Types of Wave Theory

What is SEISMOLOGY?

Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the earth. A
seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves.

What are SEISMIC WAVES?

Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an
explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs.

SEISMOGRAPH

A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes. Generally, it

consists of a mass attached to a fixed base. During an earthquake, the base moves and the mass does
not. The motion of the base with respect to the mass is commonly transformed into an electrical voltage.

SEISMOGRAM

A seismogram is a graph output by a seismograph. It is a record of the ground motion at a measuring

station as a function of time. Seismograms typically record motions in three cartesian axes (x, y, and z),
with the z axis perpendicular to the Earth's surface and the x- and y- axes parallel to the surface.

Types of SEISMIC WAVES

There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two main
types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through the earth's inner
layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water.
Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

Body Waves

P waves or Primary waves

S wave or Secondary waves

Surface Waves

Love waves

Rayleigh waves

Body Waves

Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by an
earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.
P Waves

The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest
kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic
station. The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the

liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through
just like sound waves push and pull the air. Have you ever heard a big clap
of thunder and heard the windows rattle at the same time? The windows
rattle because the sound waves were pushing and pulling on the window
glass much like P waves push and pull on rock. Sometimes animals can
hear the P waves of an earthquake. P waves are also known as
compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they do.
Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same direction that the the
wave is moving in, which is the direction that the energy is traveling in,
and is sometimes called the 'direction of wave propagation. AP wave
travels through a medium by means of compression and dilation. Particles
are represented by cubes in this model.

S Waves

The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the
second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave
and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium.
It is this property of S waves that led seismologists to conclude that the
Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move rock particles up and down,
or side-to-side--perpendicular to the direction that the wave is traveling
in (the direction of wave propagation). An S wave travels through a
medium. Particles are represented by cubes in this model.
Difference of P waves & S waves

The major differences between P waves and S waves include wave speeds, wave types, travel
capabilities, and wave sizes.

Wave Speed

P waves travel faster than S waves, and are the first waves recorded by a seismograph in the event of a
disturbance. P waves travel at speeds between 1 and 14 km per second, while S waves travel
significantly slower, between 1 and 8 km per second. The S waves are the second wave to reach a
seismic station measuring a disturbance. The difference in arrival times helps geologists determine the
location of the earthquake.

Type of wave

Primary waves are made up of compression waves, also known as push-pull waves. The individual waves,
therefore, push against one another, causing a constant parallel, straight motion. S waves are transverse
waves, which means they vibrate up and down, perpendicular to the motion of the wave as they travel.
In an S wave, particles travel up and down and the wave moves forward, like the image of a sine wave.

Travel Capability

Because of their wave movement, P waves travel through any kind of material, whether it is a solid,
liquid or gas. On the other hand, S waves only move through solids and are stopped by liquids and gases.
For this reason, S waves are sometimes referred to as shear waves because they are unable to alter the
volume of the material that they pass through. This also accounts why fewer S waves are recorded than
P waves. Geologist used this difference to determine that the Earth's outer core is liquid, and continue
to use this difference to map the internal structure of the Earth.

Wave Sizes

S waves are generally larger than P waves, causing much of the damage in an earthquake. Since the
particles in an S wave move up and down, they move the earth around them with greater force, shaking
the surface of the Earth. P waves, though easier to record, are significantly smaller and do not cause as
much damage because they compress particles in only one direction.
Surface Waves

Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency than body waves, and are
easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Though they arrive after body waves, it is surface
waves that are almost enitrely responsible for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes.
This damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes.

Love Waves

The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a
British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind
of wave in 1911. It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from
side-to-side. Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely
horizontal motion that is traverse (or perpendicular) to the direction 22he
wave is traveling. A Love wave travels through a medium. Particles are
represented by cubes in this model.

Rayleigh Waves

The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William
Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of
wave in 1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls
across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down,
and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the
shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much
larger t/25n the other waves. A Rayleigh wave travels through a medium.
Particles are represented by cubes in this model.
Difference of Love and Rayleigh Wave

Love waves have a horizontal motion that moves the surface from side to side perpendicular to the
direction the wave is traveling. Of the two surface waves, Love waves move faster. Rayleigh waves cause
the ground to shake in an elliptical pattern. This motion is similar to that observed in ocean waves.

Wave Speed

Love waves race around the Earth at almost 10,000 miles per hour. Their relatives, the Rayleigh waves,
lag behind slightly, but still speed at about 7800 miles an hour. Rayleigh waves emanating outward from
the epicenter of an earthquake travel along the surface of the earth at about 10 times the speed of
sound in air (0.340 km/s), that is ~3 km/s.

Type of wave

In elastodynamics, Love waves, named after Augustus Edward Hough Love, are horizontally polarized
surface waves. Rayleigh waves are a type of surface wave that travel near the surface of solids. Rayleigh
waves include both longitudinal and transverse motions that decrease exponentially in amplitude as
distance from the surface increases.

Travel Capability

Love waves travel with a lower velocity than P- or S-waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves. These waves
are observed only when there is a low velocity layer overlying a high velocity layer/ sub-layers. Rayleigh
waves are a type of surface acoustic wave that travel along the surface of solids. They can be produced
in materials in many ways, such as by a localized impact or by piezo-electric transduction, and are
frequently used in non-destructive testing for detecting defects.

Wave Sizes

On average, Love waves are fast compared to Rayleigh waves, giving in PREM a value of 1.1 below Moho,
decreasing linearly to the isotropic 1.0 at 220 km depth (see Figure 18). In more recent global models,
the VTI is smaller below Moho ( 1.06) but distributed to larger depths of up to 400 km ( Montagner,
1998).
ATTITUDE OF BEDS
Attitude of Beds
Attitude: A general term for the orientation of a line or plane. Attitude refers to the
three dimensional orientation of planar and linear features such as a bed, a
joint, a hornblende neddle or a fold.
The attitude of planar features, such as beds or joints, is defined by their strike
and dip
 Attitude of Beds
Attitude of Planar Structures

The attitude of planar structures is defined by the strike and dip

Strike and dip describe the orientation of a plane in space.
Strike is the bearing of a horizontal line on the plane (a scalar), i.e., N40 0E

Dip is the inclination of the plane measured down. D ip is a vector; it gives the direction
and amount of dip of the plane.
Example for dip: 80 0N
80o is the amount, N is the direction.

Example of planar structure: bedding, fault, fold axial plane, layering in lava, cleavage &
schistosity.
 Attitude of Beds
Attitude of Linear Structures
The attitude of linear structures is defined by the trend & plunge (together they define a vector)
Trend is the bearing of the line & Plunge is the inclination of the line.
Linear structure are also defined by their pitch / rake on a given plane:
Pitch / Rake: The acute angle between the line and the strike of the plane on which the line lies.

Example of linear structures: Fold axis, hingeline, intersection of two planes, stretched pebbles,
slickenside, other lineations.

Vertical Plane ne
z o n tal li
Hori line
z o ntal
ne Ho ri
e d Pla Pla
ne
i n Horizontal line d
Incl Incl
in e
Line –
Plunge
Plunge Pitch / Rake
linear Line –
struct linear
ure
struct
ure
Attitude of Beds
Strike: Strike is the direction of a line formed by the intersection of the bedding
plane with the horizontal plane. Strike is the bearing of a horizontal line
on the inclined plane (a scalar). If a plane is immersed in a water, the
strike line will be the water-line.
Generally expressed as an angle relative to north. i.e. N370E, N120W
Attitude of Beds
Dip Direction: It is the direction along which a bed dips and is perpendicular to
the strike line.
The dip direction is the direction that a drop of water will flow down the plane.
Attitude of Beds
• Dip: The dip of a bed is the angle between the bedding and
horizontal plane, i.e., the amount of inclination with respect to
horizontal.
Attitude of Beds
Dip: The dip of a bed is the angle between the bedding and horizontal plane,
i.e., the amount of inclination with respect to horizontal.
It is measured in a vertical plane at right angle to the strike of the bedding. It is
expressed in degrees (450), or in gradient (1 in 1), or in percentage
(50%).

