Maria Muhammad Ziker

th
BS 4 semester
Psychology department
Developmental psychology
Regular(morning)
Seat no:12142134
Enrollment:AH/2/02430/M/PSY/2019
Date:20-feb-2021
Mam Khalida
Email:www.mariamarie3333@
gmail.com
Contact:03363315303
1. Discuss different research designs to study age related changes.

Age-related changes in prefrontal activity during walking

Using functional Near-Infrared-Spectroscopy (fNIRS) we investigate the frontocortical

hemodynamic correlates of dual-task walking in two conditions. 15 young and 10 older
individuals walked on a treadmill while completing concurrent tasks that had either visual
(checking) or verbal-memory.

Age-related changes in human working memory

Working memory is the process by which information is coded into memory, maintained
and retrieved, declines with age. To test the hypothesis that age-related changes in
prefrontal cortex (PFC) may mediate this WM decline, we used functional MRI to
investigate age differences in PFC activity during separate WM task components
(encoding, maintenance, retrieval). We found greater PFC activity in younger than older
adults only in dorsolateral PFC during memory retrieval. Thus age-related changes in
dorsolateral PFC and not ventrolateral PFC account for WM decline with normal aging.

Age related changes in conceptual and analytical issues

Developmental researchers use a variety of research designs to examine
aging-related changes. Most studies of aging are based on research
designs that feature successive, widely spaced, assessments to estimate
changes in cognitive performance. Such designs assume that short-term
variations in cognitive performance are small relative to long-term changes
or have modeled such phenomena.

Objective

There is empirical evidence to establish intraindividual cognitive variability

as a systematic source of individual differences and of important predictive
value for aging-relevant outcomes.

Methods:

After an overview of types of change, potential underlying processes, and

adequate analytic designs.
Results:We emphasize that interpretations of both cross-sectional and
longitudinal results need to consider and specify theoretical assumptions
about short-term and long-term age related changes.
Conclusions:
Above and beyond the analysis of long-term mean changes,
short-term changes are an important aspect of aging-related
change, and their analysis may help to explain psychological
processes of adaptation.

Cross-sectional studies of samples varying widely in age have found

moderate to high levels of shared age-related variance among measures of
cognitive and physiological capabilities. The influence of population
average changes with age on cross-sectional estimates of association has
not been widely appreciated in developmental and ageing research.
Covariances among age-related variables in cross-sectional studies are
highly confounded in regards to inferences about associations among
rates of change within individuals since covariances can result from a
number of sources including average population age-related differences
(fixed age effects) in addition to initial individual differences and individual
differences in rates of ageing (random age effects).The use of age-
heterogeneous cross-sectional designs for evaluating interdependence of
ageing-related processes is discouraged since associations will not
necessarily reflect individual-level correlated rates of change. Typical
cross-sectional studies do not provide sufficient evidence for the
interdependence of ageing-related changes and should not serve as the
basis for theories and hypotheses of ageing. Reanalyzing existing cross-
sectional studies using a sequential narrow-age cohort approach provides
a useful alternative for evaluating associations between ageing-related
changes. Longitudinal designs, however, provide a much stronger basis for
inference regarding associations between rates of ageing within
individuals.Developmental research designs are techniques used
particularly in lifespan development research. When we are trying to
describe development and change, the research designs become
especially important because we are interested in what changes and what
stays the same with age. These techniques try to examine how age, cohort,
gender, and social class impact development.
The majority of developmental studies use cross-sectional designs
because they are less time-consuming and less expensive than other
developmental designs. Cross-sectional research designs are used to
examine behavior in participants of different ages who are tested at the
same point in time. Let’s suppose that researchers are interested in the
relationship between intelligence and aging. They might have a hypothesis
(an educated guess, based on theory or observations) that intelligence
declines as people get older. The researchers might choose to give a
certain intelligence test to individuals who are 20 years old, individuals who
are 50 years old, and individuals who are 80 years old at the same time
and compare the data from each age group. This research is cross-
sectional in design because the researchers plan to examine
the intelligence scores of individuals of different ages within the same study
at the same time; they are taking a “cross-section” of people at one point in
time. Let’s say that the comparisons find that the 80-year-old adults score
lower on the intelligence test than the 50-year-old adults, and the 50-year-
old adults score lower on the intelligence test than the 20-year-old adults.
Based on these data, the researchers might conclude that individuals
become less intelligent as they get older. Would that be a valid (accurate)
interpretation of the results?

