i k e sweet b e l l s j a n g l e d , out o f tune and h a r s h
That unmatch'd form and f e a t u r e o f blown y o u t h
B l a s t e d w i t h e c s t a c y . 0, woe i s me
T' have seen what I have seen, see what I s e e l
(III.i.158-169)
T h i s f u l l e x p r e s s i o n o f h o p e l e s s n e s s i s a l l t h a t l o v e can

mean i n t h i s p l a y . When O p h e l i a hears t h a t her dear f a t h e r

has been k i l l e d by the one she most l o v e d , she l o s e s her

mind and her l i f e . Love i s never r e a l i z e d f o r O p h e l i a or

Hamlet who, at her graveside. , i n h i s q u a r r e l i n g w i t h L a e r t e s ,

1

finally comes out and e x p r e s s e s h i s l o v e , too l a t e :

I l o v ' d O p h e l i a . F o r t y thousand b r o t h e r s
C o u l d not ( w i t h a l l t h e i r q u a n t i t y o f l o v e )
Make up my sum.
(V.ii.292-294)

As t h e i r l o v e i s u n f u l f i l l e d , we r e a l i z e t h a t O p h e l i a d i d not
understand her lover and he did not understand his own true

feelings.

The tragic ending of the courtly theme in Othello

is also brought about by misunderstanding. In this play,

Shakespeare presents a most vital tragedy, since i t is love

that actually leads a husband to k i l l his wife. The tragic

conclusion is the natural end of such jealous love as we met

in The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Cymbeline, or The Winter s 1

Tale. Here, i n Qthello, there i s no arrangement which satisfies

all, no timely confession of malice on the part of the villain.

Rather, the hatred and jealousy of the evil Iago gradually

overpowers Othello s 1
noble character t i l l he is convinced

that his beloved wife i s a wanton. His jealousy is aroused

to such a p i t c h that he kills the faithful Desdemona, thinking

he is sacrificing her life to save her from further sinning.

Too late he learns that Iago's evidence is false and he

realizes his own folly. There is something terrible and

tragic i n his final realization that Iago has ensnared his

5
soul. Love which ends like this c a r r i e s i t s own condemnation.

Though O t h e l l o and Desdemona are more complex than

the conventional courtly lovers, still they are patterned

after the c o u r t i e r and the lady i n many respects. Othello

tells us of his birth and position:

5 In this request, Othello suggests that he is damned:

W i l l you, I p r a y , demand t h a t demi-devil

Why he h a t h t h u s e n s n a r d my s o u l and body?
1

(V.ii.301-302)
 150

. . . I f e t c h my l i f e a n d b e i n g
F r o m men o f r o y a l s i e g e ; a n d my demerits
May speak (unbonneted) t o as p r o u d a f o r t u n e
As t h i s t h a t I have r e a c h ' d .

(I.ii.21-24)

He has won his position of trust and honor on h i s own merits

and h i s true worth i s visible to a l l who know him.

Brabantio, angry because the Moor has won h i s daughter, tells

us that Desdemona deemed h i m superior to the courtiers of

the realm.
Damn'd a s t h o u a r t , t h o u h a s t e n c h a n t e d her!
For I ' l l r e f e r me t o a l l t h i n g s o f s e n s e ,
I f she i n c h a i n s o f m a g i c were n o t b o u n d ,
Whether a maid so t e n d e r , f a i r , and happy,
So o p p o s i t e t o m a r r i a g e t h a t she shunn'd
The w e a l t h y c u r l e d d a r l i n g s o f our n a t i o n ,
Would e v e r have ( t i n c u r a g e n e r a l , mock)
1

• Run from h e r guardage t o t h e s o o t y bosom

O f s u c h a t h i n g as t h o u . . . .
(I.ii.63-70)

The Duke i s less grudging i n his appraisal, placing full

trust in Othello:

Valiant O t h e l l o , we m u s t s t r a i g h t e m p l o y you
Against t h e g e n e r a l enemy O t t o m a n .