HD
HD = Horizontal distance = 1 unit
d
VD VD = Vertical Distance = 1 unit
VD _ VD
= tan d or, d = tan
HD HD
Dipping Sedimentary Beds
Cockscomb Ridge, S. Utah

STRIKE

DIP
 Attitude of Beds

Two types of dip – a) True dip & b) Apparent dip

True dip : The angle between a bed and a horizontal plane measured in a
vertical plane lying at right angles to the strike of the bedding. It is the
maximum vertical angle of an inclined structural plane. It is denoted by d

Apparent dip: Apparent dip is the angle measured in any direction other than
the true dip direction. The amount is always less than the true dip. It is
denoted by r
 Attitude of Beds

d = true dip
r = apparent dip
a = azimuth
angle between strike line
and apparent dip direction
The relation between the apparent dip and true dip is expressed by the
following equation:-

tan r = tan d sin a

 Attitude of Beds
Dip & Strike Symbols

Block
Diagram

Map
View

Inclined bed Horizontal bed Vertical bed

400
ATTITUDE OF BEDS

• Figure 8.3 | Map or plan view vs 

cross-section view. The top block in 
this image is an area viewed in map 
view, which is the view from directly 
above the block. The lower block is 
from the same rock layers, and you 
are viewing it in cross-section (or 
from the side). Note that when you 
view the rocks in cross-section, you 
can see how the rock layers are 
tilted.
ATTITUDE OF BEDS

 Figure 8.4 | Horizontal 

sedimentary layers viewed in 
cross-section. In this image, 
different rock types are given 
different colors. The oldest rock, 
on the bottom, is labelled #1. The 
youngest rock in this image is #4.
ATTITUDE OF BEDS

• Figure 8.5 | Tilted 

rocks in a block 
model.
ATTITUDE OF BEDS

• Figure 8.8 | This image depicts the 

strike and dip for the pale blue bed 
in the block. Because the beds are 
oriented in the same direction, they 
all have the same strike and dip.
 What is map?
• Maps are two Dimensional representation of the surface of the earth and its features.
• Some common features of maps include scale, symbols, and grids.
• Maps are a kind of shorthand language media with two purposes:
1. To convey detailed formation about a specific area, and
2. To indicate the position of the specific area relative to other parts of the earth.
What is geological maps?
 Geologic maps are representations of geologic formations and structures at the Earth’s
surface, including formations, faults, folds, inclined strata, and rock types.
 Each formation on the map is indicated by a color and a label.
Elements of Geological Maps
• A cartographic unit is the representation of a volume of rock with a
lithology or constant lithologic association, of a determinate age, limited
by surfaces that make contact with the adjacent bodies of rock.
• Contacts between different geologic formations. These contacts might be
conformable stratigraphic contacts, unconformities, faults, or intrusions.
• Other elements corresponding to geological lines or surfaces.
❖ Cartographic Units
o It is the representation of a volume of rock with a lithology or constant
lithologic association, of a determinate age, limited by surfaces that make
contact with the adjacent bodies of rock.
o It can be recognized on the terrain and can be differentiated from the
cartographic units with which they are in contact.
❖ Contact
o Contacts between different geologic formations. These contacts might be
conformable stratigraphic contacts, unconformities, faults, or intrusions.

Four main groups of Geological Contacts

 Sedimentary contacts: these are the contacts between sedimentary rocks, or between
these and their substratum; the most common are the "normal or conformable contact",
the "transitional or gradational contacts" and the "unconformable contacts".
 Igneous contacts: these are the contacts between bodies of intrusive igneous rocks and
the rocks where they intrude, or the contact between themselves; in the case of the
volcanic rocks the base of the outflows of lava is also considered in this way.
 Limits of metamorphic processes: these correspond to the outlines of the rocky
volumes affected by metamorphism, or in other words, the limit of the aureole of contact
metamorphism, or the limits between different metamorphic zones of regional
metamorphism.
 Mechanical contacts: these are the contacts between rocky units that correspond to
fractured surfaces, accompanied by a relative movement of the two blocks that are
delimited by them. They can be of several types; the most common are the "normal
faults", the "thrust faults" and the "reverse faults".

❖ Other Elements
o Symbols showing the measured orientation of rock structures, such as
bedding, foliation, and faults.
o Other symbols showing the interpreted structure of the region, such as
anticlines, synclines, normal faults, thrust faults, and transform faults.
The importance of geological maps
o Geologic maps are the primary source of information for various aspects of land-
use planning, including the siting of buildings and transportation systems.
o Geologists use geologic maps to represent where geologic formations, faults,
folds, and inclined rock units are.
o Geologic maps are uniquely suited to solving problems involving Earth resources,
hazards, and environments.
 INTRODUCTION
•What is Rock Mechanics?
Rock mechanics is a discipline that uses
the
principles of mechanics to describe the
behaviour of rock of engineering scale.
Rock as a Construction Material

• For laying structural foundations to support structures

• For constructing Underground openings
• For protecting slopes
• For supporting railway tracks – Ballasts
• As base and sub-base for roads and runways
• As aggregate in concrete
Making facia for buildings
VI Soil Some organic content, no original May need to save and Unsuitable
structure re-use

V Completely weathered Decomposed soil, some remnant Scrape Assess by soil testing
structure

IV Highly weathered Partly changed to soil, soil > rock Scrape NB corestones Variable and unreliable

III Moderately Partly changes to soil, rock > soil Rip Good for most small
weathered structures

II Slightly Increased fractures and mineral Blast Good for anything

weathered staining except large dams

I Fresh rock Clean rock Blast Sound

 Primary Rock Types by Geologic
Grain Clastic Carbonate Foliated Massive Intrusive Extrusive
Aspects Origin
Coarse Conglomerate Limestone Gneiss Marble Pegmatite Volcanic Breccia
Breccia Conglomerate Granite

Medium Sandstone
Sedimentary
Limestone
Types
Igneous TypesMetaphorphic
Schist Quartzite Diorite Tuff
Siltsone Chalk Phyllite Diabase

Fine Shale Calcareous Slate Amphibolite Rhyotite Basalt

Mudstone Mudstone Obsidian
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks
- Density, Porosity, Permeability, Hardness, Strength, Elasticity, and Plasticity.

• A rock material is an aggregate of mineral particles

• The performance of the rock, under a particular condition depends upon physical and
mechanical properties of rock materials
• The Physical Properties may be known as Index properties, which describes the rock material
and helps in classifying them.
• The Mechanical properties may be known as Strength properties and they will give an
information about the performance of rock materials, when subjected to a particular loading
system.

Physical Properties of Rocks

- Physical properties of rocks are of interest and utility in many fields of work, including geology,
petrophysics, geophysics, materials science, geochemistry, and geotechnical engineering.
- Geologists define rock as aggregates or mass composed of one or more commonly, several of minerals.
-There are few exceptions to this rule: not all rocks are composed of minerals-for example, coal.
-Engineers (or contractor) define rock to be hard, durable material that can't be excavated without
blasting. The definition is based on strength and durability.

Note: As the basic constituent of rock, minerals control much of rock behavior. Some minerals are very
strong and resistant to deterioration and produce rock with similar properties, while others are much
softer and produce weaker rock.

-The physical properties of rocks affecting design and construction in rocks are:
• Density
• Porosity
• Permeability
• Hardness

➢ DENSITY
- Rock density is a measure of mass of the rock contained in a given unit volume (density
= mass/volume). Density should properly be reported in kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m3) but is still often given in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).
- Rock density is also called bulk density.
 -Density of rock material varies, and often related to the porosity of the rock.
-It is sometimes defined by unit weight and specific gravity. The densities of rocks and
minerals are normally expressed as specific gravity, which is the density of the rock
relative to the density of water.
-Most rocks have density between 2,500 and 2,800 kg/m3.

-Density varies significantly among different rock types because of differences in

mineralogy and porosity. Knowledge of the distribution of underground rock densities
can assist in interpreting subsurface geologic structure and rock type.

➢ POROSITY
- Porosity describes how densely the material is packed.
-It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the voids or pore space divided by the total
volume. It is written as either a decimal fraction between 0 and 1 or as a percentage.
-For most rocks, porosity varies from less than 1% to 40%.

-The porosity of a rock depends on many factors, including the rock type and how the
grains of a rock are arranged.
 Note: Porosity decreases with increasing age of the rock and depth of the rock
Note: Porosity is a measure of water – holding capacity of a rock material

➢ PERMEABILITY
-Permeability is a measure of the ease of flow of a fluid through a porous solid.

-It is another intrinsic property of all materials and is closely related to porosity.

-Permeability refers to how connected pore spaces are to one another

-A rock may be extremely porous, but if the pores are not connected, it will have no
permeability. Likewise, a rock may have a few continuous cracks which allow ease of
fluid flow, but when porosity is calculated, the rock doesn't seem very porous.

