There are two main types of faults:

 symmetric faults: the power system remains

balanced; these faults are relatively rare, but
are the easiest to analyze, so we’ll consider
them first.
 unsymmetrical faults: the power system is no
longer balanced; very common, but more
difficult to analyze.
Fault analysis is a short-circuit study or short-circuit
analysis. The important of fault analysis includes:
 To determine the value of voltages and currents at
different points of the power system during the fault. 
(for 3ϕ).
 Determination of the ratings of the required circuit
breaker.  (SCC or SCMVA).
 Selection of appropriate protective equipment.
The easiest method to analyze
unbalanced fault currents and
voltages is through the use of
symmetrical components.
The principle of symmetrical components is based
on the fact that, an unbalanced 3-phase power
system can be decomposed into 3 balanced systems
each containing 3-phases that are referred to as the
symmetrical components of the unbalanced system.
The three-phase unsymmetrical fault
currents and voltages are transformed
into the set of symmetrical components
known as positive-sequence, negative-
sequence and zero-sequence currents
and voltages.
According to Fortescue’s theorem, three unbalanced phasors of a
three-phase system can be resolved into three balanced systems of
phasors as follows:
1. Positive-sequence components consisting of three phasors
equal in magnitude, displaced in phase from each other by 120°,
and having the same phase sequence as the original phasors.
2. Negative-sequence components consisting of three phasors
equal in magnitude, displaced in phase from each other by 120°,
and having phase sequence opposite to the original phasors.
3. Zero-sequence components consisting of three phasors equal
in magnitude, and with zero phase displacement from each other.
The positive phasors The negative phasors The zero phasors

A-B-C A-C-B
The positive phasors The negative phasors The zero phasors

A-B-C A-C-B A-B-C

The positive phasors The negative phasors The zero phasors
The original phasors The positive phasors The negative phasors

VC= Vc0 +Vc1+Vc2 Vc1=aVa1 Vb2=aVa2

VA= Va0 +Va1+Va2

Va1
Va2
Vb1=a2Va1 Vc2=a2Va2

The zero sequence phasors

VB= Vb0 +Vb1+Vb2
Va0 , Vb0 , Vc0
The original phasors The positive phasors The negative phasors

VA= Va0 +Va1+Va2 Va1 Va2

VB= Vb0 +Vb1+Vb2 Vb1=a2Va1 Vb2=aVa2
VC= Vc0 +Vc1+Vc2 Vc1=aVa1 Vc2=a2Va2

The zero sequence phasors 𝑽𝑨 𝑽𝒂𝟎

1 1 1
Va0 =Vb0=Vc0 𝑽𝑩 = 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑽𝒂𝟏
𝑽𝑪 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝒂𝟐
The original phasors The positive phasors The negative phasors

IA= Ia0 +Ia1+Ia2 Ia1 Ia2

IB= Ib0 +Ib1+Ib2 Ib1=a2Ia1 Ib2=aIa2
IC= Ic0 +Ic1+Ic2 Ic1=aIa1 Ic2=a2Ia2

The zero sequence phasors 𝑰𝑨 𝑰𝒂𝟎

1 1 1
Ia0 =Ib0=Ic0 𝑰𝑩 = 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑰𝒂𝟏
𝑰𝑪 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒂𝟐
Synthesis

𝑽𝑨 1 1 1 𝑽𝒂𝟎 1 1 1
𝑽𝑩 = 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑽𝒂𝟏 𝐴 = 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂
𝑽𝑪 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝒂𝟐 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐

𝑽𝒂𝟎 1 1 1 𝑽𝑨
Analysis

1 𝟐 1 1 1
𝑽𝒂𝟏 = 1 𝒂 𝒂 𝑽𝑩
𝑽𝒂𝟐 3
1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑽𝑪 𝐴−1 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐
1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂
𝑽𝑨𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑽𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝑽𝟎𝟏𝟐 = (𝑨−𝟏 )𝑽𝑨𝑩𝑪
 𝑰𝑨 𝑰𝒂𝟎
Synthesis