(I.iii.48-49)

D e s d e m o n a , won by his tales of noble deeds, sees a l l that

she needs in a husband:

That I did love t h e Moor to live with him,

My d o w n r i g h t " v i o l e n c e , a n d s t o r m o f f o r t u n e s ,
May t r u m p e t t o t h e w o r l d . My h e a r t s s u b d u ' d
1

E v e n t o t h e v e r y q u a l i t y o f my lord.
I saw O t h e l l o ' s v i s a g e i n h i s m i n d ,
And t o h i s h o n o u r s and h i s v a l i a n t parts
Did I my s o u l a n d f o r t u n e s c o n s e c r a t e .
(I.iii.249-255)
Even Iago, who i s astute i n h i s observation of Othello's

faults, cannot fail to see his good qualities:

The Moor ( h o w b e i t t h a t I e n d u r e him'not)

Is o f a c o n s t a n t , l o v i n g , n o b l e nature,
And I d a r e t h i n k he'11 prove to Desdemona
A most d e a r h u s b a n d .
(II.I.297-300)
 151

We must not assume that Othello i s the all-round, c o u r t i e r ,

for he, himself, tells us that he has been groomed on the

battlefield and is lacking in courtly manners:

R u d e am I i n my speech,
And l i t t l e b l e s s l d with the s o f t phrase of
peace;
F o r s i n c e ' t h e s e arms o f m i n e h a d s e v e n y e a r s '
pith
T i l l now some n i n e m o o n s w a s t e d , t h e y h a v e
us'd
T h e i r dearest a c t i o n i n the t e n t e d field;
And l i t t l e o f t h i s g r e a t w o r l d can I s p e a k
More t h a n p e r t a i n s to f e a t s o f b r o i l and
battle . . . .
(I.iii.81-87)

Nevertheless, he is capable of winning the love and devotion

of Desdemona, who, her father tells us, is an innocent,

courtly lady: , , .

A maiden never b o l d ;
Of s p i r i t . s o s t i l l and q u i e t t h a t h e r m o t i o n
B l u s h ' d a t h e r s e l f ; and she — i n spite of
nature,
Of y e a r s , of country, credit, everything —
T o f a l l i n l o v e w i t h what she f e a r ' d t o
look on'.

(I.iii.94-98)

This is the lady whom O t h e l l o is capable of winning and we

might expect that their love and marriage should be a happy

and idyllic one. However, the hatred and scheming of I ago

is capable of destroying Othello's trust i n his wife,

though Desdemona i s devoted to the end.

It is the p e r s o n a l i t i e s of both Othello and

Desdemona that lead them to tragedy. Iago perceived

Othello's true nature and exploits i t to the full:

The Moor i s o f a f r e e and o p e n n a t u r e

T h a t t h i n k s men h o n e s t t h a t b u t seem t o be so;
 1

And w i l l as t e n d e r l y be l e d by t h ' nose

As a s s e s are.
(I.iii.405-408)

Shakespeare leaves no doubt that this is a correct observation

Othello, himself, tells us i t is so:

Certain, men should be what they seem.

(III.iii.128)

This i s Othello's criterion and i t explains his- tragedy, for

he::-is m i s t a k e n . He i s convinced of his wife's infidelity, of

Cassio's secret love affair with Desdemona, and of Iago's

honesty by things which seem to be. Othello's trusting nature

is seen to advantage at first, when B r a b a n t i o warns him to

watch Desdemona:
Look to her, Moor, i f thou hast eyes to see.
She had deceiv'd'her f a t h e r , a n d may thee.
(I.iii.293-294)

Othello's quick retort s h o w s he cannot allow her constancy

to be questioned':

My l i f e upon her faith'. —: Honest Iago,

My Desdemona must I l e a v e t o t h e e .

(I.iii.295-296)

Unfortunately, Iago has no trouble turning Othello's trusting

nature to his own purpose. Iago's plan to have revenge upon

Othello (who made C a s s i o his lieutenant instead of Iago and

whom I a g o suspects of having made l o v e to h i s wife) and at

the same time bring Cassio down, i s r e a l i z e d with no

difficulty:

. . . I ' l l have our Michael Cassio on the hip,

Abuse him t o the Moor i n the rank garb
(For I f e a r C a s s i o w i t h my n i g h t c a p t o o ) .
M a k e t h e M o o r t h a n k me, l o v e me, and r e w a r d me
F o r m a k i n g h i m e g r e g i o u s l y an a s s
And p r a c t i s i n g u p o n h i s p e a c e and q u i e t
Even t o madness.
(II.i.314-320)
Iago i s so clever that he can do exactly as he plans, and
 153

Othello i s h e l p l e s s l y at the mercy of this malignant

jealousy.