-If the material has high permeability, then pore spaces are connected to one another
allowing water to flow from one to another. However, if there is low permeability, then
the pore spaces are isolated, and water is trapped within them.
.
 -This phenomenon is called Permeability and is typical for rocks whose structure is such
that voids and channels are present. This way, fluids (gases but also water and other
liquids) can penetrate and move inside them. In other words, a permeable rock
is porous

-Permeability is the ability of porous material to allow liquid to pass through its pores,
units: cm/sec, or m/sec

➢ HARDNESS
- Hardness is the strength with which a mineral resists its surface being scraped or
punctured. In working with hand samples without specialized tools, mineral hardness is
specified by the Mohs hardness scale.

- Rock hardness is a term used in geology to denote the cohesiveness of a rock and is
usually expressed as its compressive fracture strength.
-Terms such as hard rock and soft rock are used by geologists to distinguish between
igneous/metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, respectively.
-These terms originated from historical mining terms, reflecting the methods needed to
economically mine an ore deposit.
-For example, a hard rock needs to be mined with explosives and a soft rock can be
mined with hand tools, such as pick and shovel.

- Hardness is the subjective description of the resistance of an earth material to

permanent deformation, particularly by indentation (impact) or abrasion (scratching)
 - Hardness is simply a qualitative expression of earth material strength; the hardness
categories form a scale of ranges in strength values obtained from the laboratory test
for strength.

1. The hardness of a mineral, as commonly determined on fresh material, is measured by its ability
to resist scratching. If a mineral is scratched by a knife, it is softer than the knife. If it cannot be
scratched by a knife, the two are equal hardness or the mineral is the harder.
2. To have a standard method of expressing hardness of minerals, a simple scale, known as the
Mohs scale, has been universally adopted.
3. In sequence of increasing hardness from 1 to 10, the following minerals are used as standard of
comparison:
4. Talc, Gypsum, Calcite, Fluorite, Apatite, Orthoclase (feldspar), Quartz, Topaz, Corundum and
Diamond
Mechanical Properties of Rocks
- Mechanical properties are physical properties that a material exhibits upon the application of
forces.
-Rock mechanical properties mainly include elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and rock strength.
These parameters can be obtained by lab experiments of core samples or by in-situ tests.
Mechanical Properties Include:
• Elastic properties (Young’s modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus, and Poisson’s ratio)
o Linear Elasticity
o Stress and Strain
• Inelastic properties (fracture gradient and formation strength)
o Plasticity
o Plastic Deformation
• Strength

• LINEAR ELASTICITY
• Ability of materials to resist and recover from deformations produced by forces
• Applied stress leads to a strain, which is reversible when the stress is removed
• The relationship between stress and strain is linear; only when changes in the forces are
sufficiently small.
• Most rock mechanics applications are considered linear
▪ Linear elasticity is simple
▪ Parameters needed can be estimated from log data & lab tests
o Most sedimentary rocks exhibit non-linear behavior, plasticity, and even time-
dependent deformation (creep).

• Stress and strain

-When a stress σ (force per unit area) is applied to a material such as rock, the material experiences a
change in dimension, volume, or shape. This change, or deformation, is called strain (ε). Stresses can
be axial—e.g., directional tension or simple compression—or shear (tangential), or all-sided
(e.g., hydrostatic compression). The terms stress and pressure are sometimes used interchangeably, but
often stress refers to directional stress or shear stress and pressure (P) refers to hydrostatic
compression. For small stresses, the strain is elastic (recoverable when the stress is removed and
linearly proportional to the applied stress). For larger stresses and other conditions, the strain can be
inelastic, or permanent.

➢ Elasticity is the property of matter that causes it to resist deformation in volume or shape.
Hooke’s law describes the behavior of elastic materials and states that for small
deformations, the resulting strain is proportional to the applied stress.

➢ Plasticity, ability of certain solids to flow or to change shape permanently when subjected to
stresses of intermediate magnitude between those producing temporary deformation, or
elastic behavior, and those causing failure of the material, or rupture.
o Plasticity enables a solid under the action of external forces to undergo permanent
deformation without rupture.
o Plastic deformation occurs in many metal-forming processes (rolling, pressing,
forging) and in geologic processes (rock folding and rock flow within the earth under
extremely high pressures and at elevated temperatures).

Elastic constants
In elastic deformation, there are various constants that relate the magnitude of the strain response to
the applied stress. These elastic constants include the following:
(1) Young’s modulus (E) is the ratio of the applied stress to the fractional extension (or shortening) of the
sample length parallel to the tension (or compression). The strain is the linear change in dimension
divided by the original length.
(2) Shear modulus (μ) is the ratio of the applied stress to the distortion (rotation) of a plane originally
perpendicular to the applied shear stress; it is also termed the modulus of rigidity.
(3) Bulk modulus (k) is the ratio of the confining pressure to the fractional reduction of volume in
response to the applied hydrostatic pressure. The volume strain is the change in volume of the sample
divided by the original volume. Bulk modulus is also termed the modulus of incompressibility.
(4) Poisson’s ratio (σp) is the ratio of lateral strain (perpendicular to an applied stress) to the longitudinal
strain (parallel to applied stress).

➢ STRENGTH
o Strength is the ability of a material to resist an externally applied load, but
o In Rock mechanics, strength is the Force per unit Area required to bring about rupture
in a rock mass at a given environmental conditions.
o The strength of rock is influenced by the mineralogical composition, shape of grains,
texture, crystallinity, stratification, lamination, modification by heat or pressure, and
 other factors. Secondary processes of cementation and weathering strongly influence
rock strength.

Classification of strength: depending upon type of loading and the stresses, the strength
in general may be classified as:

• Compressive Strength
• Tensile Strength, and
• Shear Strength

➢ Compressive Strength
o The compressive strength of a material is a measure of its ability to resist uniaxial
compressive loads without yielding or fracture.

➢ Tensile Strength
o Tensile strength of a material is defined as the maximum tensile stress which a material
can develop
o In nature rock mass is rarely subjected to direct tension, but it is subjected to tensile
stresses
o Rocks are weak in tension
➢ Shear Strength
o It mostly deals with the shear strength and shear behavior of the shearing and weakness
planes of the rock which hold together a rock specimen.
o It is a vital geomechanics measure, used for design

Shearing is associated with:

o Borehole instabilities, breakouts, failure
o Reservoir shear and induced seismicity
o Casing shear and well collapse
o Reactivation of old faults, creation of new ones
o Hydraulic fracture in soft, weak reservoirs
o Loss of cohesion and sand production
o Bit penetration, particularly PCD bits
Mechanical
Properties
of Rocks
Mechanical properties are physical
properties that a material exhibits upon
the application of forces.

Rock mechanical properties mainly

include elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio,
and rock strength. These parameters can
be obtained by lab experiments of core
samples or by in-situ tests.
Elastic properties (Young’s
modulus, shear modulus,
bulk modulus, and
Poisson’s ratio)

Linear Elasticity

Stress and Strain

Inelastic properties
(fracture gradient and
formation strength)

Plasticity

Plastic Deformation •Strength

Ability of materials to resist and recover from deformations
produced by forces

Applied stress leads to a strain, which is reversible when the

stress is removed

The relationship between stress and strain is linear; only

when changes in the forces are sufficiently small.

Most sedimentary rocks exhibit non-linear behavior,

plasticity, and even time-dependent deformation (creep).

Most rock mechanics applications are considered linear

• Linear elasticity is simple

• Parameters needed can be estimated from log data & lab tests
 ▪ When a stress σ (force per unit area) is applied to
a material such as rock, the material experiences
a change in dimension, volume, or shape.
▪ This change, or deformation, is called strain (ε).
Stresses can be axial—e.g., directional tension or
simple compression—or shear (tangential), or all-
sided (e.g., hydrostatic compression).
Stress and ▪ The terms stress and pressure are sometimes
used interchangeably, but often stress refers to
strain directional stress or shear stress and pressure (P)
refers to hydrostatic compression.
▪ For small stresses, the strain is elastic
(recoverable when the stress is removed and
linearly proportional to the applied stress).
▪ For larger stresses and other conditions, the
strain can be inelastic, or permanent.
Elasticity is the property of matter that causes it to
resist deformation in volume or shape. Hooke’s law
describes the behavior of elastic materials and
states that for small deformations, the resulting
strain is proportional to the applied stress.