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑰𝑩 = 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑰𝒂𝟏 𝐴 = 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂
𝟐
𝑰𝑪 1 𝒂 𝒂 𝑰𝒂𝟐 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐

𝑰𝒂𝟎 1 1 1 1 𝑰𝑨
Analysis

𝑰𝒂𝟏 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝑩 1 1 1
3 𝐴−1 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐
𝑰𝒂𝟐 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑰𝑪
1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂
𝑰𝑨𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑰𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝑰𝟎𝟏𝟐 = (𝑨−𝟏 )𝑰𝑨𝑩𝑪
 𝑰𝒂𝟎 1 1 1 1 𝑰𝑨
𝑰𝒂𝟏 = 1 𝒂 𝟐 𝑰𝑩
𝒂
3
𝑰𝒂𝟐 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑰𝑪
1
𝑰𝒂𝟎 = 𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪
3
𝟑𝑰𝒂𝟎 = 𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪 = 𝑰𝒏

Relationship Between Zero Sequence Currents and Neutral Current.

Obtain the symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced currents:
𝑰𝑨 𝟏. 𝟔∠𝟐𝟓° IA
𝑰𝑩 = 𝟏. 𝟎∠𝟏𝟖𝟎° IA
𝑰𝑪 𝟎. 𝟗∠𝟏𝟑𝟐° IA

Solution:

𝑰𝒂𝟎 1 1 1 1 𝑰𝑨 1 1 1 1 𝟏. 𝟔∠𝟐𝟓° 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟏∠𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟓°

𝑰𝒂𝟏 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝑩 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝟏. 𝟎∠𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟑∠ − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓°
3 3
𝑰𝒂𝟐 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑰𝑪 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝟎. 𝟗∠𝟏𝟑𝟐° 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟐∠𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟐°
Obtain the original unbalanced currents:
𝑰𝒂𝟎 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟏∠𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟓°
𝑰𝒂𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟑∠ − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓°
𝑰𝒂𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟐∠𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟐°
Obtain the original unbalanced voltages.
Solution:

𝑰𝑨 1 1 1 𝑰𝒂𝟎 1 1 1 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟏∠𝟗𝟔. 𝟒𝟓° 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗𝟗∠𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟏°

𝑰𝑩 = 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑰𝒂𝟏 = 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟑∠ − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓° = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗∠ − 𝟏𝟕𝟗. 𝟗𝟗°
𝑰𝑪 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒂𝟐 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎𝟐∠𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟐° 𝟎. 𝟗∠𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟗𝟗°
The equivalent balanced three-phase networks
obtained from the symmetrical components are
known as sequence networks, positive-sequence,
negative-sequence and zero-sequence networks.
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES
 The impedance offered to the flow of positive-sequence
current is known as positive-sequence impedance (Z1).
Type equation
 The impedance offered here.
to the flow of negative-sequence
current is known as negative-sequence impedance (Z2).
 The impedance offered to the flow of zero-sequence
current is known as zero-sequence impedance (Z0).
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
To To analyzed
analyse an unsymmetrical
unsymmetrical faults,fault,
we we must three
construct
construct
different three different
per-phase per-phase
equivalent circuits.equivalent circuits
positive-sequence
Positive-sequence network:
network: per-phase
per-phase equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit containing only positive sequence impedance
containing only positive sequence impedance and sources. and
sources
Negative sequence network: per-phase equivalent circuit
negative
containing sequence
only negative network: per-phase equivalent
sequence impedances.
circuit containing only negative sequence impedances
Zero-sequence network: per-phase equivalent circuit
zero-sequence network: per-phase
containing only zero-sequence impedance. equivalent circuit
containing only zero-sequence impedance
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

In=0
Type equation here.

𝑽𝒂𝟎 𝑬𝒂 𝑬𝒂 𝟎
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑽𝒂𝟏 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑬𝒃 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝑬𝒂 = 𝑬𝒂
3 3
𝑽𝒂𝟐 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝑬𝒄 1 𝒂𝟐 𝒂 𝒂𝑬𝒂 𝟎
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Type equation here.