Desdemona i s likewise at the mercy of Iago's

maliciousness. Though she remains c o n s t a n t and devoted, she

is helpless to prevent the change in Othello s 1

attitude to

her and her own death. In her innocence she does not

understand what i s happening and cannot defend herself. She

seems to lack the spirit to take the initiative as had

Rosalind i n As, Y o u Like I t , or the ability to fight back

as had Imogen i n Cymbeline. Desdemona i s not t o be blamed

for her innocence, but i t i s tragic that she does not

understand the true implications of her pleading for Cassio s 1

re-instatement and that she does not know why she i s accused

and condemned. Iago, in his scheming, makes i t clear that

he understands Desdemona just as w e l l - as he does Othello:

F o r ' t i s most easy

Th' i n c l i n i n g Desdemona t o subdue
I n any h o n e s t s u i t . She'sfram'd as fruitful
As t h e f r e e e l e m e n t s . And t h e n f o r her
To win the Moor — were't to renounce h i s
baptism —
A l l s e a l s and symbols o f redeemed s i n —
H i s s o u l i s so e n f e t t e r ' d t o h e r l o v e
T h a t s h e may m a k e , u n m a k e , d o w h a t s h e list,
E v e n as h e r a p p e t i t e s h a l l p l a y t h e god
W i t h h i s weak f u n c t i o n .
( I I . i i i . 34-5-354)
Her innocent nature i s brought out after she has been called

a whore by Othello:

I c a n n o t s a y 'whore.'
I t d o t h a b h o r me now I s p e a k t h e w o r d ;
T o do t h e a c t t h a t m i g h t t h ' a d d i t i o n e a r n
N o t t h e w o r l d ' s m a s s o f v a n i t y c o u l d make me.
(IV.ii.161-164)
 1

In her discussion with Emilia, her maid (and Iago's wife)

Desdemona s t i l l cannot believe that women could do such

things:

Dost thou in conscience think — tell me,

Emilia —
T h a t t h e r e be women do a b u s e t h e i r husbands
In such gross kind?
(IV.iii.61-62)

Emilia's conclusive summation shows a more r e a l i s t i c attitude

to love. It might be taken as the answer of a lady,who

was enjoying a new freedom i n Elizabethan society to the

husband who c a r r i e d on his own secret love affair:

B u t I do t h i n k i t i s t h e i r husband's f a u l t s
I f wives do f a l l . Say t h a t t h e y s l a c k t h e i r
duties
And pour our t r e a s u r e s i n t o f o r e i g n l a p s ;
Or e l s e b r e a k o u t i n p e e v i s h jealousies,
Throwing r e s t r a i n t upon us; or say t h e y
strike us,
Or s c a n t o u r f o r m e r h a v i n g i n d e s p i t e - -
Why, we h a v e g a l l s ; a n d t h o u g h we h a v e some
grace,
Y e t h a v e we some r e v e n g e . L e t h u s b a n d s know
T h e i r w i v e s have sense l i k e they. They see,
and smell,
And have t h e i r p a l a t e s b o t h f o r sweet and sour
As husbands have. What i s i t t h a t t h e y do
When t h e y c h a n g e u s f o r o t h e r s ? I s i t sport.?
I think i t i s . And d o t h a f f e c t i o n b r e e d i t ?
I think i t doth.. I s ' t f r a i l t y that thus e r r s ?
I t i s so t o o . A n d h a v e n o t we a f f e c t i o n s ,
D e s i r e s f o r s p o r t , a n d f r a i l t y , a s men have?
T h e n l e t t h e m u s e u s w e l l ; e l s e l e t . t h e m know,
T h e i l l s we d o , t h e i r i l l s i n s t r u c t u s so.
(IV.iii.89-106)

Desdemona i s not of this independent, r e b e l l i o u s nature, and

so submits to her fate.

