NOTES

IN

EEE 2312 – SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES III

PREPARED BY

P.K. YEGON

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

1
LECTURE 1

ELECTRICAL MACHINES III

THREE PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

Alternating Current machines used for the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical
energy or vice versa are broadly of two types:
a) Synchronous machine
b) Asynchronous machine (induction machine)
Synchronous machine is the one in which the ratio of speed of rotation and frequency of
alternating currents is strictly constant-hence they are “synchronised”

60 f
ns  …………………………………. (1)
P
An asynchronous machine (induction machine) is one in which the above speed for a given
frequency depends on load and hence the above relationship is not true therefore

60 f
n
P
For production of ac power from mechanical energy, mostly synchronous generators (also
known as alternators) are used. Synchronous machines are also used as motors quite widely
but in higher power ratings.
BASIC DESIGN FEATURE:
From the design point of view there are two fundamental types of synchronous machines:
a) Cylindrical-rotor type or non-salient-pole type, that is, the machines in which the poles do
not project.

b) Salient-pole type that is the machines with projecting poles

The type depends upon the speed of rotation.

The time period T of the emf wave in a conductor is the time taken for a relative motion of the
rotor through one pair of poles with respect to the conductor.
If n is the number of rev. per minute (rpm) and p is the number of pairs of poles then

60
T 
np
2
The frequency of the induced emf f is

1 pn
f  
T 60
Thus for a given frequency f, the smaller the number of poles, the higher the speed.
The machine with small number of poles 2 p  4 has high speeds when rotor peripheral speed
is high.
For reasons of mechanical strength and better accommodation and reinforcement of the field
winding, the latter such high speed machine has to be distributed over the entire rotor surface,
i.e. the machine should have a cylindrical rotor.
If 2p>4, the rotor peripheral speed decreases and the synchronous machine is usually a salient
pole type as this simplifies manufacture.
Synchronous generators or alternators are usually driven by steam and water turbine. The
former is known as turbo generators while the latter as hydro generator.

EMF EQUATION
The emf induced in a conductor of length l moving in a field of average flux density B and having
a relative velocity V meters per sec. with respect to the field is given by equation

e  Blv Volts……………………………………………… (1)

If d is the diameter of the armature core and nS is the relative rotational velocity in rev. per sec.,
then the velocity

V  dn s
But

flux per pole  number of poles

B ………………….. (2)
cylindrica l area of armature surface
p
Or
dl
Thus
p
e  ldn s
dl
Or

e    P  nS Volts…………………………………………… (3)

But P  n S  2 f

Thus

e  2 f ……………………………………………………… (4)

This is the average emf.

The rms value is the average emf multiplied by the form factor i.e. 1.11.

If the winding consists of N concentrated turns (i.e. 2N Conductors) the rms value of emf is

EC  2 f   1.11  2 N

3
Or

EC  4.44 fN ……………………………………. (5)

When the winding is distributed in slots the above expression must be multiplied by a factor Kb
known as distribution factor (or breadth factor).
Since the windings are generally short-pitched, the expression must be multiplied by another
factor KP known as pitch factor.
Thus the emf induced is given by

E  4.44 f NK b K p ……………………………… (6)

Where

E=rms emf per phase [V]

f=frequency [Hz]
Φ= flux per pole [Wb]
N=no. of turns in series
Kb=Kd =distribution or breadth factor.
Kp =pitch factor.

a) Breadth factor Kb or Kd
When the coils comprising a phase of the winding are distributed in 2 or more slots per pole, the
emfs in the adjacent coils will be out of phase with respect to one another and their resultant will
be less than their algebraic sum

Fig 1: Calculation of breadth or distribution factor

q=no. of slots per pole per phase

Fig above shows the component emfs of the coils (E1, E2 and E3) and the resultant E due to a
phase group for a winding having 3 slots per pole per phase.
Each component phasor is proportional to the rms value of coil emf. It is displaced from the
component emf of the adjacent slot by the slot angle α electrical degrees.
The distribution factor Kd is defined as

phasor sum of component emfs

Kd  ……………………….. (7)
arithmetic sum of component emfs
Using fig 1,


2 RSinq
Kd  2 Or

q  2 RSin
2

4
 
Sinq
Kd  2 ………………………………………………… (8)

qSin
2
Where q is the number of slots per pole per phase or the number of slots in a group.
When q is very large, α becomes small and Kd approaches the ratio Cord/arc

 
Sin  q 
Kd   2  ………………………………………… (9)

q
2
qα is also known as the phase spread and is expressed in electrical radians.

b) Pitch factor Kp
In a full pitch coil, the emfs in the coil sides are in phase and therefore the coil emf is twice the
emf of each coil side.
In short pitch coil, the emfs of the two coil sides are not in phase and must be added vectorially
to give the coil emf.
The factor by which the emf per coil is reduced because of the pitch being less than full pitch, is
known as pitch factor (or coil span factor) Kp

phasor sum of coil side emfs

Kp  ……………………………. (10)
arithmetic sum of coil side emfs

Fig 2: Calculation of pitch factor

Fig 2 above shows the coil side emfs AB and BC and the resultant coil emf AC when the coil
pitch is short of full pitch by electrical angle β

Phasor sum of coil side emfs = AC= 2ABCos β/2

Or

AC=2ABCos β/2……………………………………….. (11)