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑬𝒂 − 𝒁𝟏 𝑰𝟏
A synchronous machine as seen by positive-sequence currents.
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Type equation here.

𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎 − 𝒁𝟐 𝑰𝟐
A synchronous machine as seen by the negative-sequence currents.
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Type equation here.

𝑽𝟎 = 𝟎 − 𝒁𝟎 𝑰𝟎
A synchronous machine as seen by the zero-sequence currents.
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Type equation here.

𝑽 𝟎 = 𝟎 − 𝒁 𝟎 𝑰𝟎 𝑽 𝟏 = 𝑬𝒂 − 𝒁 𝟏 𝑰 𝟏 𝑽 𝟐 = 𝟎 − 𝒁 𝟐 𝑰𝟐
The above equations can be applied to any generator that carries
unbalanced currents and are the starting point for calculations for
any type of fault.
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Type equation here.

𝑽 𝟎 = 𝟎 − 𝒁 𝟎 𝑰𝟎 𝑽 𝟏 = 𝑬𝒂 − 𝒁 𝟏 𝑰 𝟏 𝑽 𝟐 = 𝟎 − 𝒁 𝟐 𝑰𝟐

𝑽𝟎 𝟎 𝒁𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝑰𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝑬𝒂 − 𝟎 𝒁𝟏 𝟎 𝑰𝟏
𝑽𝟐 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝒁𝟐 𝑰𝟐
 FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

In order to calculate a fault current using the method of

symmetrical components, it is essential to determine the individual
sequence impedances and combine these to make up the correct
Type equation here.
sequence networks.
Then, for each type of a fault, the appropriate combination of
sequence networks is formed in order to obtain the relationships
between fault currents and voltages.
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

Single line-to-ground fault

Type equation here.

𝑽 𝒂 = 𝒁 𝒇 𝑰𝒂
 FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

𝑰𝟎 1 1 1 1 𝑰𝒂 1 1 1 1 𝑰𝒂 𝑰
1 𝒂
𝑰𝟏 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒃 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝟎 = 𝑰𝒂
𝑰𝟐 3 𝟐 𝑰𝒄 3 𝟐 3 𝑰
1 𝒂 𝒂 1 𝒂 𝒂 𝟎 𝒂

𝑰𝒂 Type equation here.

𝑰𝟎 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰𝒂 = 𝟑𝑰𝟎
𝟑

𝑽𝒂 = 𝑽 𝟎 + 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝒂 = 𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝒂 = 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎

𝑽𝟎 + 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

𝑽𝟎 + 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎

−𝒁𝟎 𝑰𝟎 + 𝑬𝒂 − Type
𝒁𝟏 𝑰𝟎equation
− 𝒁𝟏 𝑰𝟎here.
= 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎

𝑬𝒂
∗ 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = ∗
𝒁𝟎 + 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝟏 + 𝟑𝒁𝒇
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
𝑬𝒂
𝑰𝟎 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 =
𝒁𝟎 + 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝟏 + 𝟑𝒁𝒇

Type equation here.

FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

line-to-line fault

Type equation here.

𝑰𝒃 + 𝑰𝒄 = 𝟎 𝑽 𝒃 − 𝑽 𝒄 = 𝒁 𝒇 𝑰𝒃
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