Othello i s not the type of husband nor i s Desdemona

the type of wife Emilia described, yet the tragedy happens

because Othello thinks of his wife in such terms. At first,

 155

Othello i s reluctant to believe Iago's reports and tries

to control an upsurge of jealousy by explaining that

6
Desdemona is only fulfilling her role as the courtly lady:

' T i s n o t t o make me jealous

To s a y my w i f e i s f a i r , f e e d s w e l l , l o v e s
company,
I s f r e e o f s p e e c h , s i n g s , p l a y s , and dances
well.
Where v i r t u e i s , t h e s e a r e more v i r t u o u s .
Nor f r o m m i n e own w e a k m e r i t s w i l l I d r a w
The s m a l l e s t f e a r or doubt of her r e v o l t ,
F o r s h e h a d e y e s , a n d c h o s e me. No, Iago;
I ' l l see b e f o r e I d o u b t ; when I d o u b t , p r o v e ;
A n d on t h e p r o o f t h e r e i s no more b u t t h i s —
Away a t o n c e w i t h l o v e o r jealousy!
(III.iii.183-192)

Though Othello seems to be winning his struggle here, he is

soon given apparently conclusive proof by Iago that Desdemona

is false. Othello, who has been told that i t i s not natural

that Desdemona should marry one of his color or years cannot

bear the thought of her seeking love elsewhere because of an

ill-founded marriage:

0 curse of marriage,
T h a t we c a n c a l l t h e s e d e l i c a t e c r e a t u r e s ours,
And not t h e i r a p p e t i t e s i I had r a t h e r be a
toad
And l i v e u p o n t h e v a p o u r o f a dungeon
Than keep a corner i n the t h i n g I love
For other's uses. „ .
(III.iii.2^8-273) /

Because he believes that others are sharing her love, he is

driven to murder her. In demanding proof of Iago he displays

6 Cf. Chapter I I , p. 34-.

7 I t i s worth n o t i c i n g here that O t h e l l o i s

f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t the s i t u a t i o n condoned by e a r l y c o u r t l y
l o v e , w h e r e a y o u n g w i f e was c o u r t e d b y a y o u n g l o v e r when
t h e h u s b a n d was away a t war o r w h e n t h e m a t c h was not a
happy one.
 156

a t o r t u r e d mind which leads naturally to tragedy:

By t h e w o r l d ,
I think my w i f e h e h o n e s t , a n d t h i n k s h e i s n o t ;
I think t h a t thou a r t j u s t , and t h i n k thou a r t
not.
I ' l l h a v e some p r o o f . H e r name t h a t was a s
fresh
As M a n 1
s v i s a g e , i s now h e g r i m ' d a n d b l a c k
A s m i n e own f a c e . I f t h e r e be c o r d s , o r
knives,
Poison, or f i r e , or s u f f o c a t i n g streams,
I ' l l n o t endure i t . Would I were s a t i s f i e d .
(III.iii.383-390)

When O t h e l l o i s finally worked up t o such a frenzy that he

falls into a trance, Iago's g l o a t i n g makes u s aware that i t i s

possible for evil t o come out o f noble love:

Work o n ,
My medicine, workl. Thus credulous f o o l s a r e
caught,
And many w o r t h y a n d c h a s t e dames e v e n t h u s
All g u i l t l e s s , meet reproach.
(IV.i.45-48)

We realize how effectively Iago's medicine has worked when we

s e e -the d e p t h t o which Othello s 1

thoughts have sunk:

Ay, l e ther rot, and p e r i s h , and be damn d 1

t o n i g h t ; f o r she s h a l l n o t l i v e . No,
my h e a r t i s t u r n d t o s t o n e .
1
I strike i t ,
a n d i t h u r t s my h a n d . 0, t h e w o r l d hath
not a sweeter c r e a t u r e I She might l i e
b y a n e m p e r o r s s i d e a n d command h i m t a s k ' s .
1

( I V . i i . 191-196)
Even here, when O t h e l l o gives voice t o the loathesome words

he has l e a r n e d from Iago, we may see t h e c o n f l i c t . He s t i l l

loves Desdemona, a s we s e e when he comes t o k i l l her:

I t i s t h e c a u s e , i t i s t h e c a u s e , my s o u l .
L e t me n o t name i t t o y o u , y o u c h a s t e stars . 1

It i s the cause. Y e t I ' l l not shed h e r b l o o d ,

Nor s c a r t h a t w h i t e r s k i n o f h e r s t h a n snow,
And smooth as monumental a l a b a s t e r .
Y e t s h e m u s t d i e , e l s e s h e 1 1 b e t r a y m o r e men.
1

Put out t h e l i g h t , and then put out the l i g h t .