Arithmetic sum of coil side emfs = 2AB

2 ABCos  / 2
KP   Cos / 2 ……………………………… (12)
2 AB

The pitch factor given by eq (12) is for fundamental component of emf. If the flux density
distribution contains space harmonics, the pitch factor for the nth harmonic is given by
n
K pn  Cos
2
The nth harmonic emf is reduced to zero if the angle β is such that
5
 n n
Cos 0 Or  90
2 2
This enables windings to be designed such that specified harmonics will not be generated e.g. if
β=600, there can be no third harmonic generation. Thus fractional pitch windings result in a
voltage wave form which resembles a sinusoid to a better degree than that in a full pitch winding
Example 1:
Calculate the Kd for a machine having 9 slots per pole for the following cases:
a) A 3 phase winding with 1200 phase groups
b) A 3 phase winding with 600 phase groups
Solution:
180
  20 0
9
a) Since one phase occupies 1200, the no. of slots in one phase group i.e. q= 120/20=6
 6  20
Sinq Sin
Kd  2  2  0.831
 20
qSin 6 Sin
2 2

b) Since one phase group occupies 600, the no. of slots in one phase group i.e. q=60/20=3
 3  20
Sinq Sin
Kd  2  2  0.960
 20
qSin 3Sin
2 2

EXAMPLE 2:
A 3-Φ, 16 pole synchronous machine has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 10
conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb. Speed of machine is 375 rpm. Find the
frequency, the phase and line emf. Take Kp =1
SOLUTION:

PN 8  375
f    50 Hz
60 60

144
Slots.. per .. pole  9
16
9
q  Slots / pole / phase   3
3
180 0 180 0
  slot ..angle    20 0
slots / pole 9
 3  20
Sinq Sin 0
Distributi on.. factor..K d  2  2  Sin 30  0.5  0.96
 20 3Sin10 0 0.52
qSin 3Sin
2 3
 20 0
Pitch.. factor..K p  Cos  Cos  0.985
2 2

Total no. of conductors = No. of Slots  Conductors/Slot = 144  10 = 1440

Total no. of conductors per phase = 1440/3 = 480

6
No. of turns per phase = 480/2 =240

EMF / Phase  E ph  4.44 K d K p fN  4.44  0.96  0.03  50  240  1530V

Line Voltage E=√3×1530=2650V

EXAMPLE 3:
A 6 pole, 3-Φ, 50Hz alternator has 12 slots per pole and 4 conductors per slot. The winding is
5/6 pitch, flux per pole is 0.025Wb. Determine open circuit emf per phase
SOLUTION:
Total no. of Conductors = no. of poles × Slots/phase × conductors/slot = 6×12×4=288
No. of Conductors per phase = 288/3=96
No. of turns/phase = 96/2 = 48

The winding is 5/6 pitched

Full pitch = 1800
5/6 pitch = 180 × 5/6 = 1500

β=short pitch angle=180-150=300

Coil span factor=Kp =Cos 30/2=Cos 150=0.966
q= No. of slots/pole/phase=12/3=4
α=slot angle = 180/slots/pole=180/12=150

15  4
Sin
Distributi on.. factor...K d  2  0.9578
15
4 Sin
2

EMF .. per.. phase  E ph  4.44 K d K p fN  4.44  0.9578  0.966  0.025  50  48  246V
EXAMPLE 4:
The following information is given in connection with a synchronous Generator. Slots=96,
poles=4, N=1500 rpm, Turns per coil =16, flux per pole=0.0258Wb, Coil span-slot 1 to 20,
Double layer winding 3 phase. Calculate phase voltage
SOLUTION:
PN 2  1500
f    50 Hz
60 60

In double layer winding No. of slots = No. of coils

Total no. of conductors = No. of coils × Turns/coil × 2 = 96×16×2
Total no. of turns = Conductors/2 = 96×16

Turns per phase = (96×16)/3=512

Coil span factor Kp: Coil span-slot 1 to 20. This means coil span is equivalent to 20 slots

Slots/pole=96/4=24
Coil pitch = 20/24 = 5/6 × 180 = 1500 Electrical

β=180-150=30

Pitch factor Kp = Cos β/2 = Cos 150 = 0.966

Distribution factor:
7
 96
q  slots .. per .. pole.. per .. phase  8
43

180 0 180 0
  slot ..angle ..    7 .5 0
slots / pole 24

 8  7.5
Sinq Sin
Kd  2  2  Sin 30  0.5
 0.95
 7.5 8  0.066 8  0.066
qSin 8  Sin
2 2

E ph  4.44  0.966  0.95  0.0258  50  512  2700V

EXAMPLE 5:
Find the number of armature conductors in series per phase required for the armature of a 3
phase, 10 pole alternator with 90 slots. The winding is star-connected to give line voltage of
11000Volts. The flux per pole is 0.16Wb. Take Kp =1.
SOLUTION:
90
q  slots .. per ... pole / phase  3
10  3
180 180 180
  slot ..angle     20 0
slots / pole 90 / 10 90
 20  3
Sinq Sin
Distributi on.. factor...K d  2  2  Sin 30  0.5
 0.96
 20 3Sin10 3  0.174
qSin 3Sin
2 2

11000
E ph   4.44  0.96  0.16  50  N
3

11000
Turns/phase N  186
3  4.44  0.96  0.16  50

No. of conductors/phase = 2 × 186 = 372

ASSIGN:
1. Give reasons why in a synchronous machine, the field winding is usually on the rotating
part and the winding for carrying load current on the stationary part.
2. Explain the meanings of distribution and pitch factor in an alternator. What is their effect
on the output?

8
LECTURE 2
PRINCIPLE OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Let us examine the mechanism of transfer of power from rotor to stator or vice versa and
establish the theory on which the synchronous machine operates.

