Department of Humanities

English Section

English A: Writing in English

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 3
Checklist .............................................................................................................................. 3
Formal Requirements for the Essay............................................................................. 5
Reference to Source Material ......................................................................................... 5
Notes on Style .................................................................................................................... 7
Examples of Different Styles .......................................................................................... 8
Essay Topics ...................................................................................................................... 9
1. Essay Structure .................................................................................................. 10
1.1 The Three Essential Components of an Essay................................................. 10
1.2 The Introduction ........................................................................................................ 10
1.3 The Body ..................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 The Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 12
1.5 Planning an Essay .................................................................................................... 12
2. Paragraph Structure ............................................................................................. 15
2.1 Unity and the Topic Sentence ............................................................................... 16
2.2 Supporting sentences ............................................................................................. 17
2.3 Coherence and Cohesion ....................................................................................... 18
3. Sentence Structure ............................................................................................... 21
3.1 What is a sentence? ................................................................................................. 21
3.2 What sentence types are used in essay writing? ............................................ 21
3.3 What are simple, compound and complex sentences? ................................. 22
3.4 Choosing sentence structure in your essay ..................................................... 22
3.5 Things to watch out for ........................................................................................... 24
4. Grammatical Details ............................................................................................. 26
4.1 Subject-Verb Agreement......................................................................................... 26
4.2 Plural Forms of Nouns ............................................................................................ 29
4.3 Verbs ............................................................................................................................ 29
4.4 Prepositions ............................................................................................................... 31
4.5 Translation of Swedish man .................................................................................. 31
4.6 Relative Clauses ....................................................................................................... 32
4.7 Some Notes on Punctuation .................................................................................. 35
4.8 Some Notes on Spelling ......................................................................................... 37
5. References ........................................................................................................... 38
Appendix: Example Essay ........................................................................................ 39

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Introduction
The compendium is structured around four aspects of essay writing:
1. The overall Essay Structure
2. Paragraph Structure
3. Sentence Structure
4. Grammatical Details (advice on problem areas)

The compendium should be seen as a reference book. Writing a structured text is a skill which
is relevant for all academic education, regardless of the subject. A totally unstructured essay
written in perfect English is no better than a well structured essay full of grammatical
mistakes. It is thus important to be proficient at all levels in order to produce a good essay.
When grading the essay we consider structure and content as equally important as the use of
English.

This introductory section gives a checklist of things to consider when writing an essay,
information on the correct layout of an essay and on how to write references to source
material, and notes on using formal style. A list of essay topics can be found at the end of the
introduction. Note that, for obvious reasons, the example essay/parts of essays given in this
compendium relate to different topics from the essay topics you will choose from.

Checklist
There are a number of areas you need to pay attention to when writing. In order to improve
your skills, you need to make an honest self-evaluation and subsequently focus on areas
where you feel you are less confident. A checklist of the points to consider in order to write a
successful essay is given in the table below. When writing your essay, make sure to consider
the numbered points in the checklist. In this compendium you will find further information
about these points. After writing the essay, go through this checklist point-by-point, editing
your work accordingly. Check () each box once you are satisfied that you have attended to
that point.

A variant of the checklist (see the Speaking in English Compendium) should be used when
peer-reviewing another student’s essay.

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 Checklist
Structure and Content
1. Is there an appropriate attention Is there a clear and concise opening statement
grabber?
2. Is the aim of the essay clearly
stated?
3. Is the essay structure clear?
4. Are the arguments clear and
logical?
5. Are the arguments supported?
6. Is the paragraph structure clear? Is there a clear topic sentence in each paragraph,
7. Is the sentence structure
appropriate?
Language
1. Is the essay written in the
appropriate style?
2. Is the vocabulary appropriate
and unrepetitive?
3. Is the spelling correct?
4. Is the grammar correct?
5. Is the punctuation correct?
Formalities
1. Is the layout correct?
2. Is the documentation correct?
which arouses interest in the topic?
Is the reader told what you intend to do/show in
the essay?
Is there an introduction, main body, and
conclusion? Does each paragraph have a logical
link to the following paragraph? Does the
argument flow logically? Are the points briefly
summarized at the end and a conclusion drawn?
Have you explained your points clearly, and not
made illogical claims?
Are the arguments backed up with
quotes/references to the reference material? Have
you checked there is no plagiarism in your essay?
backed up with further explanation and examples?
For example: Is the principle of end-focus
applied? Are there appropriate links between the
sentences? Are the sentences declarative? Have
you avoided rhetorical questions?
Is the style formal, academic, objective? Have
things such as slang, idioms, contractions been
avoided?
For example: Are the correct terms used? Are
synonyms used to avoid unnecessary repetition?
For example: Have you checked for typos as well
as spelling mistakes? Have you checked that you
haven’t confused words like hole/whole,
which/witch, to/two/too, they’re/their/there?
For example: Have you checked for subject-verb
agreement errors? Have you checked that there
are no sentence fragments? Have you checked
there are no Swenglish errors?
For example: Have you checked that there are no
run-on sentences? Is the genitive apostrophe used
correctly?
For example: Have you used the right font, font
size, line spacing, paragraph indentation, straight
margins?
Are the references in the essay text written
correctly, in the appropriate place? Have you
noted all the reference material you used? Is it
listed at the end of the essay correctly?
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Formal Requirements for the Essay
All essays should:
a. be approximately 2 A4 pages
b. be properly set up on the page (lay-out):
i. 1.5 line spacing (radavstånd), 0pt spacing (avstånd), as here
ii. 12pt Times New Roman
iii. Straight margins on both sides
iv. Indent first line of each paragraph except the first paragraph
v. Name, course and supervisor’s name at top of first page
c. be properly structured but without section headings (introduction, body, conclusion)
d. where relevant, be properly annotated with references to sources
Take a look at the example essay in the Appendix, which fulfils all criteria but the last one.

Reference to Source Material

In linguistics, a system is used which is based on giving a full list of references at the end of
the essay/article/book. (There are several such systems, which vary slightly in punctuation
and other minor ways. The key is to be consistent). One system of how to write references is
illustrated below. This makes it possible to make short references in the text, thus avoiding a
lot of footnotes. A short reference in the essay text (needed after a quote or after a paraphrase
of some information taken from a book) is placed within your sentence, giving the author’s
surname, followed by the year of publication and the relevant page number(s) in parentheses,
e.g. “(Crystal 2003: 10–11)”. If the mention of the author is part of the syntax of the sentence,
then a reference like the following can be used. “Moreover, Crystal (2003: 10) claims that...”.

To cite a book in the reference list, you need the following information:
1. Author’s name (surname followed by first name)
2. Year of publication
3. Title of the book (in italics)
4. Number of the edition (if not the first)
5. Place of publication
6. Name of the publisher

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Crystal, David. 2003. English as a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik. 1972. A Grammar of
Contemporary English. London: Longman.

To cite a newspaper article in the reference list, you need the following information:
1. Author’s name
2. Title of the article (in quotation marks)
3. Title of the newspaper (in italics)
4. Date of publication
5. Page numbers of the article

Shea, Christopher. “The Limits of Free Speech.” Chronicle of Higher Education. 1 December
1993: 37–38.

To cite an article in a journal, you need the following information:

1. Author’s name
2. Date of publication
3. Title of the article (in quotation marks)
4. Title of the journal (in italics)
5. Issue number of the journal
6. Page numbers of the article

Weaver, Constance. 1996. “Teaching grammar in the context of writing.” The English
Journal. 85 (7): 15–24.