I f I quench thee, thou f l a m i n g m i n i s t e r ,
 15'/

I can a g a i n thy former l i g h t restore,

S h o u l d I r e p e n t me; h u t once, p u t o u t t h y l i g h t ,
Thou c u n n i n g s t p a t t e r n o f e x c e l l i n g n a t u r e ,
1

I know n o t w h e r e i s t h a t P r o m e t h e a n h e a t
That can thy l i g h t relume. When I h a v e
pluck'd the rose,
I cannot give i t v i t a l growth again;
I t n e e d s must w i t h e r . I ' l l s m e l l i t on t h e
tree.-
0 balmy b r e a t h , thou dost almost persuade
J u s t i c e t o b r e a k h e r sword'. One m o r e , o n e
m o r e '.
Be t h u s when t h o u a r t d e a d , and I w i l l k i l l
thee,
And l o v e thee a f t e r . One m o r e , a n d t h i s t h e
last!
S o s w e e t was n e ' e r s o f a t a l . I must weep,
But they are c r u e l t e a r s . This sorrow's
heavenly;
It s t r i k e s where i t d o t h l o v e . She w a k e s .
(V.ii.1-22)

In this speech, one of the most powerful Shakespeare ever

wrote, the full tragedy i s borne out. Othello, who has

been driven by his desire f o r constancy and by his trusting

nature to k i l l what he most loves, t h i n k s he i s the minister

of justice, sacrificing his wife to save her and other men.

When i t i s t o o late he learns the truth and, upon the point

of death, realizes how love has misled him:

. . . S p e a k o f me a s I am. Nothing extenuate,

N o r s e t down a u g h t i n m a l i c e . T h e n must you
speak "
O f one t h a t l o v ' d n o t w i s e l y , b u t t o o w e l l ;
O f one n o t e a s i l y j e a l o u s , b u t , b e i n g w r o u g h t ,
P e r p l e x ' d i n t h e e x t r e m e ; o f one w h o s e h a n d
( L i k e t h a b a s e I n d i a n ) t h r e w a p e a r l away
Richer than a l l h i s t r i b e . . . .
(V.ii.342-348)

As the play ends we are aware of the tragic implications of

love. Shakespeare has shown u s , f u l l y , - the other side of

such joyous, carefree love as i t i s found i n Twe 1 f t h _ N i _ ; h t .

 158

With the three plays, T r o i l u s , and Cressida,

Hamlet, and Othello, the courtly theme ends i n tragedy.

This i s the l i m i t to which t h e theme can go. The idealism

and gaiety of the conventions have disappeared and i n

these tragedies the true possibilities of courtly love have

been exposed. After this, the c o u r t l y theme could not be

accepted s e r i o u s l y as a pattern f o r l o v i n g or f o r l i v i n g .

Shakespeare, i n probing into i t s every aspect, exposed

its true nature and frts true value. He needed but t o put

it aside and t o accept other values, f o r the courtly

conventions were long out of date.

 CHAPTER VIII

SUBVERSION OF THE THEME

 160

CHAPTER VIII

In The_Temnest, apparently Shakespeare's last

complete play, the courtly theme i s subverted. Many of i t s

traditional a s p e c t s may be d e t e c t e d , but these a r e no longer

of primary interest. Although the lovers are courtly figures

and follow closely the customary pattern of making love,

still they are of l i t t l e interest t o us as courtly lovers.

The treatment of love i s much more profound than i t had been

in many of the earlier plays, such as L o v e ' s Labour's Lost

or A Midsummer Night's, Dream. There i s less frivolity and

more depth i n the theme o f The Tempest, which i s the re-

conciliation of o l d enemies i n the interests o f young lovers.

Furthermore, love i s depicted i n i t s youth and innocence as

the force of renewal i n the world. The theme of marriage

which Spenser and Castiglione had presented i n their con-

ceptions of courtly love i s carried to i t s natural conclusion

by Shakespeare who emphasizes love and marriage as the means

1
of bringing about a better world.