Consider a device which consists of two permanent magnets having the configuration shown
above. From this our synchronous machine will evolve.
The outer structure is permanently fixed and the inner magnet is left free to rotate about its axis.
Now if this magnet (inner) is left, it will seek a position of stable equilibrium, by aligning its axis
with that of outer magnet.
If an attempt is made to turn the bar magnet to an angle δ, a torque will be developed due to the
force of attraction of the two magnets, opposing such an attempt.
This torque increases with increase of angle δ, but soon a situation is developed when the
torque has reached its maximum value.
If the angle δ is further increased, no longer any torque is developed urging to bring the bar
magnet to its original position. This is called ‘PULL OUT’ torque.
The exact shape of curve showing relation of angle δ and the torque depends on the shape of
poles of magnet.
It is known that, the torque is zero when δ=0, and also for δ=π where the bar magnet is at
unstable equilibrium. Slightest disturbance here would bring the bar magnet into δ=0 position

a) SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
From the model considered above, imagine that the outer magnet as well as the inner magnet
both are free to rotate about the same axis. Consider the outer is rotated starting from rest
position to a constant angular velocity ω. Under these conditions since no restraints are placed
upon the inner magnet assuming no friction of any sort, the bar will rotate at the same speed ω
and the angle δ=0.
If the bar magnet has to overcome any load torque on its shaft which maybe friction of bearing
or windage, it would do so by developing a ‘torque δ’.
Due to which the inner magnet will lag behind the outer magnet slightly, their axis having an
angle δ between them.
If the load torque on inner magnet is not more than pull out torque, it will rotate in step with outer
magnet, in other words the inner magnet is in synchronise with the outer magnet.
But when the load exceeds the pull out torque, the inner magnet will loose its step with the outer
magnet and would come to standstill.
The above is the principle of operation of synchronous motor. The stator of synchronous motor
has polyphase winding and when polyphase current is applied to them a rotating field system is
setup.
This corresponds to the outer magnet frame of our model rotating at fixed speed ω called
synchronous speed.
The rotor in practical machine is an electromagnet excited by a DC supply.

9
In the model, mechanical energy is the input to the outer mechanical rotating magnet frame and
the output is the energy developed by inner bar magnet which helps it to overcome any load
torque. Thus energy is transferred from outer magnet to the inner magnet through magnetic
field.
Similar is the case of synchronous motor, energy is drawn by the stator winding from the supply
mains, to be transferred to the rotor so that the rotor can run instep with the rotating magnetic
field against the load torque, upto a certain limit which is pull out torque.
Thus the rotor of synchronous motor can rotate only at a fixed speed called synchronous speed.
This is also the speed at which field system of stator rotates and is given by
f
n rev / sec
p

b) SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
In construction the synchronous generator is identical to synchronous motor. The rotor has a
D.C. field winding and it is fed by a dc supply through slip rings.
The Stator carries armature winding which is polyphase wound for the same number of poles as
rotor.
The rotor is rotated by external mechanical means (any prime mover at a constant speed). The
rotating field of rotor induces polyphase Emfs in stator winding and if the external terminals of
the polyphase winding are closed through load impedance, polyphase currents will circulate in
the stator circuit.
These polyphase currents in polyphase windings produce a rotating magnetic field which is
locked to the rotating field of the rotor.
Due to interaction of two fields an electromagnetic torque is developed which is opposite in
direction to the applied torque of prime mover.
The prime mover has to overcome this electromagnetic torque so that the electrical power may
flow through the terminal of stator winding to the load.
Thus we come to conclusion that there are two field systems in synchronous machine which are
locked to each other and are stationary with respect to each other. They are:
a) Rotor magnetic field system:
It is generated by electromagnets fixed on the rotor excited by direct current. The
magnetomotive force of this field depends on the direct current in the winding of the poles and
number of turns of field coils.
Thus mmf (Ft) of rotor is proportional to dc exciting current.
b) Stator magnetic field system:
When polyphase current circulate in a polyphase winding, a rotating magnetic field system is
produced. This is known as armature magnetomotive force and is proportional to and in phase
with armature current.

Armature..mmf ( Fa )  I a (armature..current ) and in phase with it.

Both the above fields Ft and Fa induce voltage in stator winding and the final voltage available
on the terminals of the machine is vector resultant of these voltages.
Thus,
Et is induced voltage by Ft lagging behind Ft by 900
Ea is induced voltage by Fa lagging behind Fa by 900

E  E t  E a (Net induced voltage)

OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

The discussion of the operation of SM will be based on the following assumptions:

10
 1. Saturation of magnetic circuit is neglected i.e. the machine operates at low or negligible
saturation. The result of this assumption is that all parts of magnetic circuit have
constant permeability. Thus the field flux and armature flux can be treated separately as
proportional to their respective currents.
2. Air gap is uniform so that armature flux is not affected by its position relative to the poles.
This is true with cylindrical type rotor
3. The flux is sinusoidally distributed in the air gap.
4. The armature winding is uniformly distributed and carries balanced sinusoidal currents.
The harmonics are neglected so that armature flux is directly proportional to the
fundamental component of armature reaction.

In practice synchronous machine usually operates in two different modes namely:

1. Operating individually supplying power to its own load.
2. In parallel with a large number of machines in a network where a number of power
plants are interconnected. Here the machine can operate as a generator as well as a
motor. In such an operation the machine is said to be connected to infinite bus bar.

There are the two modes of operation of synchronous machine:

a) First mode of operation: Synchronous machine working individually.
b) Second mode of operation: Synchronous machine working on an infinite bus bar

I FIRST MODE OF OPERATION:

(Synchronous machine working individually):
Under this mode of operation, the machine is working individually connected to the load. Here it
works as a generator supplying power to electrical load. In this case we are interested in
studying the variation in terminal voltage of synchronous generator for various values of load
and power factor.