To cite a text on a web-page, you need the following information (but note the variation
depending on the type of online source illustrated in the examples below):
1. Author’s name
2. Title of the document/page (in quotation marks)
3. Name of the institution, organization etc. associated with the site (in italics)
4. Network address, or URL
5. Date when you accessed the source

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Vasagar, Jeevan. “Me, Miss! Why blurting out the answers can be good for pupils.” The
Guardian. 2 February 2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2012/feb/02/blurting-out-answers-
good-for-pupils. Accessed 3 February 2012.
“Linguistics”. Oxford Encyclopedia Online. http://www.oxford.encyclopedia.online.
Accessed 3 February 2012.
Oxford English Dictionary. http://www.oed.com. Accessed 3 February 2012.

Failing to inform the reader where you got your information from is known as plagiarism.
Here is a link to further information on what plagiarism is and how to avoid plagiarism. Take
a look at the example essay in the Appendix: where should there be references in the text?

Notes on Style
The text and examples in this section are largely taken from Hilton and Hyder (1992: 81–82).
Formal situations require formal language. Formal writing tasks such as job applications and
academic essays require the greatest care and effort as they provide a permanent record and
can influence other people’s impressions of us and our abilities. Despite what some people
believe, writing formal language does not entail the use of pompous, complicated, over-long
words. You should avoid:

1. Colloquial words or phrases: I think we got that a bit wrong.

could be replaced by: I think we made a mistake.
He is into classical music.
could be rewritten: He is interested in classical music.

2. Exaggerated or ‘meaningless’ words: He is terribly rich. (Omit ‘terribly’.)

3. Overused idioms and clichés: At this moment in time we cannot solve the problem.
could be rephrased: We cannot solve the problem now.

4. Verbose language or ‘officialese’:

I wish to respectfully remind you of our years of faithful service to your company...
might be rewritten:
I would like to remind you that for many years we have provided a service to your company...

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5. Jargon: unless you are writing for an audience which shares your interests or experiences,
avoid technical words and phrases which might confuse the general reader.

For formal writing, simple and direct language can be the most effective means of
communication. Here is further information on using the appropriate style: jargon and slang,
euphemisms, sexist language, and appropriate pronoun usage (see also section 4.5).

Examples of Different Styles

Formal Style (the conclusion of the Example Essay in the Appendix)

In conclusion, nuclear power is a reliable and effective energy source, and it is arguably one of
mankind’s most useful inventions. However, most people realise that a society based on the
consumption of non-renewable sources is untenable in the long run. The reliance on the use of nuclear
power is no exception. In order for us to be able to preserve our way of life and thereby secure our
long term futures, we have to find alternative energy sources– energy sources which are renewable,
reliable and clean.

Informal Style (the same conclusion written in an informal style)

At the end of the day I reckon that nuclear power is a really great energy source, and it’s an amazing
invention, probably one of the most important actually. But on the other hand people just have to
realise that they can’t run around using up and destroying everything we got (like using nuclear
power). If we do this we’re all gonna die in the end! I believe that if we want to keep on living the way
we now, we are going to have to find some other energy sources which we can reuse. If we keep using
up natural resources and polluting nature, we are digging our own grave – we will all die and a fat lot
of good your computer will be then eh?

Journalistic Style (the same conclusion written in a journalistic style)

Many would argue that mankind received the goose that lay the golden egg with the advent of nuclear
power. Gone were the fog shrouded slag heaps of our industrial landscapes. The future looked
clinically bright, illuminated with high-tech, space-age phosphorescence. But every cloud has a silver
lining, even the nuclear one. Enveloped in a shroud of digital comfort, few make the effort to face
reality: the party will soon be over and the cupboards of mother earth empty. Will we keep partying
until the final parting, or will we wake up and realise that we have a choice: finding alternative energy
sources which are both renewable and reliable? The choice is ours.

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Here are some further examples of different styles, with different levels of formality.

Essay Topics
Select a topic from the following list (your supervisor may have further suggestions). You are
expected to do some research to find information about the topic you choose. Your supervisor
may be able to help you find research articles or book chapters etc. related to these topics, but
you should also check the library as well as browse the internet for other material. Always
check with your supervisor that the sources you find are reliable (this is especially important
for internet sources). In order to present a balanced argument, and not simply echo someone
else’s work, you should not rely on just one source:

1. Do the benefits of English as a world language outweigh the dangers?

2. Is Internet English destroying the English language?
3. How important is it to teach English in English?
4. Which variety of English should be taught in Sweden, and why?

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 1. Essay Structure

Three common types of essays are the descriptive, the argumentative and the discursive
essays. A descriptive essay describes a situation, an event or an object. It does not argue for or
against anything. An argumentative essay opens with a boldly expressed point of view and
then the rest of the essay presents arguments (examples, proof or logic) to support that point
of view. Normally, it refers to opposing arguments but demonstrates that these are weak or
even false. A discursive essay, which is what you are going to write, presents both sides of an
issue in a more balanced way. It discusses a topic in an objective way and presents arguments
for and against a certain point of view, giving them equal weight. In the end, however, it
normally reaches a conclusion; in other words, the writer states what he or she thinks, based
on the arguments presented. The example essay in the Appendix is a discursive essay.

1.1 The Three Essential Components of an Essay

The three main parts of an essay are described in the table below, with further explanation and
detail in the following three sections (1.2–1.4).

1. Introduction The introduction should lead the reader into the essay topic. Start
with an attention grabber - a statement relevant to the topic that
which catch the reader’s interest. State your aim and explain how
you will organize the essay.
2. Main Body The main body is where you present the main points, arguments.
Each paragraph should have one main point (topic sentence)
followed by explanation, detail and examples where necessary.
Each paragraph should have logical connection with the preceding
and following paragraphs.
3. Conclusion The conclusion should sum up the essay. Give a brief summary of
the points made in the main body, but avoid repetition. Give your
own judgment/decision, which must follow logically from the
arguments presented in the essay. There should be no new points
in the conclusion.

1.2 The Introduction

The introduction has two main functions: firstly, to act as an ‘attention grabber’ making the
reader interested in what you are writing, and secondly, as a statement of what you aim to do
in the essay (a thesis statement). A comment on the title may also be necessary, for example
for an essay on the legalisation of drugs you would need to define what you mean by ‘drugs’.

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The ‘attention grabber’ tends to be an opening sentence which catches the reader’s attention
and interest, to make the reader want to read on. This part can be rather general comment on
the topic as a whole (but should not be so general as to be irrelevant to the topic at hand), or
an interesting example.

In the aim (or thesis statement), you should explain how you will approach the title topic,
preferably avoiding phrases such as ‘I will discuss’, which tend to be overused. Here is an
unsuccessful introduction to an essay entitled ‘Is a Woman’s Place in the Home?’, followed
by an improved version:

a. This essay will discuss whether a woman’s place is in the home or not.
Throughout history, women have been restricted to the home and housework,
and it was not until recently that this has changed. In the following paragraphs, I
will present my arguments and show my opinion.

b. Throughout history women have been restricted to the home and housework,
and not until recently has this changed. This essay will describe these changes
and discuss whether a woman’s place is in the home or not.

The first introduction fails because it repeats the title; the second sentence could have been
used instead to set the scene and attract the interest of the reader. The third sentence is
redundant as all discursive essays should have this structure; it does not lead the reader in to
this particular essay’s main body of argument. Two other points worth mentioning are:

 Do not give important information in the introduction that could instead be a main
point in the main body, or give a lot of background information.
 Do not end the introduction with a question; this does not tell the reader what is
coming next!

Take a look at the introduction to the example essay in the Appendix, and consider its
successes and failures.