The Tempest deals with a shipwrecked party which i s

guilty of a crime against Prospero and his daughter, Miranda.

This p a r t y , which includes the rulers of Naples and Milan,

1 T h i s theme i s s u g g e s t e d i n Miranda's speech which

suits the themes o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n and f r u i t i o n i n marriage:

0 wonder I
How many g o o d l y c r e a t u r e s a r e t h e r e h e r e ' .
How b e a u t e o u s m a n k i n d i s ! 0 b r a v e new world
T h a t has such p e o p l e i n ' t ' l
( V . i . 181-184)
 161

falls i n t o the power of Prospero, who was deposed as the

Duke of Milan by one of their number. Another of the party,

Ferdinand, son of the King of Naples, falls i n love with

Prospero 1
s daughter. In the i n t e r e s t s of these two lovers,

all is happily resolved when P r o s p e r o exercises justice

and forgiveness rather than revenge.

The play i s dominated by Prospero who, with his

book of magic and his superior knowledge, is able to control

nature and neatly bring a l l his adversaries to his island,

victims of a storm he has summoned. While they are there

he i s able to bewitch c e r t a i n members, keep certain groups

apart, and bewilder the courtiers with a banquet, controlled

by Ariel, which vanishes before they can eat. Strange shapes

and mythological goddesses are conjured up to entertain

Ferdinand and Miranda. Such deeds suggest that the course of

love could be controlled easily by Prospero, and though he

allows love to develop n a t u r a l l y , we are aware that he does

so because such development agrees with his intentions.

The courtly characters of Prospero, Ferdinand, and

Miranda are of the most interest to us, i n The, Tempest.

Prospero i s noble in his bearing, d i s p l a y i n g wisdom and the

quality of forgiveness. His courtly bearing i s more evident

in the final act w h e n he gives up his magic and dons h i s court

garb to mete out mercy and restore to freedom a l l who are

his captives. His daughter, Miranda, can scarcely be

called a court lady since she has only known exile on the
island with her father. Nevertheless, she has an a i r o f

gentility i n her youth and innocence. She i s s i m p l e , h u t

intelligent, sensitive, and b e n e v o l e n t l y compassionate.

Her lover, Ferdinand, i s the princely type o f whom she says:

I might c a l l him
A t h i n g d i v i n e ; f o rn o t h i n g natural
I e v e r saw s o n o b l e .
(I.ii.417-4-19)

In true courtly f a s h i o n he w i l l i n g l y undertakes the menial

task of piling thousands of logs for Prospero with the

complaint:

T h i s my m e a n t a s k .
W o u l d b e a s h e a v y t o me a s o d i o u s , b u t
The m i s t r e s s w h i c h I s e r v e q u i c k e n s w h a t s dead
1

A n d m a k e s my l a b o u r s p l e a s u r e s . 0, s h e i s
T e n t i m e s more g e n t l e t h a n h e r f a t h e r s 1

crabbed . . . .
(III.i.4-8)

We cannot fail t o notice that Shakespeare, here, i s degrading

the k n i g h t l y quest by t u r n i n g i ti n t o a chore of piling logs,

even though i t i s done w i l l i n g l y f o rthe lady.

Ferdinand and Miranda resemble courtly lovers,

though they a r e n o t as c o n v e n t i o n a l as t h e two p a i r s of lovers

in .'A M i d s u m m e r N i g h t 1
s Dream, f o r example. Miranda 1
s love

for Ferdinand i s innocent but certain. I n her response to

him she combines modesty with ardour, possessing the bearing

of a princess although unfamiliar with t h e ways of society.