The influence of population average changes with age on cross-sectional

estimates of association has not been widely appreciated in developmental
and ageing research. Covariances among age-related variables in cross-
sectional studies are highly confounded in regards to inferences about
associations among rates of change within individuals since covariances can
result from a number of sources including average population age-related
differences (fixed age effects) in addition to initial individual differences and
individual differences in rates of ageing (random age effects). Analysis of
narrow age-cohort samples may provide a superior analytical basis for
testing hypotheses regarding associations between rates of change in
cross-sectional studies.
Conclusions: The use of age-heterogeneous cross-sectional designs for
evaluating interdependence of ageing-related processes is discouraged
since associations will not necessarily reflect individual-level correlated
rates of change. Typical cross-sectional studies do not provide sufficient
evidence for the interdependence of ageing-related changes and should
not serve as the basis for theories and hypotheses of ageing. Reanalyzing
existing cross-sectional studies using a sequential narrow-age cohort
approach provides a useful alternative for evaluating associations between
ageing related changes.

2. Discuss genetic abnormalities in detail.

Genetic Abnormalities:

Genetic abnormalities are conditions that are caused by changes to the

genes or chromosomes. Down syndrome is an example of a genetic
abnormalities because it caused by a chromosome abnormality.

How genetic abnormalities affect the health of the mother and

baby?

It will depend on the condition. Some genetic conditions may not cause any
symptoms, and others can cause severe, life-limiting problems.

How do genetic abnormalities occur?

Genetic abnormalities occur when there is an abnormality in one or more

genes. Some genetic disorders are passed down from parents to children
through their genes.

Genetic abnormalities prevention

Before you conceive, you should talk to your doctor about steps you can
take to help you have a healthy baby. Men and women should avoid
exposure to harmful substances, such as tobacco,radiation, alcohol,
drugs,smoking etc. Preconception genetic testing can help you determine
whether you’re at higher risk of having a baby with a hereditable genetic
condition. If tests show you are at higher risk, you can use contraception to
avoid pregnancy,use genetic testing during pregnancy to identify a affected
baby, consider assisted reproductive technologies with an egg or sperm
donor, or choose in vitro fertilization and test the embryos for specific
genetic disorders before implantation.There is always a possibility that
genetic abnormalities may occur. Anytime there is a pregnancy, there is at
least a 3% risk for having a child with some sort of birth defect, mental
impairment or genetic abnormality.

 Genetic disorders can be the result of genetic abnormalities

such as gene mutation or additional chromosomes. The effects
of abnormalities in an individual’s DNA were once entirely
unpredictable.

Down Syndrome

 The nucleus of an individual cell contains 23 pairs of

chromosomes, but Down syndrome occurs when the 21st
chromosome is copied an extra time in all or some cells. When
a person is diagnosed with Down syndrome, they are likely to
exhibit varying levels of mild to severe cognitive delays. Other
symptoms of Down syndrome include a higher disposition for
congenital heart defects, low muscle tone, smaller physical
stature, slanted eyes.
 Cystic Fibrosis

 Its a chronic, genetic condition that causes patients to produce

thick and sticky mucus, inhibiting their respiratory, digestive,
and reproductive systems.

Tay-Sachs disease

 The genetic condition known as Tay-Sachs is carried by about

one in every 27 Jewish people, and by approximately one of
every 250 members of the general population. The condition is
caused by a chromosomal defect similar to Down syndrome.
Tay-Sachs results from a defect found in chromosome #15,
and the disorder is irreversibly fatal when found in
children.Tay-Sachs disease gradually destroys the nervous
system, frequently resulting in death by age five.

Sickle Cell Anemia

 Sickle Cell Disease is a lifelong genetic condition that may be

inherited when the Sickle Cell trait is passed down by both
parents to their children. Sickle Cell Disease causes red blood
cells to change from their usual donut shape to a sickle shape.
This causes the cells to clump together and become caught in
blood vessels, triggering severe pain and serious complications
such as infections, organ damage, and acute respiratory
syndrome.

A genetic disease is any disease caused by an abnormality in the

genetic makeup of an individual.Some people inherit genetic disorders from the
parents, while acquired changes or mutations in a preexisting gene or group of
genes cause other genetic diseases. Genetic mutations can occur either randomly or
due to some environmental exposure.