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1.3 The Body
In the body of an essay your arguments are presented and your points are made. A discursive
essay should present arguments for and against, give the advantages and disadvantages, or put
forward both positive and negative aspects of a topic. There should be four to six paragraphs
in the main body of an essay of the length that you are going to write (2 pages). In a
discursive essay it is preferable to present all the arguments on one side, allowing you to
develop the argument in a logical order and in more depth, and then to present the opposing
arguments. It may be helpful to present the arguments you disagree with first, as your
presentation of the arguments you agree with will then lead into your conclusion. The
structure of a main body paragraph is explained in Part 2.

1.4 The Conclusion

A conclusion should sum up your main points and include your final opinion/decision, which
should come as a natural result of the points you have made in the main body of the essay.
Some words of advice are:

 Do not repeat the main points in the same detail or wording as in the main body
 Keep the conclusion brief: three to four sentences should suffice.
 Ensure that the conclusion you reach (your final judgment) is clear, and that you have
justified this in your arguments given in the main body.
 End the essay positively: avoid trivial, vague, negative or philosophical endings
which will detract from all the good arguments you have presented in the main body.

1.5 Planning an Essay

Before you start writing the essay, you need to first consider the essay title, and what you are
being asked to write about. For example if you are asked to write about why English is a
global language today, you should not research or write about the advantages and
disadvantages of English as a global language. Once you have found information on your
topic (from the library, internet etc) and have read that material, you should then make a plan
for the essay. It is extremely important to plan your work before you start writing the essay.

An essay plan is not just a number of notes or ideas jotted down. You can jot down ideas or
points you think you might make while you are reading up on the topic, or make two lists of

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the arguments (for example, one list for advantages and one list for disadvantages), but the
plan itself should be a plan of the actual essay structure and arguments. So the following,
adapted from Livingston (“Compose a thesis statement”) is not a plan for an essay entitled
“Can public transportation solve some of our city’s most persistent and pressing problems?”:

Can public transportation solve some of our city’s most persistent and pressing problems?
 helps with traffic congestion
 resource management
 the city budget

The notes above are totally insufficient to base the writing of an essay upon: it is hard to see
what the arguments to be presented even are, and hence whether they are for or against public
transportation as the solution to ‘our’ city’s problems. Instead, an essay plan should include
the attention grabber, the aim/thesis statement, each main point/argument to be presented
(plus examples/supporting points), your final judgment/conclusion, and the references. What a
plan does not necessarily include is the exact words/phrasing you will use in the actual essay.
How an essay plan—this time for an essay entitled “Yes or No to Nuclear Power”—might
look is shown below (compare the plan with the example essay in the Appendix):

Title: Yes or No to Nuclear Power?

Introduction
 Attention grabber: Nuclear power makes up nearly half of Swedish electricity
production, giving Sweden one of the world’s highest levels of consumption per capita
(“Nuclear power in Sweden”).
 Thesis statement: The question is whether we should maintain nuclear power or not—
will be answered by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power.
Main body - Arguments for:
 Paragraph 1: Nuclear power does not contribute to global warming (The Independent).
Alternative energy sources like fossil fuels emit greenhouse gases. Sweden’s use of
nuclear power means CO2 emissions are lower (“Nuclear power in Sweden”). So
Sweden can meet the demands of the Kyoto Protocol (“Sweden ‘is beating...”).
 Paragraph 2: Nuclear power is a reliable energy source. Wind and water power is
sensitive to weather conditions, unlike nuclear power (The Independent).

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  Paragraph 3: Nuclear power is efficient. The uranium fuel is very rich in energy, so
fewer power plants are needed compared with other types of power plant. Sweden
only has 10 nuclear reactors (“Nuclear power in Sweden”); it takes many times more
water power plants to produce the same amount of electricity.
Main body - Arguments against:
 Paragraph 4: Nuclear power is highly radioactive. An accident can have serious
consequences e.g. the Chernobyl accident in 1986 (West).
 Paragraph 5: Nuclear power results in a dangerous waste product (The Independent). It
has to be kept in storage for c. 100,000 years (Vattenfall). The plan is to store nuclear
waste deep in the bedrock (Vattenfall), but this method may not be safe in the future.
 Paragraph 6: Nuclear power is not based on a renewable source. If uranium
consumption continues at the same pace as today, the known supplies will only last
another 80 years (“Supply of uranium”).
Conclusion: (Against) We should not use nuclear power; we have to find alternative energy
sources which are not only reliable, but safe, renewable and clean.
References:
“Nuclear power in Sweden.” February 2012. World Nuclear Association. http://www.world-
nuclear.org/info/inf42.html. Accessed 21 February 2012.
“Nuclear waste management. Vattenfall. http://www.vattenfall.com/en/nuclear-waste-
management.htm. Accessed 21 February 2012.
“Supply of uranium.” February 2012. World Nuclear Association. http://www.world-
nuclear.org/info/inf75.html. Accessed 21 February 2012.
“Sweden ‘is beating Kyoto emissions targets’.” 18 December 2007. The Local: Sweden’s
News in English. http://www.thelocal.se/9444/20071218. Accessed 21 February 2012.
West, Larry. “About Chernobyl nuclear accident.” About Environmental Issues.
http://environment.about.com/od/chernobyl/p/chernobyl.htm. Accessed 21 February
2012.
“Yes please? No thanks? For and against nuclear power.” 29 November 2005. The
Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/yes-please-no-thanks-
for-and-against-nuclear-power-517402.html. Accessed 21 February 2012.

Remember, when you write the plan you are focusing on structure and content, so when you
actually write the essay, you can concentrate on the language and layout.

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 2. Paragraph Structure
A paragraph can be seen as a form of punctuation, which—like all punctuation—divides a
text into units of sense. A paragraph indicates that a new point is being presented and
discussed; it deals with one aspect of the subject you are writing about (if you look back at the
essay plan, you will see how each paragraph deals with a different aspect of nuclear power).

In order to clearly indicate to the reader what aspect of the subject is being addressed in the
paragraph, the main point—known as the topic sentence—is usually given in the first
sentence. The opening sentence is thus a statement to the reader: ‘This is the point I am going
to discuss’ (the point presented in the topic sentence). The rest of the sentences will then
support, elaborate and/or illustrate the point made in the topic sentence. The example
paragraph below is adapted from Livingston (“Write the body paragraphs”):

Main point (topic sentence)

Supporting point
Elaboration
Public transportation reduces freeway congestion. Commuters appreciate the cost savings of
taking public transportation rather than driving. Less driving time means less maintenance
expense, such as oil changes. Of course, less driving time means savings on gasoline as well.
In many cases, these savings amount to more than the cost of using public transportation.

Look at the example essay in the Appendix and identify the topic sentences.

A paragraph can be any length, depending on the type of text. However, in your writing, it is
best to avoid overlong paragraphs as it is easy to drift off the point. In a short essay that
presents and explains various arguments, you are more likely to need paragraphs of four to
five sentences. In a discursive essay it is reasonable to expect that equal consideration is given
to each argument, so paragraph length should be fairly consistent.

In the following sections we will go into more detail and describe some of the important
things to keep in mind when you write a paragraph.

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2.1 Unity and the Topic Sentence
A paragraph should be a unit: it should deal with one and only one main idea at a time.
Interesting facts or ideas that do not relate directly to the main idea expressed by the topic
sentence should not be included. Note that the topic sentence should not give details but
simply inform the reader of the topic of the paragraph. It is the sentences following the topic
sentence that explain, develop or give evidence for the main idea or claim of the topic
sentence. So, a good topic sentence should be as short and simple as possible (avoid complex
sentences in which it is hard to find the main subject). Key terms should be included in the
topic sentence; for example “global warming” in the topic sentence “To begin with, nuclear
power does not contribute to global warming” (see the example essay in the Appendix). Note
also that the topic sentence should clearly relate to the essay topic: so the topic sentence
“Nuclear power represents nearly half of the Swedish electricity production” does not work in
the main body of an essay entitled “Yes or No to Nuclear Power?” (see the example essay in
the Appendix): Why? Because it does not give a reason for or against nuclear power, which is
clearly what the body paragraphs should be about.