All this i s seen i n h e r speech t o Ferdinand:

I d o n o t know
One o f my s e x ; n o woman s f a c e r e m e m b e r ,
1

S a v e , f r o m my g l a s s , m i n e own; n o r h a v e I s e e n
M o r e t h a t I may c a l l men t h a n y o u , g o o d f r i e n d ,
A n d my d e a r f a t h e r . How f e a t u r e s a r e a b r o a d
 163

I am s k i l l e s s o f ; b u t , b y my modesty,
(The jewel i n my dower), I would not wish
Any companion i n the w o r l d but you;
Nor can i m a g i n a t i o n form a shape
Besides y o u r s e l f , to l i k e of. But I p r a t t l e
S o m e t h i n g t o o w i l d l y , a n d my father's precepts
I t h e r e i n do forget.
(III.i.48-59)

Ferdinand i s more clearly the courtly lover, t h o u g h we must

recognize that only in his bearing is this evident. We know

from the time he first comes into the play that he will have

no difficulty i n winning Miranda, for he i s merely the tool

of Prospero's purpose; and, i f the latter so wished, he could

cast any imaginable spell'upon the two lovers. Ferdinand

is permitted to woo Miranda, however, w i t h o u t the magic of

Prospero and in so doing he displays a gentle, noble, n a t u r e .

Perhaps his most revealing courtly speech is his answer to

Miranda's praise (quoted above):

I am, i n my condition,
A p r i n c e , M i r a n d a ; I do t h i n k , a k i n g
( I w o u l d n o t s o l ) , and w o u l d no more e n d u r e
T h i s wooden s l a v e r y t h a n t o s u f f e r
The f l e s h f l y b l o w my m o u t h . H e a r my soul
speak'.
T h e v e r y i n s t a n t t h a t I saw y o u , did
'My heart f l y to your s e r v i c e ; there resides,
T o make me s l a v e t o i t ; and f o r y o u r sake
Am I t h i s p a t i e n t log-man."

(III.I.59-67)

This passage tells us much of Ferdinand and much of the

Elizabethan courtier. It betrays a pride in social position

accompanied by a willingness to surrender one's heart to a

lady of quality as well as a willingness to serve her

regardless of the degradation involved. Ferdinand plainly

belongs to the courtly class, with his readiness to endure

 164

the ordeal imposed upon him i n order to win his lady's

approval. Moreover, he constantly uses the customary

language of his class, referring to "service," "honor,"

"mistress," "bondage," and "lady." Finally, his addresses

of love to Miranda are couched in the traditional lyrical

phrases which mark them as courtly.

Though the love of Ferdinand and Miranda is closely

related to the type of courtly love which we have met in

many of Shakespeare's plays, there i s an essential difference.

I n A, M i d s u m m e r N i g h t ' s , Dream or Twelfth Night, for example,

love constituted the main interest. In T h e J I emjoe s t , i t shares

our i n t e r e s t with other matters. The play actually deals

with secondary courtly figures whose love story i s merely

a part of the greater theme of reconciliation between

Prospero and his enemies. Moreover, although the lovers are

courtly figures and follow c l o s e l y the customary courtly

pattern of making love, s t i l l they are of little interest to

us as traditional courtly lovers. Their love i s no outward

show n o r an imagined fancy, but is deep and genuine. They

are the representatives of a l l true lovers, for their love

is no thing of the hour, but rather a concrete, deep

emotion that has i t s natural consummation i n marriage and

reproduction. This fact, that love must end naturally in

marriage, is stressed, f r a n k l y , by Prospero w h e n he warns

Ferdinand:

T h e n , as my g i f t , a n d t h i n e own a c q u i s i t i o n
Worthily p u r c h a s ' d , t a k e my daughter. But
 165

I f thou dost break her v i r g i n - k n o t before

A l l sanctimonious ceremonies may
W i t h f u l l and h o l y r i t e be minist'red,
No s w e e t a s p e r s i o n s h a l l t h e h e a v e n s l e t f a l l
T o make t h i s c o n t r a c t g r o w . . . .
(IV.i.13-19)

It i s no c o u r t i e r , drunk with the customary fancies of love

or desperately longing to have his love requited who replies:

As I hope
F o r q u i e t d a y s , f a i r i s s u e , and l o n g life,
W i t h s u c h l o v e a s ' t i s now, the m u r k i e s t den,
The most o p p o r t u n e p l a c e , the strongest
suggestion
Our w o r s e r g e n i u s c a n , s h a l l n e v e r m e l t
M i n e h o n o u r i n t o l u s t , t o t a k e away
The edge o f t h a t d a y ' s c e l e b r a t i o n . . . .
(IV.i.23-29)

With this speech we realize that courtly love, with its

lyrical protestations of bliss which focus on the period

of wooing, i s dead. The conventional sighing and suffering

for love is gone and i n i t s place i s a mature, reasoned

attitude to the most basic of a l l man's emotions. As

Ferdinand looks beyond the mere satisfaction of sexual

love to a whole lifetime of domestic happiness, we leave

the world of make-believe love and enter that of reality.