There are different types of genetic disorders (inherited) and include:

1. Single gene inheritance

2. Multifactorial inheritance
3. Chromosome abnormalities
4. Mitochondrial inheritance

Some examples of single-gene disorders include

1. cystic fibrosis,
2. alpha- and beta-thalassemias,
3. sickle cell anemia (sickle cell disease),
4. Marfan syndrome,
5. fragile X syndrome,
6. Huntington's disease, and
7. hemochromatosis.

Examples of multifactorial inheritance include

1. heart disease,
2. high blood pressure,
3. Alzheimer's disease,
4. arthritis,
5. diabetes,
6. cancer, and
7. obesity.

Genetic disorders impact not only the physical health, but also the
psychological patients and their families. An increased genetic risk or a
genetic diagnosis can impact medical management as well as the
psychological patient and family. The personal and permanent nature of
genetic information raises a range of emotions including guilt, fear, and
helplessness. Specialists such as genetic counselors, social workers, and
psychologists, as well as support groups, can be extremely helpful to
patients and families as they deal with these difficult issues. Genetic
disorders have powerful effects on families.
3. Discuss non-parental care in detail.

Approximately 2.3 million children in the United States live separately from
both parents; 70–90% of those children live with a relative. Compared with
children living with one or both parents, children in nonparental care are in
poorer health, are at heightened risk for experiencing disruptions and
instability in caregiving, and are vulnerable to other social antecedents of
child health (e.g., neglect, poverty, maltreatment). Research examining the
contributions of poverty, instability, child maltreatment, and living in
nonparental care, including meta-analyses of existing studies, are
warranted. Longitudinal studies describing pathways into and out of
nonparental care and the course of health throughout those experiences
are also needed.

Compared to children living with parents, children in nonparental care are in

poorer health. According to data from the National Survey of Children’s Health,
nonparental caregivers are less likely to report that children in their care are in
good or very good physical or mental health compared to children living with at
least one parent.Those data further suggest that children in nonparental care are
more likely to have a special healthcare need, including mental health problems
such as depression, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and disruptive
behaviors

In addition to health status, access to health insurance and financial assistance also
vary by type of nonparental care arrangement, which has a direct impact on child
health and access to healthcare. Only children in formal foster care are typically
eligible for foster care maintenance payments. Youth in kinship and formal foster
care automatically qualify for Medicaid, but children in other living arrangements
only qualify for those benefits if the income of the family they live with meets the
eligibility criteria. Children in private kinship care (i.e., without child welfare
involvement) are significantly less likely to receive any insurance (including public
insurance) and are also less likely to be in fair or poor health.The literature on
children living apart from their parents indicates that 66% of children are racial and
ethnic minorities and 40% live in households with income below poverty level.In
the United States, poverty is typically defined using gross household income and
the number of individuals in the household.Rates of poverty are of particular
concern for children living with grandparents. Grandparents serving as sole
caregivers have significantly lower educational attainment as well as lower rates of
employment, income, and insurance access compared with other households.The
implications of poverty reach beyond financial resources to include access to
services and benefits, social capital, and educational opportunities.Consistently
across studies, results indicate that growing up in impoverished environments is
detrimental.This includes premature mortality,worse cardiovascular health,declines
in mental health, increased mobility impairments, and poor immune system
function . The pathways linking poverty to adult health have been described and
involve biological (e.g., physiological impact of poverty) and behavioral (e.g.,
engaging in negative health behaviors such as smoking) factors.Children who are
in the care of nonparental caregivers are at heightened risk for experiencing
subsequent disruptions and instability. Many nonparental care arrangements are
temporary and fluctuate within a short period of time, making it challenging to
identify and to follow children in nonparental care longitudinally. As is the case
with poverty, disruptions in caregiving are also known to be associated with poorer
health outcomes .The majority of studies describing stability of nonparental care
arrangements has been among children in foster care and suggests that more than
half of children in foster care experience at least one placement change and more
than one-third experience two or more placement changes while in foster
care.Children living with relative caregivers tend to experience more stability in
living arrangements than children in formal foster care.Children who experience
adversity or are the victims of maltreatment have poorer physical and mental
health when compared with children in the general population and with Medicaid-
eligible children.Among children entering foster care, 60–85% demonstrate
physical, developmental, or mental health needs.The most common physical health
issues include dermatologic issues, respiratory issues, and dental
issues.Developmental delays are very prevalent, found in almost 50% of children
entering foster care.Physical health problems and developmental delays are
disproportionally noted in children less than 6 y of age . Mental health diagnoses
are not common among children entering foster care , but symptoms of mental
health diagnoses, including behavioral problems, are often present at time of
placement and diagnoses frequently follow entry into care .These physical and
mental health problems are compounded if services are not provided in a timely
and effective manner.Adverse experiences contribute to poor health outcomes, as
demonstrated by Felitti et al., whose work showed that adverse childhood events
have cumulative associations with long-term adult outcomes, including heart
disease, liver disease, substance abuse, depression, and suicide attempts. This
research has been replicated in young children; in childhood, the negative impact
of adverse childhood experiences includes increased risk of behavioral problems
developmental delays and school failure .Due to elevated rates of poverty,
maltreatment, and adverse experiences among children in nonparental care,
understanding household structure may be an important clue toward identifying
and ultimately reducing these associated health risks.