Topic sentence openings can be introduced with phrases such as:

On the other hand...

Another interesting argument for...
The final reason for...

These phrases, which should not be overused or echoed relentlessly through the essay, can be
used to link paragraphs together, to show the connection between one paragraph and the next,
giving coherence to the essay as a whole.

Some examples of topic sentences (the content of the paragraph, which logically follows
from the topic sentence, is given in brackets):
 Traditionally, there have been many reasons why fathers have not partaken in the
upbringing of their children. (The paragraph gives a number of explanations why
fathers have been not been active in this respect in the past.)

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  Nowadays, the social system in Sweden actively encourages fathers to look after their
children. (The paragraph points out the benefits available for fathers who want to look
after their children.)
 However, social roles are maintained in a number of ways. (The paragraph describes
how male and female roles are maintained through factors such as advertisements,
peer pressure etc.)
 Fathers taking an active interest in their children would improve society in many
ways. (The paragraph focuses on the benefits of fathers being more active as parents.)

On the basis of the topic sentences above, can you work out what the title of the essay(s)
might be?

2.2 Supporting sentences

These are the sentences that follow the topic sentence and constitute the detail of the
paragraph. These supporting sentences can have several functions (the extracts below are
from the example essay in the Appendix; for further examples, see Björk et al. 1992: 50–53):

 Supporting sentences that explain:

However, there is a downside: highly radioactive products arise when energy is produced by splitting
uranium nuclei. The tremendous amounts of radiation that are present in a nuclear reactor make
the consequences of an accident extremely serious and extensive. A well-known example of such a
scenario is the Chernobyl accident in 1986. There, an explosion in one of the reactors caused the
release of one hundred times more radiation than that which was released by the atom bombs over
Nagasaki and Hiroshima. The radioactive material was spread by the wind over large parts of Europe,
and has thereby affected the lives of millions in the form of, for example, weakened immune systems
and cancer.

One type of supporting sentence is an explanation, definition or limitation of the topic of the
topic sentence. If there is a need for this type of supporting sentence (highlighted above), it
should immediately follow the topic sentence, so that you and your reader know from the start
what you are going to deal with.

 Supporting sentences that illustrate:

However, there is a downside: highly radioactive products arise when energy is produced by splitting
uranium nuclei. The tremendous amounts of radiation that are present in a nuclear reactor make the

17
 consequences of an accident extremely serious and extensive. A well-known example of such a
scenario is the Chernobyl accident in 1986. There, an explosion in one of the reactors caused the
release of one hundred times more radiation than that which was released by the atom bombs
over Nagasaki and Hiroshima. The radioactive material was spread by the wind over large parts
of Europe, and has thereby affected the lives of millions in the form of, for example, weakened
immune systems and cancer.

A second type of supporting sentence is used to illustrate. In the example above, the topic
sentence, having been explained by the second sentence, is illustrated by the subsequent
sentences (highlighted) in the paragraph.

 Supporting sentences that lead into different levels of support:

Another argument in favour of nuclear power is its effectiveness. Uranium, which is used as fuel in
nuclear reactors, is very rich in energy. This means that, in comparison to other energy sources, fewer
power plants are needed to produce a certain amount of energy. In Sweden, for instance, we have
eleven active nuclear reactors at four locations, which produce as much electricity as our hundred
largest waterpower plants combined.

Many paragraphs have a complex structure, with several levels of support. In this example,
the second sentence supports (explains) the first sentence (which is the topic sentence), while
the third sentence supports (explains) the second sentence, and the final sentence supports
(illustrates) the third sentence.

As you can see from the examples above, these types and levels of supporting sentence should
be combined in the paragraphs in your essays.

2.3 Coherence and Cohesion

Much of this section is taken or adapted from Björk et al. (1992: 47; 60–61). Coherence,
which means that your writing is logically developed and structured to make a clear argument,
is very important. It is not enough just to have relevant arguments; you must show that they
are relevant by organising them in a logical way. The use of appropriate topic sentences and
supporting sentences described in 2.1 and 2.2 above is central to making your text coherent.

Linked to coherence is cohesion, which refers to the linking of sentences, using a range of
linguistic devices, such as those illustrated below:

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  Linking adverbials
These should be used to show logical connections between sentences. The following list is
adapted from “Coherence: Transitions between ideas” (see also Estling Vannestål 2007: 269).
Linking adverbials should not be confused with coordinating or subordinating conjunctions
(see 3.3 and 3.4).

again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first,
Addition further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next,
second, still, too
Comparison also, in the same way, likewise, similarly
Concession granted, naturally, of course
and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite that, even so, for
all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,
Contrast
notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise,
regardless, still, yet
Emphasis certainly, indeed, in fact, of course
after all, as an illustration, for example, for instance, indeed, in fact, in
Example or
other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is,
illustration
to illustrate, thus
all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in
Summary other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on
the whole, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize
after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at
length, at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally,
formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past,
Time sequence
last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly,
simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter,
until, until now
Causality as a result, consequently

 repetition of key words:

The family is under attack. Family life is described as harmful.

 using a synonym or paraphrase:

The family is still an economic unit. Financial questions are still important.
The family provided mutual support; they could help each other in difficult times.

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  using an antonym:
At one time the family was self-supporting. Now it is highly dependent on the rest of society.

 using an adverbial reference:

The family system is still predominant in most Third World countries. There the family
provides the only source of support.

 using a pronoun:
Changes in the economy are the main reason for the problem. This is not the only reason,
however.

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 3. Sentence Structure
3.1 What is a sentence?
A sentence needs a subject and a finite verb and to make complete sense. Imagine yourself
standing on a busy railway platform (this example is adapted from Hilton and Hyder 1992:
19): a stranger rushes up to you and says, ‘I bought a new pair of shoes yesterday.’ She then
hurries away and is lost in the crowd. You may well be surprised at her behaviour, but you
can understand her message. If she had approached you and said, ‘Wearing a black mac,’
before disappearing into the crowd, you would have been more astonished. Who was wearing
a black mac? Why hadn’t she completed her message? In order for a message to be exact,
clear and unambiguous, it must be divided into meaningful units, that is, sentences. This is
especially valid in writing as words are the author’s only means of communication.

3.2 What sentence types are used in essay writing?

Sentences in an academic essay are usually statements, known as declarative sentences, which
state a fact, argument or opinion: Nuclear power represents nearly half of the Swedish
electricity production.

Commands, or imperative sentences, should only be used in academic writing to give helpful
advice, such as (see 3.3 and 3.4), but otherwise it is inappropriate to tell the reader what to do,
and sentences like the following should be avoided: So my conclusion is: don’t eat meat!

Questions, or interrogative sentences, should also be avoided. Although asking and answering
your own question can be effective in some cases, it is simply not necessary: So, should we
rely on nuclear power? My conclusion is that the answer is ‘no’. Rhetorical questions—such
as What is the point of studying this? (which means There is no point studying this.)—are also
to be avoided in an academic essay.

Exclamations, or exclamative sentences—such as How lovely! What an interesting idea!—are

not appropriate in discursive essay writing, as this type of subjective, often emotional,
language is to be avoided.

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3.3 What are simple, compound and complex sentences?
Sentences are classified as simple, compound or complex depending on the type of clause(s)
in the sentence.