𝑰𝟎 1 1 1 1 𝑰𝒂 1 1 1 1 𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒃 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒃
𝑰𝟐 3 𝟐 𝑰𝒄 3 𝟐 −𝑰𝒃
1 𝒂 𝒂 1 𝒂 𝒂
𝟏
Type equation
𝟐 here. 𝟏 𝟐
𝑰𝟎 = 0 𝑰𝟏 = 𝒂 − 𝒂 𝑰𝒃 𝑰𝟐 = − 𝒂 − 𝒂 𝑰𝒃
𝟑 𝟑
𝑰𝟏 = − 𝑰𝟐 𝑽 𝒃 − 𝑽 𝒄 = 𝒁 𝒇 𝑰𝒃
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑𝒁 𝒇 𝑰 𝟏
𝑽𝟎 + 𝒂 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒂𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟎 + 𝒂𝑽𝟏 + 𝒂 𝑽𝟐 =
𝒂 − 𝒂𝟐
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
𝒁 𝒇 𝑰𝟏
𝑽𝟎 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒂𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟎 + 𝒂𝑽𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝟐 =
𝒂 − 𝒂𝟐
𝟐
𝒁 𝒇 𝑰𝟏
𝒂 − 𝒂 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐
𝒂 − 𝒂
Type equation here.
𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟏 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟏
𝑬𝒂 − 𝒁𝟏 𝑰𝟏 − 𝒁𝟐 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐 𝟐
=
𝒂−𝒂 𝒂 −𝒂 𝟑
𝑬𝒂
∗ 𝑰𝟏 = − 𝑰𝟐 = ∗ 𝑰𝟏 = − 𝑰𝟐
𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝟐 + 𝒁𝒇
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
𝑬𝒂
∗ 𝑰𝟏 = − 𝑰𝟐 = ∗
𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝟐 + 𝒁𝒇

Type equation here.

 FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Double line-to-ground fault

Type equation here.

𝑽𝒃 = 𝑽𝒄 = 𝒁𝒇 (𝑰𝒃 + 𝑰𝒄 )
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

𝑰𝟎 1 1 1 1 𝑰𝒂 1 1 1 1 𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒃 = 1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 𝑰𝒃
𝑰𝟐 3 𝟐 𝑰 3 𝟐 𝑰𝒃
1 𝒂 𝒂 𝒄 1 𝒂 𝒂
𝟏 𝟏
𝑰𝟎 = 𝟐𝑰𝒃 𝑰𝟏 = Type
𝒂+ equation
𝒂 𝑰𝒃 here.𝑰𝟐 =
𝟐 𝟐
𝒂 + 𝒂 𝑰𝒃
𝟑 𝟑
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑽𝒃 = 𝑽𝒄 = 𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝒃 + 𝑰𝒄 = 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎
𝑽𝟎 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒂𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟎 + 𝒂𝑽𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
𝒂 − 𝒂 𝑽 𝟏 = 𝒂 − 𝒂 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

𝑽𝟎 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒂𝑽𝟐 = 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎

𝑽𝟎 + 𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝟏 + 𝒂𝑽
Type = 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎here.
𝟏 equation

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟎 − 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑽𝟐
FAULT ANALYSIS USING SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
𝑬𝒂 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟎 − 𝟑𝒁𝒇 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑽𝟐
𝑰𝟏 =
𝒁𝟐 (𝒁𝟎 + 𝟑𝒁𝒇 )
𝒁𝟏 +
𝒁𝟐 + 𝒁𝟎 + 𝟑𝒁𝒇
𝑬𝒂 − 𝒁𝟏 𝑰𝟏
𝑰𝟎 = −
Type equation here.
𝒁𝟎 + 𝟑𝒁𝒇

𝑬𝒂 − 𝒁𝟏 𝑰𝟏
𝑰𝟐 = −
𝒁𝟐
 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF A TRANSFORMER
The To
positive-sequence and negative-sequence impedance
analyzed an unsymmetrical fault, we must of
a construct threetransformer
three phase different per-phase equivalent
is balanced. The circuits
sequence
positive-sequence network: per-phase equivalent
equivalent
circuit circuit only
containing does positive
not depend on the connection
sequence impedanceofand the
sources
primary and secondary windings of the transformer.
negative sequence network: per-phase equivalent
The zero-sequence
circuit containing impedance of asequence
only negative three-phase transformer
impedances
zero-sequence
is depends network: of
on the connection per-phase equivalent
the primary circuit
and secondary
containing only zero-sequence impedance
windings.