Plasticity, ability of certain solids to flow or to

change shape permanently when subjected to
stresses of intermediate magnitude between those
producing temporary deformation, or elastic
behavior, and those causing failure of the material,
or rupture.
• >Plasticity enables a solid under the action of external forces to
undergo permanent deformation without rupture.
• >Plastic deformation occurs in many metal-forming processes
(rolling, pressing, forging) and in geologic processes (rock folding
and rock flow within the earth under extremely high pressures
and at elevated temperatures).
In elastic deformation, there are various constants that relate the magnitude
of the strain response to the applied stress. These elastic constants include the
following:

(1) Young’s modulus (E) is the ratio of the applied stress to the fractional
extension (or shortening) of the sample length parallel to the tension (or
compression). The strain is the linear change in dimension divided by the
original length.

(2) Shear modulus (μ) is the ratio of the applied stress to the distortion
(rotation) of a plane originally perpendicular to the applied shear stress; it is
also termed the modulus of rigidity.

(3) Bulk modulus (k) is the ratio of the confining pressure to the fractional
reduction of volume in response to the applied hydrostatic pressure. The
volume strain is the change in volume of the sample divided by the original
volume. Bulk modulus is also termed the modulus of incompressibility.

(4) Poisson’s ratio (σp) is the ratio of lateral strain (perpendicular to an applied
stress) to the longitudinal strain (parallel to applied stress).
▪ Strength is the ability of a material to resist an externally
applied load, but
▪ In Rock mechanics, strength is the Force per unit Area
required to bring about rupture in a rock mass at a given
environmental conditions.
▪ The strength of rock is influenced by the mineralogical
composition, shape of grains, texture, crystallinity,
stratification, lamination, modification by heat or pressure,
and other factors. Secondary processes of cementation and
weathering strongly influence rock strength.
▪ Classification of strength: depending upon type of loading
and the stresses, the strength in general may be classified as:
>Compressive Strength
>Tensile Strength, and
>Shear Strength
▪ The compressive strength of a material is a measure
of its ability to resist uniaxial compressive loads
without yielding or fracture.
o Tensile strength of a material is
defined as the maximum
tensile stress which a material
can develop
o In nature rock mass is rarely
subjected to direct tension, but
it is subjected to tensile
stresses
o Rocks are weak in tension
o It mostly deals with the shear strength and
shear behavior of the shearing and weakness
planes of the rock which hold together a rock
specimen.
o It is a vital geomechanics measure, used for
design
Borehole instabilities, breakouts, failure

Reservoir shear and induced seismicity

Casing shear and well collapse

Reactivation of old faults, creation of new ones

Hydraulic fracture in soft, weak reservoirs

Loss of cohesion and sand production

Bit penetration, particularly PCD bits

FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE VELOCITY

BY: KARIZZA G. TAGAO

WAVE VELOCITY

➢Wave velocity in common usage refers to speed and direction.

➢Wave velocity is the velocity with which the wave propagates through the
medium.
➢Wave velocity is also called Phase velocity.
 WAVE VELOCITY

➢Waves velocity is the velocity with which the wave (disturbance) travels in
a medium and particle velocity is the one with which the particle moves
about its mean position.
➢Wave velocity is the velocity of transmission of wave where as the velocity
of particle vibrations.
WAVE VELOCITY
WAVE VELOCITY
The velocity of wave is equal to the product of its wavelength and frequency (number of
vibrations per second) and its independent of its intensity.
FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE VELOCITY

➢The velocity of wave is dependent on four factors:

❖ Wavelength
❖ Frequency
❖ Medium
❖ Temperature
 WAVELENGTH

➢Wavelength is the measure of a complete wave cycle.

➢It can be measured as the distance from crest to crest or from trough to
trough. It is inversely proportional to frequency. This means the longer the
wavelength, the lower the frequency.
➢Formula for calculating the wavelength:
 FREQUENCY

➢Fundamental characteristic of a wave.

➢It is the measure of the number of waves passing through a point in a unit
time. The velocity of wave is the distance travelled by a point on the wave.
In general, for any wave the relation between frequency and velocity is
proportionate.
➢Formula for calculating frequency:
MEDIUM

➢Waves travel through a medium

➢A medium is any substance or region through which a wave is transmitted.
➢The speed is constant in a given medium.
➢As waves travel through a medium two properties affect wave speed;
❖ Density- the higher the density the slower the wave.
❖ Elasticity- waves travel faster through materials that are more elastic.
 TEMPERATURE

➢The speed of waves increase as temperature increases. This is due to the

increased of kinetic energy of the air molecules and decrease in density.
➢Temperature is also a condition that affects the speed of sound. Heat, like sound
is a form of kinetic energy. Molecules at higher temperatures have more energy,
thus they can vibrate faster, sound waves travel more quickly.
➢Formula for calculating temperature;
❖ At a temperature of 293 degrees Kelvin (about 68 degrees F) and with the ideal
gas constant being 8. 314 joules per mole-degree Kelvin, the root mean square
velocity of helium atoms is;
(3x8.314x293/4.002)^(1/2) = 42.7 meters per second
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

➢In Seismic Wave, Temperature tends to lower the speed of seismic waves and
pressure tends to increase the speed. Pressure increases with depth in earth because
the weight of the rocks above gets larger with increasing depth.
➢Usually, the effect of pressure is the larger and in regions of uniform composition,
the velocity generally increases with depth, despite the fact that the increase of
temperature with depth works to lower the wav velocity.
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING!
What is a site investigation?
In order to properly plan and execute a project, an engineer must be well-informed
about the surroundings of the job site. Understanding the physical characteristics and
existing layout of soil materials is critical to successfully break ground on a new
development. Often referred to as soil exploration, site investigation relies on a variety
of field and lab tests to determine the best course of action for any given build.

Before the engineer can design a foundation intelligently, he must have a reasonably
accurate conception of the physical properties and arrangement of the underlying
materials. The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain this essential
information are called soil exploration or site investigation.

According to British Archaeoligical Jobs and Resources.

- A site investigation simply is the process of the collection of information,

the appraisal of data, assessment, and reporting without which the hazards in
the ground beneath the site cannot be known.

According to RSA GEOTECHNICS LTD

- Site investigation is carried out in order to enable a geotechnical and

geoenvironmental assessment of the ground conditions and analysis of the
engineering and environmental considerations related to the proposed
development.

Purpose and Objectives of Site Investigation

In A Client's Guide to Site Investigation, the AGS states that adequate site investigation is of
importance to the civil engineer for the successful completion of any building project,

The design of a structure which is economical and safe to construct, is durable and has low
maintenance costs, depends upon an adequate understanding of the nature of the ground. This
understanding comes from an appreciation of the distribution of the materials in the ground, and
their properties and behaviour under various influences and constraints during the construction
and lifetime of the structure. An adequate and properly structured site investigation is therefore
an essential part of any civil engineering or building project.

The reason for a site investigation is to understand the following:

- The composition of soil layers and bedrock

- Groundwater conditions
 - Durability, compressibility, and strength of soil, rocks, soil strata

- Chemical composition of groundwater on site

- Composition of foundations on nearby site

Background Information before Subsurface Investigation

Before actual field investigation is started, the information should, whenever possible, be
collected on:

1. The type of structure to be built, its intended use;

2. Characteristics of the structure;
3. Starting date;
4. Intended construction method;
5. The estimated period of construction;
6. The probable soil condition at the site, by geological, geotechnical or aerial
analysis;
7. The behavior of existing structures adjacent to the site, as well as other facts
available through local experience.

The Extent of Soil Investigation

Subsurface condition at a site may be relatively uniform or extremely variable and will largely
determine the complexity of the problems to be faced in both design and construction of the
foundations. The subsurface investigation must, therefore, be of sufficient extent to provide
enough information for a thorough understanding of the interaction of proposed foundations and
supporting soil or rock on which to base a safe and economical design.

Depth of Site Investigation

The site investigation should be carried to such a depth that the entire zone of soil or rock
affected by the changes caused by the building or the construction will be adequately explored.
This may be taken as depth at which vertical stress induced by the new construction is smaller
than 10% of the existing overburden stress at that level.

Where the depth of investigation cannot be related to background information, the following
guidelines are suggested.