A simple sentence has one main clause which consists of a subject and a finite verb. A main
clause, like a sentence, must make complete sense, that is, have a complete meaning:
Nuclear waste is highly radioactive.
S finite verb
It needs to be kept in storage for about 100,000 years.
S finite verb

A compound sentence has two or more main clauses. These clauses could stand alone, but are
linked by co-ordinating conjunctions, linking adverbials or semi-colons instead:

Nuclear waste is highly radioactive, and it needs to be stored for about 100,000 years.
Nuclear waste is highly radioactive; therefore it needs to be stored for about 100,000 years.
Nuclear waste is highly radioactive; it needs to be stored for about 100,000 years.

A complex sentence consists of one or more main clauses and at least one dependent clause.
A dependent clause cannot stand alone and depends on the main clause for its meaning. A
dependent clause functions as part of a main clause (often the adverbial element).

Nuclear waste is highly radioactive, and it needs to be stored for about 100,000 years until it
has been neutralised.

Unlike a main clause a dependent clause does not always have a finite verb:
Knowing me, I’ll forget.
non-finite verb

3.4 Choosing sentence structure in your essay

If you use too many simple sentences, the text becomes ‘jerky’ and does not flow; conversely,
if you use too many complex sentences, it can make your text difficult to follow. Therefore, it
is advisable to combine sentence types.

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In academic writing, simple sentences are often used to introduce a new idea in the topic
sentence at the beginning of a paragraph, for an example: Another argument in favour of
nuclear power is its efficiency (followed by a paragraph explaining and illustrating this
efficiency). Simple sentences are also effective when you want to emphasise something:
However, most people realise that a society based on the consumption of non-renewable
sources is untenable in the long run. Nuclear power is no exception.

Compound sentences are used for joining two closely related ideas in a way which indicates
that both are equally important, for example: Wind power plants don’t work in strong winds
and waterpower is sensitive to drought. Note that you should only combine main clauses in
this way when they are closely related. See Estling Vannestål (2007: 387–389) for a
discussion and a list of co-ordinating conjunctions; see also 2.3 for a list of linking adverbials,
and 3.5 and 4.7 for information on punctuating these and other types of clauses.

In academic writing, many sentences tend to be complex sentences. A complex sentence is

appropriate when there is a close relationship between the clauses but the information in the
clauses is not of equal importance. Using complex sentences allows the writer to indicate a
variety of relationships between ideas, often introduced by a subordinating conjunction (or
subordinator) that indicates the type of relationship between the dependent clause and the
main clause. See Estling Vannestål (2007: 389–395) for a discussion and a list of
subordinators.
If uranium consumption continues at the same pace as today, the known supplies will only
last another 80 years.
Nuclear waste is highly radioactive, and it needs to be stored for about 100,000 years until it
has been neutralised.

Finally, when deciding on the structure of sentences, the principle of end-focus should be
considered. The known information is normally placed at the beginning of the sentence, while
the new information, the development of your point, is placed at the end, where it receives the
greatest attention by the reader. The example below follows this principle:
During the past three centuries, England and, more recently, the United States, have been
extremely influential nations economically. The economic power of these English-speaking
nations is probably one of the reasons for the spread of the language worldwide.

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3.5 Things to watch out for
This section is adapted from Greenbaum (1971: 118–124).

Sentence fragments and fragmentary sentences

A sentence fragment is a set of words that is punctuated as a sentence or main clause even
though it is not grammatically an independent sentence/clause. Below are three types of
sentence fragments to avoid:

 Dependent clauses:
Fragments should be avoided. Because they are ungrammatical.
I woke up late; my head throbbing.

Dependent clauses (underlined in the examples above) should not be treated as

complete sentences in this way. To make the examples above grammatical, a comma
instead of a full stop/semi-colon is needed.

 Phrases:
Last term the class was very rowdy. Especially during the last month.
Parents are making an effort to deal with the problem of teenage drinking. An effort
that can help reduce alcoholism.

Similarly, adverbial and noun phrases should not be treated as sentences. To make the
examples above grammatical, a comma instead of a full stop is needed.

 Coordinated expressions:
John became interested in environmental problems. And later helped in the battle
against pollution.
They have left their homes. And taken all their possessions with them.

Coordinating conjunctions should not be used to begin a sentence when the subject
and, in some cases, the verb has been omitted. In the first example, replace the full
stop with a comma; in the second, delete the full stop. It is best never to use

24
 coordinating conjunctions to begin a sentence even when there is a subject and final
verb, as a linking adverbial is more appropriate.

Run-on sentences and comma splices:

If we coordinate two sentences into one sentence without using a coordinating conjunction,
we must use a colon (if the second sentence is an explanation of the first) or a semi-colon:
I used to be afraid of him: he had such a loud voice.
I used to be afraid of him; I have since grown to like him.

If we fail to use any punctuation, the resulting error is a run-on sentence:

I used to be afraid of him I have since grown to like him.

If we use a comma instead of a colon or semi-colon, the resulting error is a comma splice:
I used to be afraid of him, I have since grown to like him.

A semi-colon rather than a comma is used when the sentences are coordinated by a linking
adverbial:
I used to be afraid of him; however, I have since grown to like him.

There is one exception to the general rule: we may use commas between coordinated
sentences if they are short and are similar in their structure:
She came home, did the laundry, cleaned the house, and made the dinner.
The more they earned, the more they wanted.
The first unit describes sentence structure, the second describes essay structure.

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 4. Grammatical Details
There are a number of areas where foreign students of English have particular problems; the
list below only represents a short selection of some of the most common pitfalls.

4.1 Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-verb agreement (or concord) means the finite verb must agree with the subject in
terms of number (singular/plural) and person (first, second, third person). This sounds
complicated but in reality this simply means adding an ‘s’ (or ‘es’) to the verb in the present
tense when the subject is third person singular (he, she, or it): hence I work, you go but he
works she goes. However, a complication arises for the verb BE, which has more forms that
other verbs:

subject BE present tense BEpast tense

first person singular I am was
second person singular you are were
third person singular he, she, it is was
first person plural we are were
second person plural you are were
third person plural they are were

To manage agreement correctly, you must be able to:

 identify the subject of a sentence
 recognise the number of the subject

Identifying the subject:

This is usually not a problem when the subject directly precedes the finite verb:
The new buildings look rather ugly. (third person plural subject)
My daughter does not like him. (third person singular subject)

However, in a number of cases the subject may not be so easy to identify:

1. The subject comes after the finite verb in the following circumstances:
a. Down came the rain. On the road lay a squashed hedgehog.

26
 This occurs in sentences which begin with an adverbial of place or direction
(down, here, there, on the left) and the verb describes position (stand, lie) or
motion (come, go, fall), unless the subject is a personal pronoun.

b. There were four people at the party. (rather than: Four people were at the party)
This occurs when the subject is mentioned for the first time, when describing
existence (=det finns/fanns)

c. It could be helpful to read the course books. (rather than: To read the course
books could be helpful). This is used when the subject is a nominal clause (a to-
infinitive clause or a clause beginning with the subordinator that (=att).

d. Are the boys coming to the party? Does he come here often?
In questions, the subject comes after the auxiliary verb. The auxiliary verb is the
finite verb that has to agree with the subject.

2. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by a long dependent clause:
The idea, although based on many years of research, was not widely accepted.

Recognizing the number of the subject:

In order to know when to add ‘s’ (or ‘es’) to the verb, you need to know the person/number of
the subject.

1. Most people who eat a lot of pizza get fat.

A person who eats a lot of pizza gets fat.
In relative clauses, the subject is the relative pronoun, but to find out the
person/number of the subject you have to look at the headword of the noun phrase that
the pronoun refers to (Most people is third person plural = no ‘s’; A person is third
person singular = add ‘s’).