4.Discuss moral reasoning during middle childhood

Moral learning is how to tell the difference between right and wrong; to use
this knowledge to arrive at appropriate decisions when faced with
complicated choices Morality is shaped by multiple factors. Children's
interpersonal experiences with family, peers, and other adults, as well as
their maturing physical, cognitive, emotional and social skills combine to
influence moral development.

Children's interpersonal experiences with family, peers, and other adults,

as well as their maturing physical, cognitive, emotional and social skills
combine to influence moral development.

Piaget's Theory of Moral reasoning during middle childhood:

The children between the ages of 5 and 10 years see the world through the
lens of a "heteronomous" morality. Piaget called expanded appreciation a
"morality of cooperation". Starting at about age 10 or 11 and continuing
through adolescence, children will have generally begun to view moral
rules as socially-agreed upon guidelines designed to benefit the group.
Children using this frame of reference still feel that it is important to follow
rules, but these rules are viewed as complex, somewhat negotiable
guidelines that are meant to improve everyone's lives. Children realize that
making choices about following the rules should be based on something
more than fear of negative personal consequences or desire for individual
gain. Decisions affect everyone; and can benefit and/or hurt everyone.
Children early in their middle childhood stage of development will typically
display "Preconventional" moral reasoning. Children displaying
preconventional moral reasoning have internalized basic culturally
prescribed rules governing right and wrong behavior. For instance, they will
appreciate that it is considered immoral to steal from others; that you must
earn or be given things and not simply take them. Children will tend to live
in accordance with these rules but primarily for selfish reasons, as a way of
avoiding punishment and obtaining praise for themselves. At this point in
time, they will appreciate their ability to make different kinds of choices, and
also the reality of consequences associated with those choices. They
realize that morally good behaviors attract praise and positive regard from
peers and adults, while morally bad choices bring about unpleasant
consequences and negative regard. They act accordingly, in a hedonistic
manner so as to maximize their personal pleasant consequences.

Preconventional Moral Reasoning

According to Kohlberg, children early in their middle childhood stage of

development will typically display "Preconventional" moral reasoning.
Children displaying preconventional moral reasoning have internalized
basic culturally prescribed rules governing right and wrong behavior. For
instance, they will appreciate that it is considered immoral to steal from
others; that you must earn or be given things and not simply take them.
Children will tend to live in accordance with these rules but primarily for
selfish reasons, as a way of avoiding punishment and obtaining praise for
themselves. At this point in time, they will appreciate their ability to make
different kinds of choices, and also the reality of consequences associated
with those choices. They realize that morally good behaviors attract praise
and positive regard from peers and adults, while morally bad choices bring
about unpleasant consequences and negative regard. They act
accordingly, in a hedonistic manner so as to maximize their personal
pleasant consequences.
Ideal Reciprocity
Later on in middle childhood, approximately between ages 10 and 12,
children begin to show a dawning appreciation of "ideal reciprocity", which
is a method for determining what is "fair" based on an appreciation of
equality between relationship partners, and a desire to treat others well
because ideally, they would similarly want to treat you that well too. People
are more familiar with the idea of ideal reciprocity when it is phrased as the
"golden rule" (e.g., "Do unto others as you would have done unto you").
Using ideal reciprocity, older children start to make moral decisions based
more on how they would like others to treat them if the tables were turned,
than based on what they can gain for themselves.
As children think about how rules are negotiated, and how they can benefit
other people, they begin to understand and appreciate that there are
different types or categories of rules, some of which are more negotiable
than others.
Moral rules involve the most basic and socially strict guidelines and societal
prohibitions that may never be broken. An example of a moral rule is the
basic prohibition against murder and unprovoked assault. It is never okay
to harm another person in a physical manner unless in self-defense.
Social Mores or Conventions are moral beliefs that change across social
contexts and social groups. These rules are more strictly enforced in some
places, and less strictly enforced in others. The idea that it is a sin to
disobey one's parents is an example of a social more. In some families, this
rule is taken very seriously indeed, while in other families, it is considered
to be a guideline at best with many exemptions present.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) built on the work of Piaget and was interested in
finding out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older. He wanted
to find out how people decide what is right and what is wrong. In order to
explore this area, he read a story containing a moral dilemma to boys of
different age groups. In the story, a man is trying to obtain an expensive
drug that his wife needs in order to treat her cancer. The man has no
money and no one will loan him the money he requires. He begs the
pharmacist to reduce the price, but the pharmacist refuses. So, the man
decides to break into the pharmacy to steal the drug. Then Kohlberg asked
the children to decide whether the man was right or wrong in his choice.
Kohlberg was not interested in whether they said the man was right or
wrong, he was interested in finding out how they arrived at such a decision.
He wanted to know what they thought made something right or wrong.
Pre-conventional Moral Development