● It is good to have at least one boring carried to bedrock, or to well below the
anticipated level of influence of the building.
 ● For light structures, insensitive to the settlement, the boring should be to a depth
equal to four times the probable footing width or to a depth of 6m below the
lowest part of the foundation, whichever is deeper.
● For more heavily loaded structures, such as multistory structures and for framed
structures, at least 50% of the borings should be extended to a depth equal to
1.5 times the width of the building below the lowest part of the foundation, and
● Bedrock should be proved by coring into it to a minimum depth of 3m.

Stages of Site Investigation

The approach adopted for a particular site investigation, its extent and the techniques used will
all depend upon the site-specific circumstances, and the experience and judgment of those
involved. There is no single way to carry out an investigation, and inevitably different advisors
will adopt different approaches for any particular project. However, it is usual for the site
investigation to be a phased exercise.

Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists

For any project soil investigation is usually performed in several stages, i.e., during feasibility
and planning stage, before construction and during construction (if required). These are termed
as:

1. Preliminary investigation;
2. Detailed investigation;
3. Supplementary investigation and construction control.

· Preliminary Site Investigation

What are the stages of site investigation? The place to start is with heavy
fact-finding during the preliminary investigation. You will want to gain a firm grasp of the
type of structure being planned, the future use of the structure, and local building codes.
At this point, the geotechnical engineer on the project can take certain actions to save
time and resources. A thorough review of existing data can help cut down on the need
for extensive original research. Geological data can be found through a number of
sources including the engineer should visually inspect the site and the surrounding
area. In many cases, the information gathered from such a trip is invaluable for future
planning. The type of vegetation at a site may in some instances the type of subsoil that
will be encountered. Open cuts near the site provide an indication about the subsoil
stratification. Cracks in the existing wall of nearby structures may indicate settlement
from the possible existence of soft clay layers or the presence of expansive clay soils.

· Detailed Site Investigation

This phase consists of making several test borings at the site and collecting disturbed
and undisturbed soil samples from various depths for visual observation and for
laboratory tests. No hard and first rule exists for determining the number of borings or
the depth to which the test boring is to be advanced. For most buildings, at least one
boring at each corner and one at the center should provide a start. Depending on the
uniformity of the subsoil, additional test borings may be made. The test borings should
extend through unsuitable foundation materials to firm soil layers.

· Supplementary Investigation and Construction Control

The final phase involves analysis and planning based on the results of the previous
phases. The results of the rock, soil, and water samples will be used to determine the
potential for risks. If the chemical composition of the groundwater is found to have any
deteriorating effects, this phase allows for planning to combat the issue. Additionally,
planning for potential earthquakes, groundswells, floods, shrinkage, permafrost, or
erosion will be conducted at this step.

A site investigation is part of the planning stage of any urban development project. It
involves a geotechnical engineer looking at the soil composition of the area and the
strength of the soil and rock there, as well as some other characteristics that could
affect construction or building safety.

• Minimizes Damage

• Saves on Costs

• Helps Determine the Construction Materials

• Increases the Safety of the Project

Minimizes Damage

• If you construct your home on a problematic ground, you'll likely

experience damage in the future. That may be due to a weak foundation that
may not sustain the weight of your home or the pressure of the ground around
the foundation. A suitable foundation designed to withstand the environment will
work to protect your home.

• That makes it essential to have a geotechnical engineer check your site

before the foundation is designed. They'll help identify any risks of constructing at
the site, which can help find the best solution. This may be using a specific
design, materials or treatments, or it may mean finding a more suitable location.

Saves on Costs
One of the best ways to make a site suitable for construction is treating the soil. Therefore, a
site investigation helps to determine whether there's a need to treat the ground. If there is, then
several landowners within that may come together to put resources into the treatment. By doing
it as a group, this will reduce the costs that a single developer would have spent treating the
soil.
Also, treating the ground helps save the money that would have gotten lost should the
construction have continued and complications realized later on. That includes keeping the
maintenance costs that result from weak foundations low.

Helps Determine the Construction Materials

A site investigation helps to determine the most suitable materials to use in construction. Some
materials may not hold onto certain soils for long, which means cracks on the walls or even
floors may appear not long after construction is finished.
Therefore, there's a need to check the soil and decide what material will be best for
construction. An engineer will help to determine this when the results for the soil test are out.
Also, they'll determine how suitable it is to continue with the project generally.
Increases the Safety of the Project
One of the most important reasons why a site investigation is essential is to help determine how
safe it is to move forward with your project. Constructing on certain soils may pose a threat to
the workers and the existing buildings nearby. To avoid any legal implications, conduct a site
investigation with a qualified professional.
The importance of a site investigation cannot be stressed enough. It helps to determine several
aspects of a project, which include lowering costs and improving safety. Every developer should
consider undertaking a site investigation for their next project.
MARCO. B BULAN BSCE – 2A

“GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING”

5.2 GEOLOGICAL METHODS

INTRODUCTION…..
➢ Geological investigations commonly conducted in the agency focus on siting and designing
engineering practices, ranging from high-hazard classification earth fill dams to farm ponds
and animal waste storage or treatment structures. Additionally, geologists investigate
landslides and their potential to occur, structural failures or deficiencies in practices already
built, and participate in stream restoration planning, design, and implementation.
➢ Geologic site investigations and soil mechanics tests are done in sufficient detail and
intensity for planning, design, and implementation of conservation engineering practices.
The procedures and intensity of investigation and the kinds of samples taken therefore vary
from site to site and for the particular purpose or structure.
➢ Geologic investigations may also be accomplished through the use of remote sensing
techniques or other noninvasive methods that characterize mass properties of in site earth
materials. Additionally, topographic, land use, and other earth science information are
available in digital form, allowing advanced analysis of geologic site conditions.
➢ These may be divided into two main groups: the surface investigations and the subsurface
investigations.

➢ These include preparation of topographic maps (if these are not already available) using
the normal mapping techniques. In fact all field surveys begin with the preparation (or
availability) of topographic maps showing elevation contours relative to some datum.
➢ 1.) Aerial Surveys
➢ 2.) Photogeology
➢ 3.) Hydrogeological Surveys
➢ and preparation of photogeological maps are the latest methods of surface investigations.
The entire area involving an engineering study is photographed using sophisticated
cameras and controls from low flying aero planes. These maps are then interpreted to
provide sufficiently accurate geological details of the area surveyed.

➢ is now a branch of geology in its own right and is fast acquiring an important place. Its
scope is enlarged by mapping of vast areas of the globe through satellites. Imageries
obtained from satellite surveys and aerial surveys, when interpreted properly, provide
useful details regarding rock outcrops on the surface with possibilities of estimating their
subsurface configuration.

➢ to obtain hydrogeological details of the area are also conducted partly on the surface
with a view of recording following details that are of immense help in the later studies:
i. Drainage pattern of the area and discharge;
ii. Location and discharge details of springs and other leakage points;
iii. Location of wells and measurements of water levels after intervals to note
aberrations in behavior with time;
iv. Precipitation and evaporation details.
➢ All surface surveys, however carefully carried out, can give only superficial details. These
could broadly be classed as preliminary surveys and have necessarily to be followed by
well-planned subsurface investigations which would provide fairly accurate idea about the
subsurface geological conditions at the most critical locations.

➢ These are accomplished by following two broad methods: direct subsurface explorations
and indirect subsurface explorations. The direct methods involve examination of rocks or
materials of the underground by digging of drill holes, trial pits, adits, shafts, galleries and
exploratory tunnels. In such explorations, both the underground areas are reached for direct
examination and testing or samples are obtained which are examined and tested in the
laboratory. The indirect methods of subsurface explorations are used extensively and
involve application of geophysical techniques for obtaining fairly accurate idea of
subsurface geology.

➢ -A more detailed description of underground conditions at specific locations revealed

with direct investigation methods that are obtain information by physically sampling
or testing soil, rock and groundwater. The sampling or testing devices are inserted into
a borehole advanced into the ground by drilling methods, and either samples are
returned to the surface for evaluation and testing, or the properties of the underground
profile are measured by in-place testing.