2. Pronouns that are always third person singular = add ‘s’ to the finite verb (use was/is
form of BE): he, she, it, this, that, each, each one, one, another, everybody, everyone,
everything, somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything, nobody, no-
one, nothing, none, either, neither, whatever, whichever, whoever.

27
3. Pronouns that are always plural = do not add ‘s’ to the finite verb (use are/were form
of BE): we, they, these, those, both, few, others, several.

4. Every is third person singular: Every man, woman and child was saved from the
wreck. However, if you repeat every before each noun, the verb becomes plural:
Every man, every woman and every child were saved from the wreck.

5. Collective nouns (crowd, team, class) are third person singular when they refer to a
unit and plural when they refer to all the individuals or elements of a unit.
My team has won again. The team are a great bunch of lads.
Note that you should not use a singular verb for a collective noun and then refer to it
with a plural pronoun, so The audience is cheering and waving their arms is incorrect.
The audience is cheering and waving its arms does not work either, as the arms belong
to the individuals, not the audience as a unit. The only correct version would be: The
audience are cheering and waving their arms.

6. A compound subject constructed with and but referring to one thing/person is third
person singular: Her teacher and mentor was Professor Smith.
Law and order is a serious issue.

7. By contrast, if there is a compound subject that refers to several things/people, a plural

verb form is needed:
My husband and three other men were getting drunk at the bar.

8. However, when the subject is a noun phrase with a post-modifier, remember it is the
person/number of the headword that the verb agrees with:
My husband, together with three other men, was getting drunk at the bar.

9. Uncountable nouns (e.g. news, information, furniture, milk etc.) are third person
singular: The news was terrible. Milk comes from cows.
Don’t confuse uncountable nouns with zero plurals (e.g. sheep, deer), as the latter can
be counted, and can therefore by either singular or plural (one sheep was grazing; two
sheep were grazing).

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 10. There are certain nouns that are always treated as plural (e.g. trousers, jeans, scissors),
even though they refer to one thing: My trousers are torn.

11. Conversely, there are nouns ending in ‘s’ (e.g. gymnastics, measles) that are treated as
third person singular, and thus require the ‘s’ on the finite verb:
Measles affects the respiratory system.

For further details and examples see subject-verb agreement.

4.2 Plural Forms of Nouns

As you know, the regular way of forming plurals in English is simply to add ‘s’. There are,
however, numerous exceptions: see plural noun forms.

4.3 Verbs
The verb group in a sentence presents a number of potential problems, one being subject/verb
agreement (see 4.1). Other problems include:
 Choice of tense and aspect
 Irregular verbs
 Deciding whether verbs should be followed by the infinitive or the present participle.

Choice of tense and aspect:

Deciding tense can cause problems, especially in complex sentences where the dependent
clause does not have the same time reference as the main clause. The information and tables
taken from The Guide to Grammar and Writing may be helpful.

It is often problematic for learners of English to decide whether to use the simple form, such
as She studies or the progressive, such as She is studying. Follow the link for a brief overview
of (and exercises on) the use of the simple versus progressive.

Irregular verbs:
Make sure that you use the correct simple past and past participle form. There are a number of
irregular verbs in English and when in doubt consult a list of irregular verbs.

29
Deciding whether verbs should be followed by the infinitive or the present participle:
Certain verbs in English are either followed by the infinitive (to work) or the present participle
(working). Some take both, sometimes with a slight change of meaning depending on which
form is used. Here is a table with a number of common verbs, which gives examples to show
whether a verb takes the infinitive, the present participle (here called the gerund) or both.
Below is some further information:

In English, the present participle is always used after a preposition:

I look forward to seeing her again. I am used to living in Sweden.
This is true even when the preposition is not part of a verb:
After hearing her sing, I realised she was good at singing.

Verbs that take the infinitive: ask, afford, agree, appear, attempt, choose, dare, decide,
expect, help, hope, learn, manage, need, offer, promise, refuse, want

Verbs that take the present participle: admit, avoid, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up,
imagine, practise, risk

Verbs that take both infinitive and the present participle:

1. allow, advise, encourage, forbid, permit take the infinitive if there is an object, but the
present participle when there is no object: She allows singing. She allows me to sing.
2. forget, remember take the present participle when the ‘forget/remember’ action comes
after the present participle action: I remember locking the door. = ‘locking’ happened
before ‘remember’. The infinitive is used when the ‘forget/remember’ action comes
before the infinitive action I remembered to lock the door. = ‘remembered’ happened
before ‘to lock’.
3. try takes the present participle when it refers to an experiment, but the infinitive when
it refers to making an effort: Try calling her, she may answer. Try to climb that tree.
4. stop takes the present participle when it means ‘to give up’, but the infinitive when it
means ‘in order to do something’: I stopped smoking. I stopped to smoke a cigarette.
5. begin, continue, hate, like, love, start can be used with the infinitive or the present
participle with little or no change in meaning. I started singing. He started to cry.

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4.4 Prepositions
Prepositions (at, on, in, by, for etc.) are problematic for foreign learners because a particular
preposition may sometimes correspond to a particular preposition in your mother tongue, but
there will be numerous cases where it does not. Some general guidelines on the use of
different prepositions are given in the links in this section, but it is difficult to give general
rules since specific usage can be very idiomatic, and prepositions need to be learned in
context. The Guide to Grammar and Writing and the Purdue Online Writing Lab are
useful sources. The information on prepositions in Estling Vannestål (2007: Chapter 7;
Appendix 14 and Appendix 15) is particularly relevant to Swedish learners of English. If you
would like some practice on prepositions, try the following quiz.

4.5 Translation of Swedish man

As explained in Estling Vannestål, man in Swedish can be translated as one, you, we, they or
people or the sentence can be re-written using the passive voice. In an academic essay, where
the language is formal, one (one’s, oneself) may be used:

One might assume that nuclear power would not be used if it was unsafe.
One cannot be sure whether this method will work in the future.

However, using one too much can make your essay sound stilted, in which case the passive
can be a suitable alternative:

It might be assumed that nuclear power would not be used if it was unsafe.
It is uncertain whether this method will work in the future.

You—even when used in a generic sense (Sw. man)—can sound as if the speaker/author is not
included, as if it is the audience who is being directly addressed. For this reason, it is best to
avoid using you in an academic essay: For all these reasons, you should stop eating meat.

We includes the speaker/author, but may not include all the audience: In Sweden, for instance,
we have eleven active nuclear reactors at four locations. In an academic essay it is best to
avoid excluding part of your readership, and instead make your text more objective, by
rephrasing: In Sweden, for instance, there are eleven active nuclear reactors at four locations.

31
By contrast, the use of we works in the following example, because the author is including
herself and the entire readership, having given arguments to support her point: In order for us
to be able to preserve our way of life and thereby secure our long term futures, we have to
find alternative energy sources. Conversely, a sentence like Energy is something that most of
us take for granted does not work well, as here the author is making an unsupported claim on
behalf of the audience (as well as herself) that readers might not agree with.

They excludes the speaker/author and the audience, as does people. These work best when
talking about those from a different place or time: In certain parts of the world, they/people
consider homosexuality a sin. However, the passive is usually more apt in an academic essay.
In certain parts of the world, homosexuality is considered a sin. Also avoid using they with a
vague reference to an authority: They have decided not to phase out the nuclear plants.
Instead, specify the authority or use the passive:
The government have decided not to phase out the nuclear plants.
It has been decided that the nuclear plants will not be phased out.

4.6 Relative Clauses

This section is based on Soars and Soars (1987: 118–119). Relative clauses are either
restrictive or non-restrictive (alternative terms used are defining and non-defining).