VOLTAGE REGULATION
The voltage regulation of a S.M. is the voltage rise at the terminals, when a given load is thrown
off, the excitation and speed remaining constant.
If Et =open circuit voltage of generator which is induced voltage by main flux only (that is No
load voltage)
V= Terminal voltage at given voltage.
When load is zero, on open circuit, Et appears at the terminals.

Et  V
Regulation expressed as fraction = per unit
V

Et  V
Regulation expressed as % = ×100
V

CAUSES OF VOLTAGE DROP:

There are three causes of voltage drop occurring in an alternator namely:
a) Armature resistance
b) Leakage reactance
c) Armature reaction

a) Armature resistance
The voltage drop occurs as a product of current and resistance of the windings of synchronous
generator. The effective resistance is greater than the conductor resistance measured by direct
current.

11
This is because additional energy over the purely I2R value is spent because of unequal
distribution of current in the conductor itself-SKIN EFFECT.
The effective value varies between 1.25 to 1.75 times D.C. resistances.
Extreme accuracy is not necessary as the change of voltage due to resistance is small
compared to the changes produced by leakage reactance and armature reactance.
b) Armature Leakage Reactance:
All flux produced by load currents flowing in armature winding does not cross the air gap and
link with the main flux.
A part of armature flux completes its path locally.
This local flux surrounding the armature winding generates a counter emf.
This effect gives the armature a reactance which is equal to 2πfL.
Here L is leakage inductance. This armature reactance is called Leakage reactance XL, since
the flux which causes it is around the armature turns only and does not affects the field flux
directly.
This leakage flux is proportional to the armature current since the magnetic path it covers is not
normally saturated.
If Ia is armature current per phase, XL is armature leakage reactance.
Voltage drop due to leakage reactance = IaXL
This voltage drop leads current Ia by 900
Armature Reaction
There are two fields in synchronous machine, one main field established by mmf of rotor poles
and the second by mmf of armature current.
Armature Reaction is the effect of armature mmf on the main mmf.
Let’s consider a case of 3-Φ two pole single layer winding.
(For the purpose of simplicity assume that the winding of each phase is concentrated)
Further a 3-Φ balanced load of unity power factor is connected to the terminal of armature
winding.

12
Let N be the number of turns per phase.
Ia, Ib and Ic are current in 3 respective phases of equal magnitude but displaced from each other
by 1200

Ia =Ib =Ic =I
Eaa’, Ebb’, and Ecc’ are respective voltages.
Thus NIa, NIb and NIc are mmf’s of 3 phases A, B and C of armature winding.
Since mmf is proportional to and in phase with the current generating it, therefore NI a, NIb and
NIc are equal in magnitude but displaced from each other by 1200

NIa= NIb = NIc = NI (in magnitude)

The armature mmf is the resultant of mmf of its each phase winding.
Consider situation t1, poles are vertical their mmf downward, out of N-pole.

Consider situation t1, poles are vertical and mmf downwards out of N-pole.
At this instance induced voltage in coil A is maximum and current is also maximum because of
unit p.f.
Thus current in phase A is Imax at t1. Current in phase B and phase C are half their maximum
values but opposite in sign, negative.
The resultant of Ia ,Ib and Ic at that instant is 1.5Im and the resultant mmf is equal to 1.5NIm.

13
Lecture
UNIT POWER FACTOR
It may be observed at this stage that armature mmf is 900 (electrical) behind main mmf. Thus
armature mmf lags field flux by 900 in all condition.

When load is unit pf, armature current Ia is in phase with armature emf Ea and armature field Φa.
c) LAGGING POWER FACTOR
Let’s consider the case where the p.f. of load is 900 lagging.

Lagging pf means the current Ia lags the induced voltage by 900 compared to unit pf case where
the armature mmf will delay by 900 in time.
Thus with respect to the rotor mmf, the angle of lag for the armature mmf will be 900+900=1800
lagging. In other words armature mmf is now in opposite direction to the rotor mmf as shown in
the fig. above.
d) LEADING POWER FACTOR

Consider the case when pf of the load is 900 leading. Now the armature currents are ahead of
their induced voltage by 900.
In this case the armature mmf would also be advanced by 900 in time comparing with the
situation of unit p.f. In this situation, the armature mmf will be in phase with rotor mmf as shown
above.

From all the above observation, the effect of the armature mmf on the main or rotor mmf can be
concluded as follows:
1. The total magnitude of armature mmf is 1.5ImN
2. The armature mmf rotates as the main mmf does.

14
 3. At unit pf, the armature mmf lags behind the main mmf by 900. The resultant mmf can be
found by vector sum of the two. The resultant mmf would be shifted behind the main
mmf by an angle α. The two fluxes generated by armature mmf as well as the rotor mmf
would interact with each other and conversion of energy will occur.
4. At zero pf lagging the armature mmf is opposite in direction to the main mmf and thus
the resultant is the difference of the two. Thus at lagging pf by 900, the armature mmf is
demagnetising the main mmf
5. At zero pf leading, the armature mmf is in phase with the main mmf and the resultant
mmf is the sum of the two. Thus at leading pf by 900, the armature mmf is magnetising
the main mmf.

EFFECT OF ARMATURE REATION ON EMF

Let Et= emf induced by main flux
Ea= emf induced by the armature flux
E= Net induced voltage, resultant of Et and Ea
E  Et  Ea

I NO LOAD CONDITION

At no load condition, there are no currents in armature windings thus armature flux is zero and
therefore Ea=0. Φm is flux vector which denotes main flux. EMF of Φm is Et lagging behind Φm by
900.
Since Ea does not exist Et =E
II LOAD CURRENT OF ZERO POWER FACTOR LAGGING

It had been explained earlier that when power factor is zero lagging, armature flux is 1800
opposite to main flux. Thus Et is emf induced by Φm and Ea is emf induced by Φa.
Net emf is found by subtracting the two.