The youngest subjects seemed to answer based on what would happen to

the man as a result of the act. For example, they might say the man should
not break into the pharmacy because the pharmacist might find him and
beat him. Or they might say that the man should break in and steal the drug
and his wife will give him a big kiss. Right or wrong, both decisions were
based on what would physically happen to the man as a result of the act.
This is a self-centered approach to moral decision-making. He called this
most superficial understanding of right and wrong pre-conventional moral
development.

Conventional Moral Development

Middle childhood boys seemed to base their answers on what other people
would think of the man as a result of his act. For instance, they might say
he should break into the store, and then everyone would think he was a
good husband. Or, he shouldn’t because it is against the law. In either
case, right and wrong is determined by what other people think. A good
decision is one that gains the approval of others or one that complies with
the law. This he called conventional moral development.

Post-conventional Moral Development

Older children were the only ones to appreciate the fact that this story has
different levels of right and wrong. Right and wrong are based on social
contracts established for the good of everyone or on universal principles of
right and wrong that transcend the self and social convention. For example,
the man should break into the store because, even if it is against the law,
the wife needs the drug and her life is more important than the
consequences the man might face for breaking the law. Or, the man should
not violate the principle of the right of property because this rule is essential
for social order. In either case, the person’s judgment goes beyond what
happens to the self. It is based on a concern for others; for society as a
whole or for an ethical standard rather than a legal standard. This level is
called post-conventional moral development because it goes beyond
convention or what other people think to a higher, universal ethical principle
of conduct that may or may not be reflected in the law. Notice that such
thinking (the kind supreme justices do all day in deliberating whether a law
is moral or ethical, etc.) requires being able to think abstractly. Often this is
not accomplished until a person reaches adolescence or adulthood.This
study investigated the role of moral reasoning and moral emotions (i.e.,
sympathy and guilt) in the development of young children’s donating
behavior.. Donating was measured through children’s allocation of
resources (i.e., stickers) to needy peers and was framed as a donation to
“World Vision.” Children’s sympathy was measured with both self- and
primary caregiver-reports and participants reported their anticipation of
guilt feelings following actions that violated prosocial moral norms,
specifically the failure to help or share. Participants also provided
justifications for their anticipated emotions, which were coded as
representing moral or non-moral reasoning processes. Children’s moral
reasoning emerged as a significant predictor of donating behavior. In
addition, results demonstrated significant developmental and gender
effects, with 8-year-olds donating significantly more than 4-year-olds and
4-year-old girls making higher value donations than boys of the same age.
We discuss donation behaviors within the broader context of giving and
highlight the moral developmental antecedents of giving behaviors in
childhood.

Moral Reasoning

Children’s growing understanding of the internal experiences of other people helps

them develop a better understanding of how they and others think about actions
that have moral implications. Moral reasoning is the process of making judgments
about the rightness or wrongness of specific acts. As you learned in Chapter 8,
children learn to discriminate between intentional and unin-tentional acts between
age 2 and age 6. However, using this understanding to make moral judg-ments is
another matter. Piaget claimed that the ability to use reasoning about intentions to
make judgments about the moral dimensions of behavior appears to emerge along
with concrete operational reasoning.
Piaget suggested that there is a connection between children’s understanding of the
rules by which games are played and their reasoning about moral issues.