My sister who works as a midwife is pregnant.

My sister, who works as a midwife, is pregnant.

In the first sentence the relative clause is restrictive (defining): the information in bold is
essential to the meaning of the sentence, as it specifies which sister—of the several sisters that
the speaker has—is being discussed. In the second sentence, the relative clause is non-
restrictive (non-defining): the information in bold is just extra information, it is not necessary
for the meaning of the sentence—which sister does not need to be explained, as there is only
one sister.

Restrictive (Defining) relative clauses

These relative clauses cannot be left out, as they are an essential part of sentence. There is no
comma before this type of relative clause.

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 Relative pronouns (restrictive clauses)
Person Thing
Subject who (that) that (which)
Object (who) (whom) (that) (that)
The forms in parentheses are possible but not as common.

Fleming was the man who discovered penicillin. (subject pronoun: person)
He discovered an antibiotic that/which revolutionised medicine. (subject pronoun: thing)
Note that which is particularly rare in American English. Moreover, following all,
every(thing), any(thing), the only, and the best, the first etc., that is always preferred:
Penicillin antibiotics are historically significant because they are the first drugs that were
effective against many previously serious diseases.

When the relative pronoun is the object of the clause, it is often left out:
One man who/whom/that Fleming inspired was Howard Florey. (object pronoun: person)
One man Fleming inspired was Howard Florey. (object pronoun omitted)
Note that who is only used in informal English, so it should not be used in an academic essay.
The antibiotic that Fleming discovered was penicillin. (object pronoun: thing)
The antibiotic Fleming discovered was penicillin. (object pronoun omitted)

Non-restrictive (Non-defining) relative clauses

These relative clauses can be left out, as they only add extra information. They must be
separated by commas from the rest of the sentence. Relative pronouns cannot be left out of a
non-restrictive relative clause. The relative pronoun that cannot be used in a non-restrictive
relative clause.

Relative pronouns (non-restrictive clauses)

Person Thing
Subject , who …, , which …,
Object , who …, , which …,
, whom …,

As in restrictive clauses, who as an object pronoun is only used in informal English, so it

should not be used in an academic essay.

33
Fleming, who was a pharmacologist, discovered penicillin. (subject pronoun: person)
Penicillin, which was discovered in 1928, is an antibiotic. (subject pronoun: thing)
Florey, whom Fleming inspired, helped develop penicillin. (object pronoun: person)
Penicillin, which Fleming discovered in 1928, is an antibiotic. (object pronoun: thing)

Which can be used to refer to the whole sentence:

She passed her exams, which made her parents very proud.

Prepositions are usually placed at the end of a non-restrictive relative clause:

Such an energy source, which we humans are in total control of, is naturally very valuable.
However, in formal English they are placed before the relative pronoun, which must then be
whom or which:
Such an energy source, of which we humans are in total control, is naturally very valuable.

Other relative pronouns

Whose is used in both restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses to refer to possession.
Unlike who, whose can be used to refer to people or things:
Woolworth, whose name was once synonymous with success, went bankrupt.

What is used as a relative pronoun to mean ‘the thing that’ (vad som/det som):
What one needs to consider is the danger of accidents.

Why, when, and where can be used as relative pronouns in restrictive clauses, but they can be
omitted.
The reason (why) this was the case is unclear.
The moment (when) it exploded was hard to forget.
The place (where) the power plant was is now deserted. In some cases a preposition has to
be added if where is omitted: Do you know the hotel where we are staying at?

When and where can be used as relative pronouns in non-restrictive clauses (in which case
they cannot be omitted):
I go to work at 9.00, when the rush hour is over.
He shops in Oxford, where his sister lives.

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4.7 Some Notes on Punctuation
The summary below is in part adapted from Jordan (1992: 107–109). This section does not
include all the rules, or all punctuation marks, but focuses on the main problem areas for
students of English. Further information and examples are available in the link above.

comma (,)
This is one of the most misunderstood and misused punctuation marks!
1. Commas are used to separate items in a list, whether the list comprises phrases or clauses:
I bought some eggs, milk, and bread.
He skidded across the road, over the ramp, and into the ditch.
Nuclear power is a reliable energy source, it is efficient, and it does not contribute to
global warming.
It is not necessary to separate the last two items (before the coordinating conjunction) with
a comma, but whichever style you choose, be consistent.
2. Non-restrictive relative clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas (see
4.6).
3. Like non-restrictive relative clauses, apposition phrases are enclosed in commas:
Fleming’s assistant, Merlin Price, helped discover penicillin.
4. Adverbial clauses are also marked off from the rest of the sentence unless the rest of the
sentence precedes the adverbial clause: If this is not clear, check the link above.
Check the link above if this is not clear.
5. Linking adverbials are separated from the rest of the clause by commas unless they are
within the verb phrase: Moreover, nuclear power is non-renewable.
Nuclear power may nevertheless be the best option.
6. Except where dependent clauses intervene, commas should not be used to separate the
subject, the verb, the object or the predicative from each other. For example there should
be no comma before a that-clause: They explained that commas are often misused.
7. Commas are not used to link two main clauses (see 3.5), so the following example is
incorrect: Don’t combine main clauses with a comma, this would be a comma splice.

35
full-stop (.) In American English, this is called a period.
1. Main clauses can start with a capital letter and end with a full-stop (although of course the
main clause may contain a dependant clause).
2. Full-stops are also used to mark the end of an abbreviation: etc. e.g. and c.

colon (:)
1. In essay writing the colon should be used to link two main clauses when the second clause
is an explanation or an amplification of the first: However, there is a downside: highly
radioactive products arise when energy is produced by splitting uranium nuclei.
2. The other use of the colon has been exemplified throughout this compendium: the colon is
used after a main clause, when an example (or a list) follows the colon.

semi-colon (;)
The main use of the semi-colon is explained in 3.5. To recap, a semi-colon is used between
two main clauses that are related, with or without a linking adverbial:
The lecture was badly delivered; it went on far too long as well.

hyphen (-)
1. A hyphen is used after certain prefixes and in some compound words (always check a
dictionary to see whether a hyphen is needed): co-op air-conditioning
2. Hyphens are also used when expressions of measurement, quantity precede the headword
of the noun phrase (note that the expression is singular): a ten-year-old child
3. A hyphen is used when the premodifier of a noun phrase headword is itself modified:
Mid-Sweden University an eighteenth-century painting

quotation marks (“...”) and (‘...’)

1. Double quotation marks (“...”) are used to enclose quotations. Make sure to use the
quotation mark (“), not the (”) mark, as the opening quotation mark. Note that quotations
should not be written in italics (kursiv), and that a reference is needed for the quotation.
2. Double quotation marks are also used for titles of articles (titles of books, journals and
newspapers are written in italics), as in the following example: “Universities cut number of
degree courses by 27%” is an article in The Guardian today.

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3. Single quotation marks (‘...’) are used instead of double quotation marks within quotations,
as in the following example: She said, “The Guardian has an article called ‘Universities
cut number of degree courses by 27%’.”
4. Either double or single quotation marks can be used to define words, highlight a word or
phrase that you do not take at face value, or identify a word as a term rather than part of the
syntax: “Wonderful” used to mean “full of wonder”.
This “reliable” energy source can lead to radioactive contamination.
The relative pronoun “that” is used in restrictive clauses.
Note that without the punctuation, the third example here would become a noun phrase
rather than a sentence. Italics can be used instead of quotation marks in this case (italics
can also be used for emphasis).

apostrophe (’)
1. An apostrophe is used to indicate the genitive (possessive):
Singular: a day’s work a lady’s handbag John’s car James’s car
Plural: two days’ work the ladies’ toilet people’s cars
2. Apostrophes are also used to show where letters/numbers have been missed out in
contracted forms. I can’t remember but I think I moved here in ’94.

capital letters (A, B, C)

A capital letter is used to start a sentence, as the first letter of proper nouns (Sweden), proper
adjectives (the Swedish language), days of the week, months of the year, titles referring to a
specific person (Professor Jones), and for the pronoun I.