15
III WHEN THE POWER FACTOR IS ZERO LEADING

The armature flux Φa is in phase with main flux Φm. The emf of Φm and Φa are both additives.
Thus Ea is always in phase quadrature with the load current I and proportional to it. In this case,
Ea resembles an emf induced in an inductive reactance, and the effect of armature reaction is
E
exactly as if the stator winding has a reactance x a  a , where xa is termed as armature
I
reactance.
NB: Armature reactance is actually an ampere turn balance between armature current and part
of field current. Since its behaviour in the circuit is the same as inductance hence it has been
named armature reactance to simplify our further conception of operation of synchronous
machine.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
An equivalent circuit of synchronous machine can now be constructed. The armature resistance
r, leakage reactance xl and reactance xa for the armature are separated from the ‘ideal’
machine, in which the emf Et is induced by the flux produced by rotor field winding

Referring fig1 (a) above, in xa a voltage drop Ea=Ixa occurs to account for armature reaction.
The resultant net emf is E. Further voltage drop occurs in xl and r equals to Ixl and Ir
respectively.
The terminal voltage becomes

16
 V  Et  Ix a  Ix l  Ir

Often xl and xa being of same nature are combined and total reactance is known as
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE XS.

XS=xl + xa

And total impedance of the circuit is termed as SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE ZS

ZS= r + jxs

PHASOR DIAGRAM
A phasor diagram on the basis of equivalent circuit can now be constructed. The following steps
are followed in completing the diagram.

1. Terminal voltage V is reference vector and I is load current making an angle θ with which
is p.f. angle of load. Armature flux Φa is in phase with Ia.
2. At the end of vector V, draw vectors Ir, representing the voltage drop in the armature
resistance of the winding parallel to Ia since it is in phase with Ia
3. Vector Ixs is leading I by 900. This is added to V and Ir, drawn at the end of vector Ir.
4. Vector Et is closing side of polygon formed by V, Ir and Ixs. This represents vector sum
of these three quantities. Et is induced emf by main field Φm.
5. Vector Φm is drawn leading Et by 900. IZS is the vector drawn showing the sum of Ir and
Ixs.

SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE
Synchronous impedance is the total effect of armature resistance, leakage reactance and
armature reaction reactance.

Z S  r  j ( xl  x a )
If armature resistance being small is neglected during calculations of synchronous impedance

Z S  j ( xl  x a )
Or

Z S  j( xS )

17
To find synchronous impedance of alternator, use of open circuit and short circuit test is made.
I OPEN CIRCUIT TEST (O.C)
For performing O.C. test, the isolated generator is run by the prime mover at correct speed.
Field excitation current is increased from zero and the induced voltage is recorded by
connecting a voltmeter in the output terminal of the generator.

II SHORT CIRCUIT TEST (S.C.)

For performing S.C. test, the terminals of armature are shorted. The rotor is rotated by prime
mover at constant speed and excitation current in field circuit is increased from zero. An
ammeter in the armature circuit indicates the short circuit current. Whole of induced voltage is
counter balanced by synchronous impedance on short circuit. Thus

E t  I SC Z S

O.C. and SC Characteristics for Unsaturated Machine:

Short Circuit and Open Circuit characteristics are drawn in the figures below based on per unit
value where one unit is equivalent to the full load rated quantity.

It may be observed here that when saturation of iron parts of machine is not taken into account,
O.C.C. is straight line passing from origin. But if saturation is considered, which does take place
in practice the OCC is drawn in dotted line deviated from firm line.
18
The value of ZS also does not stay constant under saturated condition but follows the curve
shown dotted.
Now if ISC is S.C. Current equal to full load Current obtained at an excitation current I f and Et is
emf on O.C. at same level of excitation If
Then
Et
ZS  Synchronous impedance on full load
I SC
VOLTAGE REGULATION FROM TESTS
To obtain regulation first of all synchronous impedance is calculated with the help of open circuit
and short circuit tests. The resistance of armature measured using d.c. measurements and
effective resistance calculated by using suitable factor to account for skin effect.
We choose V as reference vector.
If Φ is power factor at which regulation is determined and I is load Current, then

X S  Z S2  r 2  Z S (r can be neglected at this stage for finding XS)

 ve... for..leading .. p. f .
Et  V  I (r  jX S )Cos  jSin    
 ve.. for..lagging .. p. f . 
Et  V
 Re gulation
V
E V
Percentage .. Re gulation ..  t  100
V
If the complex quantities are to be avoided, use of trigonometry also leads to same results

Consider the triangle OBD

OD2=OB2+BD2
OD2= (OA+AB)2 + (BC+CD)2

Et  VCos  Ir 2  VSin   Ix S 2

Et  V
Re gulation %  100
V

It would again be stressed at the end that regulation determined would be true only on
neglecting saturation. Since with saturation, value of ZS are lower, thus regulation determined by
the above method would be higher than actual value. That is also the reason due to which

19
synchronous impedance method of finding regulation is sometimes called a PESSIMISTIC
METHOD.

GENERATOR OUTPUT POWER

Consider a generator supplying a load current I at a p.f. Cos  .
XS is synchronous reactance. Assume resistance is negligible.
Phasor diagram for both lagging as well as leading p.f. are shown below

AB is terminal voltage per phase (V)

BC is voltage drop in synchronous reactance per phase (IX)
AC is vector sum of AB and BC (E)
θ is angle between E and V
Consider triangle ABC:

IX S 2  V 2  E 2  2VECos

BC 2  AB 2  AC 2  2 AB  ACCos

Also
IX S E E  ve for leading p. f .
  ……………. (1) 
Sin  Sin 90     Cos  ve for lagging p. f .