➢ The indirect approach to evaluating subsurface conditions includes all methods that
acquire information without physically invading or penetrating the ground surface.
Such methods include interpreting and evaluating aerial photographs, geologic maps,
groundwater contour maps, topographic maps, and other types of published
information, along with geophysical methods.
1.) Identify and delineate geologic units
2.) Describe the units systematically:
• Include information on field identification
• Extent of weathering or density or compressibility
3.) Identify features such as joints, faults, slickensides
4.) Conduct simple (index) tests during investigation
5.) Assess hydrogeologic conditions
6.) Extract samples of geologic units and groundwater for laboratory testing
7.) Install instrumentation
To monitor time dependent changes in sub-surface conditions.
Examples are: Creepmeters, Strain meters and Tiltmeters
 EXPLORATION
TECHNIQUE • KLENT VINCENT
REVILLA

Here starts • MARKLYN GABUYO

the lesson!
 01
EXPLORATION
Introduction
Exploration is the Deposit in order to
process of looking determine whether it
for mineral, coal, can be recovered
oil, or gas deposits. economically.
The information
gathered during
exploration is used
to assess the
location, size, and
quality of the
GEOLOGICAL
MAPPING
Is the process of locating
and identifying rock types
and geological structures
in relation to landforms
and topography. It is
frequently the first method
of exploration used on the
ground, and it can take
place at a local detailed
scale or a regional scale.
DESKTOP Researching and
SURVEY ●
analyzing previous
company exploration
reports, exploration
data, and published
geological information
are all part of desktop
surveys.
● Before beginning any
actual field work, an
exploration company or
prospector can make an
informed decision using
this process.
GEOPHYSICAL ● Geophysical surveys can
SURVEYS help identify resources
without the need for
sampling and are
typically performed with
minimal surface
disturbance.
● Geophysical surveys can
be carried out from the
air (airborne
geophysical surveys) or
on the ground (ground
geophysical
surveys)(ground based
geophysical surveys)
 Geophysical surveys of various types measures various
physical properties of the Earth and use a variety of
applications and equipment such as:

• AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICAL • RADIOMETRIC GEOPHYSICAL

SURVEYS SURVEYS
• MAGNETIC GEOPHYSICAL • GROUND BASED SURVEYS
SURVEYS

• GRAVITY SURVEYS
• ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEYS • SEISMIC SURVEYS
• INDUCED POLARISATION • DRILLHOLE SURVEYS
SURVEYS
GEOCHEMICAL
SURVEYS
● Soil, rocks, and/or
sediment samples are
typically collected as
part of the surveys.
These samples are sent
to a laboratory for
analysis in order to
identify potential
mineralization areas.
 • SOIL SAMPLING • ROCK CHIP SAMPLING

• STREAM SEDIMENT SAMPLING • CHANNEL SAMPLING

DRILLING ● Drilling is frequently
METHODS used as part of an
exploration program to
obtain more detailed
information about the
rock beneath the ground
● Most drilling is done to
retrieve a sample that
can be chemically
analyzed for a specific
resource and used to
identify the type of
rock material that
exists at a given depth
below the surface.
 • AUGER DRILLING • AIR DRILLING

• PERCUSSION DRILLING • DIAMOND DRILLING

Thanks!
Do you have any
questions?
Klertrevilla.kvr@gmail.c
om
09350524562
Two distinct techniques are included under thermal method
 SEISMIC AND
ELECTRICAL
METHODS
BY: SHARLANE JOY V. NEPOMUCENO
AND
RICA MAE D. LAZARAN
SEISMIC METHODS
• are the most commonly conducted geophysical surveys for
engineering investigations. Seismic methods depend upon velocities of
acoustical energy in earth materials. Accordingly, they involve the
generation of a short pulse of seismic energy and the permanent
recording of the arrival of seismic pulse at distant locations, with time
intervals after the pulse instant determined to millisecond accuracy.
• Some types of explosive or the impact of a mass furnishes the energy
which is detected by sensitive seismometers operating with electronic
amplifiers and a suitable recorder.
Seismic Waves
• Any mechanical vibration is initiated by a source and travels
to the location where the vibration is noted.
• The vibration is merely a change in the stress state due to a
disturbance.
• The vibration emanates in all directions that support
displacement. It readily passes from one medium to
another and from solids to liquids or gasses and in reverse.
• The direction of travel is called the ray, ray vector, or ray
path. Since a source produces motion in all directions the
locus of first disturbances will form a spherical shell or
wave front in a uniform material.
 Two major classes of Seismic waves
1. Body waves- which pass through the volume of
a material. These are the fastest traveling of all
seismic waves and are called compressional or
pressure or primary wave (P-wave).
a. P-waves travel through all media that support
seismic waves; air waves or noise in gasses,
including the atmosphere. Compressional waves in
fluids, e.g., water and air, are commonly referred to
as acoustic waves.
b. The second wave type is the secondary or transverse or shear
wave (S-wave). S-waves travel slightly slower than P-waves in
solids. S-waves have particle motion perpendicular to the
propagating direction, like the obvious movement of a rope as a
displacement speeds along its length. These transverse waves can
only transit material that has shear strength. S-waves therefore do
not exist in liquids and gasses, as these media have no shear strength.
2. Surface waves- are produced by surface impacts,
explosions, and waveform changes at boundaries. Surface
waves travel slower than body waves. Two recognized
vibrations, which exist only at "surfaces" or interfaces, are
Love and Rayleigh waves.
a. Love waves- A type of seismic surface wave in which
particles move with a side-to-side motion perpendicular to
the main propagation of the earthquake. The amplitude of
this motion decreases with depth. Love waves cause the
rocks they pass through to change in shape. Love waves
have particle displacement similar to SH-waves.
b. Rayleigh waves- an undulating wave that travels over the surface
of a solid, especially of the ground in an earthquake, with a speed
independent of wavelength, the motion of the particles being in
ellipses. A point in the path of a Rayleigh wave moves back, down,
forward, and up repetitively in an ellipse like ocean waves.
Surface waves
• are produced by surface impacts, explosions, and
waveform changes at boundaries. Love and Rayleigh
waves are also portions of the surface wave train in
earthquakes. These surface waves may carry greater energy
content than body waves. These wave types arrive last,
following the body waves, but can produce larger
displacements in surface structures. Therefore, surface
waves may cause more damage from earthquake
vibrations.
Table 1. Typical/representative field values of
Vp,Pb and n for various materials
• Data Acquisition
• Digital electronics have continued to allow the production of better seismic
equipment. Newer equipment is hardier, more productive, and able to
store greater amounts of data. The choice of seismograph,
sensors(geophones), storage medium, and source of the seismic wave
depend on the survey being undertaken.

Sources. The seismic source may be a hammer striking the ground or an

aluminum plate or weighted plank, drop weights of varying sizes, rifle
shot, a harmonic oscillator, waterborne mechanisms, or explosives. The
energy disturbance for seismic work is most often called the "shot," an
archaic term from petroleum seismic exploration.
Geophones. The sensor receiving seismic energy is the
geophone (hydrophone in waterborne surveys) or
phone. These sensors are either accelerometers or velocity
transducers, and convert ground movement into a
voltage. Typically, the amplification of the ground is many
orders of magnitude, but accomplished on a relative
basis. The absolute value of particle acceleration cannot be
determined, unless the geophones are calibrated.
Seismographs. The equipment that records input geophone voltages
in a timed sequence is the seismograph. Current practice uses
seismographs that store the channels' signals as digital data at discrete
time. Earlier seismographs would record directly to paper or
photographic film. Stacking, inputting, and processing the vast volumes
of data and archiving the information for the client virtually require
digital seismographs.
A portion of the seismic energy striking an interface between two differing materials
will be reflected from the interface.
The ratio of the reflected energy to incident energy is called the reflection
coefficient.
The reflection coefficient is defined in terms of the densities and seismic velocities of
the two materials as:

where
R = reflection coefficient,
pb1,pb2 = densities of the first and second layers, respectively,
V1,V2 = seismic velocities of the first and second layers, respectively.
 ELECTRICAL METHODS
- Electrical geophysical prospecting methods detect the surface
effects produced by electric current flow in the ground. Using
electrical methods, one may measure potentials, currents, and
electromagnetic fields that occur naturally or are introduced
artificially in the ground. In addition, the measurements can be
made in a variety of ways to determine a variety of results. There is
a much greater variety of electrical and electromagnetic techniques
available than in the other prospecting methods, where only a single
field of force or anomalous property is used.
• Electrical Properties of Rocks
• All materials, including soil and rock, have an intrinsic
property, resistivity, that governs the relation between the
current density and the gradient of the electrical
potential. Variations in the resistivity of earth materials,
either vertically or laterally, produce variations in the relations
between the applied current and the potential distribution as
measured on the surface, and thereby reveal something about
the composition, extent, and physical properties of the
subsurface materials.
• In an electrically conductive body that lends itself to description as a one-dimensional
body, such as an ordinary wire, the relationship between the current and potential
distribution is described by Ohm's law:
where;

The resistance (R) of a length of

wire is given by

where
ρ = resistivity of the medium composing
the wire,
L = length,
A = area of the conducting cross section.
Since the conduction of current in soil and rock is through the electrolyte contained
in the pores, resistivity is governed largely by the porosity, or void ratio, of the
material and the geometry of the pores. Pore space may be in the form of
intergranular voids, joint or fracture openings, and blind pores, such as bubbles or
vugs. Only the interconnected pores effectively contribute to conductivity, and the
geometry of the interconnections, or the tortuosity of current pathways, further
affects it. The resistivity ρ of a saturated porous material can be expressed as

where
F = formation factor,
ρW = resistivity of pore water
The formation factor is a function only of the properties of the porous
medium, primarily the porosity and pore geometry. An empirical
relation, Archie's Law, is sometimes used to describe this relationship:
(4)
where

a and m = empirical constants that depend on the geometry of the

pores,
φ = porosity of the material.
Table 1. Typical electrical resistivities of earth materials.