4.8 Some Notes on Spelling

Spell-checks have made our lives easier in recent years but a spell-check cannot take care of
all problems: Here are some words that are often confused, which you should check:
advice/advise; affect/effect; aloud/allowed; brake/break; bored/board; choose/chose;
course/coarse; company's/companies; cue/queue; dependent/dependant; hear/here;
hole/whole; its/it’s; licence/license; lose/loose; no/now/know; off/of; past/passed; pear/pair;
personal/personnel; practise/practice; principle/principal; quiet/quite; tale/tail;
their/there/they're; threw/through/thorough; to/too/two; waist/waste; weather/whether;
were/where/we're; whose/who's; witch/which.

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 5. References
Björk, Lennart, Michael Knight and Eleanor Wikborg. 1992. The Writing Process:
Composition Writing for University Students. 2nd ed. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
“Coherence: Transitions between ideas.” The Guide to Grammar and Writing. Capital
Communication College Foundation.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/transitions.htm. Accessed 21 February
2012.
Estling Vannestål, Maria. 2007. A University Grammar of English with a Swedish
Perspective. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
Greenbaum, Sidney. 1991. An Introduction to English Grammar. London: Longman.
The Guide to Grammar and Writing. Capital Communication College Foundation.
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar. Accessed 21 February 2012.
Hilton, Catherine, and Margaret Hyder. 1992. Getting to Grips with Writing. London: Letts.
Jordan, R. R. 1992. Academic Writing Course. Walton-on-Thames: Nelson.
Livingston, Kathy. “Compose a thesis statement”. Guide to Writing a Basic Essay.
http://lklivingston.tripod.com/essay/thesis.html. Accessed 21 February 2012.
Livingston, Kathy. “Write the body paragraphs”. Guide to Writing a Basic Essay.
http://members.tripod.com/~lklivingston/essay/body.html. Accessed 21 February
2012.
Soars, John, and Liz Soars. 1987. Headway Upper-Intermediate: Student’s Book. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

Links in the compendium are to the following online sources:

Beare, Kenneth. About English as 2nd Language. http://esl.about.com.
Gillet, Andy. 2012. “Academic writing: Avoiding plagiarism.” Using English for Academic
Purposes: A Guide for Students in Higher Education.
http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm.
“Plagiarism: What It Is and How to Recognize and Avoid It.” Writing Tutorial Services.
Indiana University, Bloomington.
http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml.
Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL). Purdue University. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl.
“Rhetorical question.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorical_question.

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 Appendix: Example Essay
Johanna Svensson
English A, Internet, Spring 2012
Supervisor: Paul Jones

Yes or No to Nuclear Power?

Energy is something that most of us take for granted. In our everyday lives we are surrounded
by electronic equipment which all form an intricate part of our lifestyles. The stereo, the
television set, the computer and the refrigerator are just a few examples. When we switch on a
gadget, we expect it work, and probably get furious if it does not. But this life style demands
energy and energy has a price, regardless the source. Nuclear power is one of our biggest
energy sources and by far the most controversial. The main issue regarding this energy source
is whether we should maintain it or not. This essay will try to provide the answer to this
question by discussing the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power.
Nuclear power represents nearly half of the Swedish electricity production. This puts
Sweden in first place on the list of countries with most nuclear power per capita. The reason
why we have this prevalence of nuclear power is naturally because of its advantages.
To begin with, nuclear power does not contribute to global warming. In Sweden, as in
many other countries, nuclear power has to a large extent replaced the usage of fossil fuel, and
thereby given reduced emissions of greenhouse gases. In fact, without this energy source, it is
safe to say that Sweden, like most of the other countries that have signed the Kyoto Protocol
(an agreement on reducing the emission of greenhouse gases), would have obvious difficulties
in fulfilling the demands of reduced emissions.
Furthermore, nuclear power is a reliable energy source. Whereas, for example, wind
power plants have to be shut down if it is too windy and waterpower is sensitive to drought,
nuclear power produces the same amount of electricity regardless of weather conditions. And
such an energy source, of which we humans are in total control, is naturally very valuable in
our modern society, where everything is dependent on the supply of electricity.
Another argument in favour of nuclear power is its effectiveness. Uranium, which is
used as fuel in nuclear reactors, is very rich in energy. This means that, in comparison to other
energy sources, fewer power plants are needed to produce a certain amount of energy. In

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Sweden, for instance, we have eleven active nuclear reactors at four locations, which produce
as much electricity as our hundred largest waterpower plants combined.
However, there is a downside: highly radioactive products arise when energy is
produced by splitting uranium nuclei. The tremendous amounts of radiation that are present in
a nuclear reactor make the consequences of an accident extremely serious and extensive. A
well-known example of such a scenario is the Chernobyl accident in 1986. There, an
explosion in one of the reactors caused the release of one hundred times more radiation than
that which was released by the atom bombs over Nagasaki and Hiroshima. The radioactive
material was spread by the wind over large parts of Europe, and has thereby affected the lives
of millions in the form of, for example, weakened immune systems and cancer.
It is not only inside the nuclear reactor that radiation constitutes a threat. By using
nuclear power we are also producing one of the most dangerous waste products known to
mankind. This nuclear waste is highly radioactive, and thus needs to be kept in storage for
about 100,000 years until it has been neutralised. Sweden, like most countries, is planning to
store the nuclear waste deep down in the bedrock. However, since this has never been done
before, there are no guarantees that this method will be safe. Swedish bedrock may be stabil
today, but no one knows what the situation will be like in a hundred years, let alone in
100,000 years.
Besides the radiation problem, nuclear power also has the disadvantage of not being
based on a renewable source. Uranium is, assuredly, one of the most common metals on our
planet, but if the consumption of uranium continues at the same pace as today, the known
supplies will only last another 80 years.
In conclusion, nuclear power is a reliable and effective energy source, and it is arguably
one of mankind’s most useful inventions. However, most people realise that a society based
on the consumption of non-renewable sources is untenable in the long run. The reliance on the
use of nuclear power is no exception. In order for us to be able to preserve our way of life and
thereby secure our long term futures, we have to find alternative energy sources – energy
sources which are renewable, reliable and clean.

Evaluation: This is a good example of the discursive genre because both sides of the
argument are given equal weight in the text. In the conclusion, the author gives her own
opinion formed on the basis of the arguments presented. The author follows the principle of
one paragraph representing one idea and uses topic sentences at the beginning of each
paragraph. She makes use of several cohesion devices such as linking adverbials to signal the
purpose of different passages thus making the text easy to follow. The language is excellent,
with very few errors, and the style is appropriate. Also, examples and facts are used to

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illustrate the points made: however, there are statements, such as in the second paragraph,
for which there should be references, and there is no reference list at the end. Moreover, the
introduction is too long, and too general, and the second paragraph does not belong as a
main body paragraph, as it is used only to introduce the arguments in favour. The points
made in the second paragraph might actually have worked better as the lead-in/attention
grabber of the essay. The conclusion does not sum up all the main points, ignoring the
dangers of nuclear power, and the final sentence, which calls for a “renewable, reliable and
clean” energy source, seems to ignore the fact that one of the arguments for nuclear power
was its reliability. Also the point about nuclear power being ‘one of mankind’s most useful
inventions’ does not belong in the conclusion, especially considering the author has judged
against nuclear power.

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