ESin  ESin 
From eq. 1 Cos  
IX S V 2  E 2  2VECos
As

V 2  E 2  2VECos
I
XS
Power input per phase = Power output (neglecting all losses)

V 2  E 2  2VECos  ESin 
Power = VICos  = V  
X V 2  E 2  2VECos

VE
Power  Sin 
X

a) If power factor is zero, angle between E & V is zero

20
 VE
Power  Sin  =0
X

b) If power factor is unity

VE
Power  Sin 
X
But ESinθ=IX (as Cos  =1)

VIX
Power   VI [Watts]
X

c) For maximum power, value of Sinθ=1 when θ=900

VE
Maximum.. power  Watts
X

EXAMPLES
1. The effective resistance of a 2200V, 50Hz, 440KVA Single phase generator is 0.5Ω. On
short circuit a field current of 40A gives a full load current of 200A. The electromotive

21
 force on open circuit with the same field excitation is 1160V. Calculate the synchronous
impedance
Solution:
Emf on OC = 1160V
SC current with same field current = 200A
Synchronous Impedance = 1160:200 = 5.8Ω
Resistance per phase = 0.5Ω
Synchronous Reactance = 5.82  0.52  5.77
S 
As Z  R  X
2 2 2
S 
NB:
1. Under short circuit conditions, the terminal voltage V is zero. The emf generated E is
consumed in over coming the voltage drop due to synchronous impedance. Therefore

Open Circuit Voltage for a certain excitation

ZS 
Short Circuit Current for the same excitation

Since only one value of ZS can be used in calculating regulation, it is logical to select a
value corresponding as nearly as possible to the average excitation under load
condition. This means the selection of that value of synchronous impedance which is
determined by the largest short circuit current which can be made to follow in the
armature winding without serious overheating of the armature winding.
2. The Short Circuit ratio of a generator is defined as

excitation for rated open circuit voltage

SCR 
excitation for rated armature current on short circuit

The SCR has an important role to play in determining the current flowing through the
armature under power system fault conditions. Modern generators are built with SCR
between 0.5 and 1.5 p.u.
3. The 3 phase power output of a synchronous generator is given by

P  3VICos  Or
Using the phasor diagram also

3VE
P Sin 
XS

Thus the power output varies as Sin  . The angle θ is known as power angle or load angle.
The machine develops maximum power when θ=900. The dotted portion of the Curve refers to
the unstable operation. Usually the alternators are operated at power angle around 400.
Per Unit emf generated (as determined by substituting V=1) = 1.6027 Ans

22
LECTURER
CIRCLE DIAGRAMS OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

The steady state behaviours of a synchronous machine can be easily be obtained

from its circle diagrams. These diagrams offer quick graphical solution to many
synchronous machine problems, although the results are a little less accurate from
those obtained analytically.
The circle diagram of cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor is first developed and
then for a generator.
1. Synchronous motor circle diagrams.
Here the excitation-circle and power circle diagrams for a cylindrical-rotor
synchronous motor are developed. With the help of these two
circle diagrams, synchronous motor V-curves are obtained.
(a) The excitation circles: The excitation circle diagram gives the locus of
armature current Ia, as the no-load excitation voltage Ef and load angle δ are
varied. This circle diagram for a synchronous motor is based on its voltage equation
where Vt is the full-load terminal voltage.
Vt  E f  I a Z s
or
Vt E f
Ia  _ .......... .......... .......... ........(1)
Zs Zs

Fig. 1: Excitation-circle diagram; illustrating the locus of armature

current as Ef and δ varied in a synchronous motor.
Vt E
The current phasors   OC  and  f  OB  lag behind their corresponding
Zs Zs
voltage phasors by angle  z and armature current Ia= OA, is obtained by taking
Vt  Ef 
their differences as per eq. (1). Note that the angle between and   
Zs  Z  is the
 s 

power angle δ, as shown in fig. above. Phasor CA is parallel to OB and in

Ef
magnitude CA  OB  .
Zs
Alternatively, the same result can be obtained as follows:
With Vt as reference phasor, Eq. (1) can be re-written as

23
 Vt 0 E f   
Ia  
Z s  z Z s  z
Vt Ef
  z     z
Zs Zs
In expanded form,
V Ef   V Ef 
I a   t cos  z  cos(   z )  j  t sin  z  sin(    z )
 Zs Zs   Zs Zs 
Taking square of both sides,
2
 V   Ef 
2
V Ef
I   t      2. t . cos  .......... .......... ..( 2)
2
a  
 Zs   Z f  Zs Zs
Eq. (2) states that Ia( = OA) is one side of a triangle (Δ OCA), whose other two
sides includes between them a variable angle δ(ACO), the two sides being of
magnitude
Vt
( OC )
Zs
and
Ef
(  CA)
Zs
both of which are currents in nature.
If Vt is assumed constant,
Vt
 OC is constant.
Zs
NB:
Ef
For a fixed excitation voltage Ef the extremities of phasors and I a follows the
Zs
path of a circle as load is changed on the motor. This locus, known as the
excitation circle, defines the magnitude and power factor of I a and the load angle
δ, for different shaft loads.
For Ef  Vt, the armature current Ia, for the same load angle δ, is equal to OF, Fig.
(1), and it leads Vt. Thus for Ef  Vt, the motor operates at a lagging p.f and for Ef
Vt, the motor may operate at a leading p.f.
NB;
Note that the maximum value of load angle ACO can be equal to θZ.