.
Classification of Electrical Methods
The number of electrical methods used since the first application around 1830
(Parasnis 1962) is truly large; they include self-potential (SP), telluric currents
and magnetotellurics, resistivity, equipotential and mise-à-la-masse,
electromagnetic (EM), and induced polarization (IP)

• The self-potential (SP) technique is a passive electrical

geophysical method based upon the measurement of
spontaneous or natural electrical potential developed in
the earth due to: 1) electrochemical interactions
between minerals and subsurface fluids; 2)
electrokinetic processes resulting from the flow of
ionic fluids; or 3) thermoelectric mechanisms from
temperature gradients in the subsurface
• Telluric current, also called Earth Current,
natural electric current flowing on and beneath the surface
of the Earth and generally following a direction parallel to
the Earth’s surface.
• Resistivity is a measure of the resistance of a given size of
a specific material to electrical conduction. Resistivity may
also be referred to as the specific electrical resistance, or
volume resistivity.

• Equipotential method was one of the first electrical

methods and was used as far back as 1912 by
Schlumberger. As explained elsewhere in this volume,
when electric energy is applied to two points at the ground
surface, an electric current will flow between them because
of their difference in electrical potential.
• Mise-a-la-masse, is still used in mining exploration and occasionally
in geotechnical applications. The name, which may be translated as
"excitation of the mass," describes an electrode array, which uses the
conductive mass under investigation as one of the current
electrodes. In mining, the conductive mass is a mineral body
exposed in a pit or drill hole.
• Electromagnetic (EM) methods use transmitters to create
strong time-varying primary magnetic fields that induce
electrical currents to flow in conductive rocks. These
currents, in turn, create secondary electromagnetic fields
that are detected by receiver antennae.
• Induced polarization (IP) and resistivity are two electrical
properties measured in near-surface sediments as indirect
hydrocarbon indicators. They are usually measured at the same
time by inserting two electrodes into the earth surface and
passing a current through them.
THANK YOU
AND
GOD BLESS!
TOPIC : DIRECT PENETRATION
REPORTER : RIAN DALE C. MALAZZAB BSCE-2A

1. Definition

1.1. Direct penetration is a method that provides a more detailed

description of underground conditions at specific locations to obtain
information by physically sampling or testing rocks, soils, and
groundwater.

1.2. Direct penetration includes taking soil samples at the strata of

rocks and soils where it will be tested either field test or laboratory
test, or both to determine its strength and other relevant geotechnical
properties.

2. Inclusion

2.1. Trenching – is a pit that is elongated over some distance in order

to establish how the surface conditions change over various parts of the
work.

2.2. Pitting – test pits are dug either manually or with an excavator in
order to reveal the subsurface conditions to the depth desired.
3. Types

3.1. All about Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

i. A dynamic method in which a 51mm external diameter split tube
sampler connected to drilling rods, is driven into the ground
by a series of hammer blows delivered at the surface.

ii. A hammer of 63.5 kg (140 lbs) is dropped repeatedly from a

height of 76cm (30 in) driving the sampler into the ground
until reaching a depth of 15cm (6 in)

iii. This procedure is repeated two more times until a total

penetration of 45cm (18 in) is achieved.

iv. The number of blows required to penetrate the first 15cm is

called “seating drive” and the total number of blows
required to penetrate the remaining 30cm depth is called
“standard penetration resistance.”

v. Used to indicate relative in-place density of cohesionless

and relative in-place consistency of cohesive foundation
materials for logging.
vi. It is most applicable to fine-grained soils that are at or
near saturation and to fairly clean, coarse-grained sands and
gravels at variable moisture contents.
 vii. Although the SPT provides only a very approximate guide to
the properties of sands, clays and weathered rocks, it is
widely used since it is simple and cheap to carry out.

viii. It provides a measure of the resistance of soil to the

penetration of the sampler. It also furnishes distributed
samples of the material penetrated for identification,
classification, and other test purposes.

3.2. All about Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

i. CPT is an in-situ test that is used to identify the soil type.
In this test, a conical point is driven into the ground by
means of a steady pressure on the top of the rods.

ii. A 60° cone-shaped point, with a base area of 1000mm2, is

driven into the ground at a constant rate of 20 mm/s while
the resistance to penetration is measured.

iii. The test is particularly suited to the investigation of soft

clays, silts, and sands in which undistributed sampling is
very difficult.

iv. Since no borehole is required, the test is fast, effective,

and relatively inexpensive to perform.
 v. CPTs are a quick, and convenient method of investigating
soils, particularly when used in conjunction with boreholes
from which the samples or core are obtained.

vi. They can be used to log the distribution and thicknesses of

the various soil layers over an area while also providing
information about their geotechnical properties.

vii. Cone penetration testing with modern equipment provides

continuous readings of point load or tip resistance, sleeve
friction, and porewater pressure.

a. Tip resistance is theoretically related to undrained

shear strength of a saturated, cohesive material, and
measured with an embedded load cell.

b. Sleeve friction is theoretically related to the

friction of horizon being penetrated and is measured
using tension load cells embedded in the sleeve.
CORE BORING
REPORTERS:
MYDEE M. MADDAWIN
TYRELL VON ALINDAYU
 ➢ This is the method commonly used to drill
through the hard rock formation.
➢ Core boring is sampling technique used research

CORE
minerals resources in the subsoil by boring wells
in order to analyze the ground, and for other

BORING
digging activities and other engineering
purposes.
➢ In core boring a cylinder shaped sample of rock
is extracted, which is known as a core. From this
cores it is possible to obtain amount of
information of the climate variation in the past.
➢ In the ground at a construction site, a core
obtained with a rotating tool; used to determine
the nature and/or thickness of the underlying
rock.
 ➢ Are small portions of a formation taken
CORE from an existing well and used for
geological analysis.
SAMPLES ➢ The sample is analyzed to determine
porosity, permeability, fluid content,
geologic age, and probable productivity of
oil from the site.
 CORE BARREL

➢ The equipment used to form the

boring is called core barrel.
➢ It consist of a hardened steel rod with
a tough cutting bit, possessing
commercial diamond or tungsten
carbide chips.
➢ Core barrel retains rock core samples
from drilling operations.
HOW DOES A CORE
BARREL WORK?

The core barrel consist of an inner and outer

barrel and a core catcher. These barrels are
attached to a swivel that enables the inner
barrel to remain stationary while the outer
barrel rotates with the coring bit. Drilling fluid
can circulate between the inner and outer
barrels.
SINGLE TUBE CORE SINGLE TUBE CORE
BARREL
BARREL

3 TYPES OF CORE DOUBLE TUBE CORE

BARREL BARREL

TRIPLE TUBE CORE

BARREL

LAST Y
REVEN
SINGLE TUBE CORE
BARREL

➢ Is a tabular piece manufactured from single tube alloy

steel. Water is constantly in touch with the core thus
eroding the core.
➢ Core recovery is lowest
➢ Is primary used for core drilling in continuous hard rock
formations or for non core recovery is not important.
➢ Often used as starter when beginning core operation
➢ Most rugged, least expensive
DOUBLE TUBE CORE
BARREL

➢ This core barrel is specially designed for taking

undisturbed sample of soft and easily eroded materials,
without washing out the core.
➢ Double tube core barrel is the standard.
➢ This core barrel is specially designed for taking
undisturbed sample of soft and easily eroded materials,
without washing out the core.
TRIPLE TUBE CORE
BARREL

➢ Is used for exploration of dams, bridges, geotechnical

investigation, diamond core drilling, soil investigation,
testing of foundation of high rise buildings as well as
mineral exploration for obtaining nearly 100% core
recovery
➢ Good for obtaining core samples in fractured rock and
highly weathered rocks.
➢ Outer core barrel for initial cut and second barrel to cut
finer size. Third barrel to retain cored samples.
➢ Reduces frictional heat that may damage samples
LOGGING OF
CORE
BY: KRISTEL A. BAINGAN BSCE-2A
WHAT IS CORE LOGGING?