Shakespeare may have felt, as he concluded this play,

that he had worked through,artificiality and sham to a

more lasting, satisfying a t t i t u d e towards love. At

least the doctrines of courtly love and the precepts

guiding the c o u r t i e r and his lady had nothing more to

teach mankind.
CONCLUSION
 167

CONCLUSION •

The variety and t h e f r e q u e n c y with which Shakespeare

treated the c o u r t l y theme should suggest i t simportance i n

understanding h i s plays. The comprehensiveness of h i s

treatment serves to remind us that love was looked upon as

a great educative force by t h e c o u r t i e r s o f h i s day who

always kept before their eyes the c h i v a l r i c ideals o f the

past. From the time when W y a t t returned from Italy with

Petrarch's Canzoniere, there was a strengthened revival of

interest i n medieval ideas. This i n t e r e s t was advanced by

Castiglione's Courtier which became the guide-book fora l l

European c o u r t i e r s and l a d i e s . By the time of Sidney and

Spenser the subject of the c o u r t i e r i n love was something

of a poetic passion. V/e h a v e already seen that love had

become a highly conventionalized a r t when expounded i n

sonnet sequences, plays, and prose romances by the a s p i r i n g

writers o f t h e d a y who sought court favor. The c o u r t i e r ,

too, spent many d i v e r t i n g hours i n writing of love, freely

adopting the conventions of medieval courtly love and o f

Petrarch. Of course, the lover i n Elizabethan literature

was more often a fiction than a reality; but, nevertheless,

he d i d mirror the standards of taste and the a t t i t u d e s held

in the matters of love.

In presenting the lovers of h i s plays, Shakespeare

was j o i n i n g those Elizabethans who wrote on t h e joys and

sorrows of love, the adoration o f b e a u t i f u l women, t h e

 168

immortality which a poet sought to give through his songs to

a beautiful lady, the sleepless n i g h t s which love brought,

the sanctity o f honor and constancy, and the relationship

of love to friendship. I t i s important that we recognize

the popularity of these themes and the ease with which any

Elizabethan audience would respond to an allusion to them.

If the renunciation of a loved one for a friend, such as we

met i n The Two, Gentlemen o f Verona,, seems absurd to us, we

must remember that an Elizabethan audience would be more

concerned with the conventional question of whether friend-

ship was stronger than love.. Valentine's actions, then,

might be understood more readily. Again, in Twelfth_Ni£ht,

Viola's dejected longing for Orsino and her secret love for

him, expressed when she i s disguised, would be understood

immediately by the E l i z a b e t h a n audience which quickly

recognized the symptoms of such love and expected the

complication which arose out of the traditional disguise.

The pattern of love between the prince, Florizel, and the

noble-born shepherdess, Perdita, i n The_Winter^sJTale would

also be a familiar theme w h i c h would not trouble an

Elizabethan audience. I t i s necessary f o r us, i f we are

to understand fully Shakespeare's plays which deal with

the courtly theme, t o he aware of the conventions involved

and to recognize that though certain allusions or

conventions may be obscure now, they were of prime importance

to an audience which responded to them almost instinctively.

One thing stands out clearest, i n tracing Shakespeare's

 169

handling o f t h e c o u r t l y theme: he t o o k i t , with a l l i t s

accretion of traditional detail and i t s artificiality,

and turned i t over and over i n plays which depict i t as

comedy, satire, romance, reality, and tragedy. I n so

doing, he a l w a y s revealed a preference for natural love

and upheld such natural love as the o n l y right path to

marriage and happiness. This a t t i t u d e , which d i d not

prevent him from e x p l o i t i n g t h e many possibilities of the

courtly theme, sees love s1

true s i g n i f i c a n c e t o man s
1
life.

His a t t i t u d e has remained vital through the centuries which

have intervened, while the Elizabethan conceptions of the

courtier and o f c o u r t l y l o v e have long since diminished i n

importance. S t i l l , a consideration of the courtly theme

suggests a useful approach t o many o f Shakespeare's plays.

 170

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