• Is a highly specialized skill requiring careful observation and accurate recording.

Geophysical logging of the hole created in the drilling process is sometimes done without
the collection of the core.
• Logging techniques are extremely useful, dependable, and accurate for lithologic
identification, formation evaluation, and depositional environment analysis.
CORE LOGGING
CORE LOGGING
CORE LOGGING
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF CORE LOGS IN
CONSTRUCTION?
• The ability of the foundation to accommodate structural loads depends primarily on the
deformability, strenght, and groundwater conditions of the foundation materials. The
remediation of a hazardous waste site can be formulated only by proper characterization
of the site. Clear and accurate portrayal of geologic design and evaluation data and
analytical procedures is paramount data report.
• For engineering geology purposes, the basic objectives of logging core are to provide a
factural accurate, amd concise record of tge important geological and physical
characteristics of engineering significance.
PURPOSE, USE, AND IMPORTANCE OF
QUALITY CORE LOGGING
Logs provide fundamental data on which conclusions regarding a site are based. Additional
exploration or testing, final design criteria, treatment design, methoof construction, and
eventually the evaluation of structure performance may depend on core logs. A log may
present important data for immediate interpretations or use, or may provide data that are
used over a period of years.The log may be used to delineate existing foundation
conditions, changes over time to the foundation or structure, serve as part of contract
documents, and may be used as evidence in negotiations and/or in court to resolve
contract or possible responsible party (PRP)disputes.
PURPOSE, USE, AND IMPORTANCE OF QUALITY
CORE LOGGING

Empirical design methods, such as the Rock Mass Rating System Geomechanics
Classification (RMR) and Q-system Classification (Q), are commonly used for design of
under ground structures and are coming into common use for other structures as well. If
these methods are used, the necessary data must be collected during core logging.
If hazardous waste site characterization is the primary purpose of the drilling, the log
should concentrate on providing data for that type of investigation.
• For identifying lithologies there are a number of different available logging techniques, tools, and instruments.
In some cases a single tool is lowered into the hole and measurements made as a function of depth during
the lowering and retrieving process. At other times several instruments are lowered together in the form of
a package. Common logging techniques include the following. The spontaneous potential log measures the
natural currents developed at lithologic contacts. The natural gamma ray log measures the natural gamma
rays emitted by isotopes of uranium, thorium, and potassium. Bulk density can be determined by using either
the gamma-gamma or the neutron tool. Acoustic velocity can be measured by a tool that measures the time
required for a signal to travel between an in-hole transmitter and receiver. The electrical resistivity of a
formation can be measured by determining the current flow between an electrode in the logging tool and
another electrode in the ground at the surface. The later log measures the electrical conductivity of a bed.
Borehole cameras are sometimes used as part of the logging process.
LOGGING OF CORE

VERNADETH T. GARCILIAN
BSCE 2A
 CORE LOGGING
• Core logging is the systematic recording and measuring of as much
information as possible/required to determine the lithology (rock types),
mineralogy, potential geological history, structure and alteration zones
through a tiny piece of cylindrical rock drilled and removed from a potential
mineral deposit.
• This is NOT meant to be a step by step guide, more of an overview of the
procedures
• More technical procedures and information will be provided and linked as it is
prepared.
 CORE LOGGING

• Is a highly specialized skill requiring careful observation and accurate

recording.
• Logging techniques are extremely useful, dependable, and accurate for
lithologic identification, formation evaluation, and
depositional environment analysis.
!! For identifying lithologies there are a number of different available logging
techniques, tools, and instruments!!
 DRILL CORE
• Drill core comes in a array of sizes, each with its own purpose as well as
pros and cons.
• NQ sized is the most common drill core used in North America.
• BQ core (smaller) tends to still be used for some exploration as the drills
are smaller/lighter, it still provides an OK sample size and is relatively cheap
to drill.
• HQ and larger cores are great at shallow massive sulphide type deposits
where they provide a great sample size.
LET’S START LOGGING
SOME CORE
• Mark Some Meterage On Core
• Start with the first box and measure one meter intervals starting from the tags.
• Logging the lithology
• Start with generics and try to get specific especially around units of interest.
• Log some alteration
• Structure
 COMMON LOGGING TECHNIQUES

1. The spontaneous potential log measures the natural currents developed at

lithologic contacts.
2. The natural gamma ray log measures the natural gamma rays emitted by
isotopes of uranium, thorium, and potassium.
3. Bulk density can be determined by using either the gamma-gamma or
the neutron tool.
4. Acoustic velocity can be measured by a tool that measures the time
required for a signal to travel between an in-hole transmitter and receiver.
5. The electrical resistivity of a formation can be measured by determining the
current flow between an electrode in the logging tool and another electrode in
the ground at the surface.
6. The later log measures the electrical conductivity of a bed.
7. Borehole cameras are sometimes used as part of the logging process.
GEOLOGICAL CORE LOGGING
 LOGGING OF CORES
Vernadeth T. Garcilian

Core logging - is the systematic recording and measuring of as much information

as possible/required to determine the lithology (rock types), mineralogy, potential
geological history, structure and alteration zones.

- Considered as the primary method in determining the grade, size, and mine ability
of a potential mineral deposit.
This is not meant to be a step by step guide, more on overview of procedures.
Is a highly specialized skill requiring careful observation and accurate recording.
Logging techniques are extremely useful, dependable, and accurate for lithologic
identification, formation evaluation, and depositional environment analysis.
!! For identifying lithologies there are a number of different available logging
techniques, tools, and instruments!!
Drill core comes in an array of sizes, each with its own purpose as well as pros and
cons.
NQ sized is the most common drill core used in North America. This
provides a nearly 2 inch in diameter core meaning it is big enough to see
most structures, provide good sized samples yet thin enough to be
economically drilled quickly in multiple hard rock types and to great depths.
BQ core (smaller) tends to still be used for some exploration as the drills are
smaller/lighter, it still provides an OK sample size and is relatively cheap to drill.
HQ and larger cores are great at shallow massive sulphide type deposits
where they provide a great sample size.
Logging some core
• Mark Some Meterage on Core
• Start with the first box and measure one-meter intervals starting from
the tags.
• 15 feet/4.57 meters is the typical length of a core barrel.
 • Logging the lithology
• Start with generics and try to get specific especially around units of
interest.
• Groupers are core loggers who will tend to group similar units more
readily, especially in known ore zone areas.
• Separators’ logs are highly detailed and this type of logging is a must
for new logging areas without well-defined ore zones.
• Log some alteration

• Alteration is most easily noted by color or hardness changes.

• Sericite alteration makes the core paler in most cases.
Silicification makes the core harder in most cases (More quartz).
Talc alteration makes the core softer, chlorotic/fuchsite alteration
makes things green.
• Sometimes the texture changes with the mineral assemblage, at
Musselwhite the iron formation alters to biotite-chlorite signifying
a potential ore body.

• Structure

• Logging structure is probably the harder thing to log especially

if you have small scale features.
• Large structure components like Fault Gouges are easier,
lithological contacts are easy, however small micro-faulting and
micro-structure may be difficult to discern.
COMMON LOGGING TECHNIQUES
1. The spontaneous potential log measures the natural currents
developed at lithologic contacts.
2. The natural gamma ray log measures the natural gamma rays emitted by
isotopes of uranium, thorium, and potassium.
3. Bulk density can be determined by using either the gamma-gamma or
the neutron tool.
4. Acoustic velocity can be measured by a tool that measures the time required
for a signal to travel between an in-hole transmitter and receiver.
5. The electrical resistivity of a formation can be measured by determining the
current flow between an electrode in the logging tool and another electrode
in the ground at the surface.
6. The later log measures the electrical conductivity of a bed.
7. Borehole cameras are sometimes used as part of the logging process.