(b) The power Circles;

A power circle gives the locus of Ia as mechanical power developed and pf angle 
are varied.
Power output per phase P  Vt I a Cos  I a ra …………………………………………. (3)
2

Where Vt I a Cos is the power input per phase and P is the mechanical power
developed including both iron and mechanical losses.
In other words, P = shaft power + iron and mechanical losses.
Equation (3) can be written as
V P
I 2 a  t I a Cos   0 ………………………………………………………………………..…… (4)
ra ra
24
 Vt P
or I 2 a Cos 2  I 2 a Sin 2 
I a Cos   0 ……………………………………….……...(5)
ra ra
Let x  I a Sin  and y  I a Cos
Vt P
x2  y2  y   0 …………………………………………………………………(6)
ra ra
 V 
Equation (6) is the equation of a circle with its centre at  0, t  and radius
2r  a 
2
 Vt  P
  
 2ra  ra

Fig. 2: Power-circle diagram illustrating the locus of armature current for

constant mechanical power developed.
2
 Vt  P
(i) From the equation    , if P=0
 2ra  ra
2
V  0 V
 R   t    t
 2ra  ra 2ra
Vt  V 
This shows that R  and centre is  0, t  the circle passes through origin.
2ra  2ra 

(ii) When R=0  P= max

2
Vt P Pmax V
  max  0 or  t2
2ra ra ra 4ra
2
V
Pmax  t
4ra

Vt
(iii) Maximum power input = Vt I a cos  occurs when Cos  1 and I a  at Pmax
2 ra
2
Vt V
 Pinput max  Vt 1  t
2ra 2ra
25
 2
Vt
maximum power output Pmax 
4ra
2
Vt
Pmax output 4ra
Therefore efficiency    2  50 0 0
Pmax input Vt
2ra
Eq. (4) when solved for Ia, for given values of power and power factor gives two
currents, which are also indicated as OA and OB in the power-circle diagram in Fig.
(2).

V - CURVES

Fig. (1) and (2) shows separately, the locus of armature current Ia as a function of
excitation voltage and power. These two circle diagrams may be superimposed as
Vt
illustrated in Fig. 3. Here OC' is taken equal to and with C as centre, a zero-
ra
Vt
power circle of radius is drawn. Now make angleCOD equal to θz and join the
2ra
point C’ with point D. The angle ODC’ must be a right angle, since the point D lies
on the circle with 0C' as its diameter. From right-angled triangle ODC', it is seen
Vt ra V
that OD  OC cos  z  .  t . Since V is along the line OCC’, the centre of the
'

ra Z s Z s
V
excitation circles must be at a distance of t ( OD ) from O. In view of the above,
Zs
the point D on the zero power circle must be the centre of the excitation circles.
For any specific power output P and excitation Ef, the operating point is found by
the intersection of the corresponding circles.
For instance, for the excitation represented by the heavy line, there are two values
of armature currents, I’ao lagging Vt and Iao leading Vt, for power P = 0. For the
Ef
given excitation , these two values lao and I’ao are plotted as shown in the lower
Zs
diagram of Fig.(3). In this manner, the armature current values are plotted for
various values of excitations for fixed powers. The various plotted points so
obtained are joined together as illustrated in the lower diagram of Fig. (3). Since
the shape of the lower portion of these curves resemble the letter V, these are
called “V – curves” of a synchronous motor. When considered as a whole they are
called
"O - curve".
The maximum theoretical excitation is
E f (max)
DD ' 
Zs
and here the excitation circle is tangent to the zero-power circle. But
DD '  OC '
E f (max) Vt
 
Zs ra
26
 Vt
or E f (max)  Zs
ra

Fig. 3: Construction of V and O circles from Power and Excitation

circles

The minimum and maximum excitations for any power, correspond to the points on
the line DCD’. Similarly, the minimum and maximum values of armature currents
for any power P, correspond to the line OCC’. Since the terminal voltage Vt is also
along OCC’ the minimum and maximum currents occur at unit power factor.
In Fig. (3), the curve A'QB', i.e. H2 , joins all the points corresponding to minimum
and maximum excitations for the different powers considered. In Fig. 4 (a), for any
power P, the minimum and maximum excitations are DH and DH1, and the
corresponding armature currents are OH and OH1 respectively.

Fig. 4: For any power (a) Conditions for maximum and minimum
excitation and (b) condition for max. and min. armature currents.

27
When excitation is zero, the current, la is OD in Fig. 4 (a) and O'A' in the lower
diagram of Fig.(3), for P=0. Now as the excitation is increased, la first decreases to
Ef
its minimum value OG(=Ia min) with excitation equal to DG, Fig. 4 (a) and when
Zs
becomes greater than DG, Ia also starts increasing. This explains for the bend in
the compounding curve H2 for minimum and maximum excitations in Fig.(3).
In Fig. 4 (a), the current OG is tangent to the power circle for which the radius is
CG and the power factor is found to be minimum. In general, it may be stated that
minimum power factor for any load- power, occurs when the current line is tangent
to the power circle for that load.
Ef
In Fig. 4 (b) DF is drawn normal to 0C. When the excitation is equal to DO
Zs
(=O’A in the lower diagram of Fig. 3), Ia = 0 (point A itself in Fig. 3) and when
excitation is equal to its minimum excitation DF less than O'A in Fig. 3, current is
Ef
OF in Fig. 4(b) and O’F in Fig. 3. If the excitation is made greater than DF,
Zs
current is also more than O’F, Fig. 3. This explains for the bend in the unity power-
factor curve H1 or AQB, which has been obtained by joining all the points
pertaining to unity p.f.
The compounding curve for unity power factor H1 i.e. AQB,
corresponds to the line OCC’ and it will be observed that to the left
of curve H1, p.f. is lagging and to the right of it, the p.f is leading.
An examination of Fig. 3 also reveals that the compounding curve
H1, i.e. A'QB' corresponds to the line DCD'. The point Q in the
lower diagram, corresponds to the point C in the upper diagram of
Fig.(3).
Ef
In Fig. 3, armature current la versus excitation have been plotted to obtain V-
Zs
curves of a synchronous motor. If Ia versus field current If is to be plotted, then for
Ef
each value of , calculate Ef. Now from OCC, find If for each value Ef and plot la
Zs
versus If to get synchronous motor V-curves, this is illustrated in example below.
Example:
A 1500KW, 2200V, three phase 50Hz, star-connected cylindrical-rotor synchronous
motor has armature resistance of 0.32 per phase. Its open circuit data are given
below:

Field current 5 10 15 20 25 30
(A)
Open circuit voltage 760 1500 2140 2650 3040 3340
Ef (V)

An excitation current of 15A produces a short-circuit current of 750A.

Core loss = 60 KW.
Friction and Windage losses = 40 KW.
Draw the V-curves at full load for the synchronous motor running at the rated
voltage and frequency and plot a graph of the variation power factor with field
current.
28
Solution:
For an excitation current of 15A, the open circuit per phase voltage is
2140
Ef   1235V
3
Ef 1235
 Synchronous impedance Z s    1.648
I sc 750
2200
Vt   1269V
Terminal voltage per phase 3

Vt 1269
Now   770 A
Z s 1.648
The following table gives field current, per phase excitation voltage E f and Ef
Zs

If in A 5 10 15 20 25 30
Ef in V 438 866 1235 1529 1755 1929
Ef/Zs in 266 526 750 928 1065 1170
A

Vt 1269
Also   1982 A
2ra 0.64
For full load output of 1500KW, total mechanical power developed per phase is
1500  60  40 1600
P  
3 3
1600
Radius of power circle corresponding to KW power is
3
2
 Vt 
 
p
   1982 2  1600000  1500 A
 2ra  ra 3 x0.32
Scale 200A = 1cm
Two circles with CO = 1982A and CG = 1500A as radii are drawn. Cut OD = Vt/Zs
= 770A and with D as centre draw different curves with Ef/Zs as radii given in the
table above so that they intersect the power circle at a1, a2, …,a6.
Now Oa2 is the armature current for the excitation circle of radius Da2 Ef/Zs =
526A. But this excitation Da1 corresponds to a field current of 10A. Thus one point
on the V curve representing Ia = Oa2 = 540. A and If = 10A is located. Similarly
other points on the V curve are obtained, tabulated and plotted.

Fig: Power and excitation-circle diagram.

29
 If in A 5 10 15 20 25 30
Ia in A - 540 420 440 460 600
pf - 0.819lag 0.988lag 0.883lead 0.866lead 0.788lead

Fig.: Variation of armature current and power factor with field

current.
Assign: Repeat the above example if the armature resistance is neglected.

SUPER POSITION OF EXCITATION AND POWER-CIRCLES

This helps us in the development of power-limit curves for a generator.

Vt
(i). Draw a zero-power circle with OC  as its diameter and C as its
'

ra
centre.
(ii). Make an angle C’OG equal to  z , join C’ with G. The angle C’OG must be a
right angle since point G lies on the circle.

Fig: superposition of excitation and power circles of a cylindrical-rotor

generator.

30
 Vt V V r V
(iii). Since OC '  , then OG  t Cos z  t  a  t
ra ra ra z s z s
Since Vt is along CO, the centre of excitation circle must be at a distance of
Vt
 OG  from O. In this view, the point G on the zero- power circle is also the
Zs
centre of excitation circles
2
 Vt  P
(iv). For any power P, power circle has a diameter    .
 2ra  ra

E 
When excitation is equal to GH   , then armature current is OL and leads
f

 Zs 
Vt by an angle θ1, and for excitation equal to GK , the armature current is
OM and it lags by an angle θ2.
It can be concluded that:
(i). A generator operates at leading power-factor for lower values of field
excitations and at a lagging power-factor for higher values of field
excitations (or field current).
(ii). A motor operates at power-factor lagging for lower field currents and
leading for larger field currents.

Fig: Circle diagrams for ra=0 for (a) Generator and (b) Motor.
(i) If the armature resistance ra is neglected, then radius of zero-power circle
becomes infinity, with centre at infinity from origin. Angle θz becomes equal to
900 and power circles become straight lines perpendicular to Vt
(ii) For zero armature resistance, DCD’ (see Fig. “Construction of V and O curves
from power and excitation circles) becomes normal to OD as shown in Fig. (b)
above by DC.
Thus in Fig. (b), the region to the left of DC is stable and to the right is unstable.
For generator, the region to the left of GK in fig. (a), result in more armature
current than the region to the right of GK. Therefore for generator, the region to
the left of GK is unstable and to the right of GK is stable.

31
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

I EFFECT OF LOAD
If excitation E0 is kept constant during the operation, but the load is increased, change in load
produces change in current and to a certain extent the power factor of the motor. The load
changes the magnitude of IaZs phasor and the torque angle g

With increase in Current Ia to Ia’, keeping E0 constant, the excitation voltage phasor moves in
circle to a new position E0’ and load angle to γ’. Theoretically the excitation voltage phasor can
be shifted till γ=900. If it is increased still further, the power component (this is the component of
IaZs on V, ZS being constant) decreases and the motor cannot take increase in load. Thus the
maximum power output that the motor can deliver is reached and is equal to this maximum
power input minus the losses.
This output power divided by speed is termed as pull out torque. The pull out torque therefore
depends on the excitation that is permissible for the motor and is fixed by the value of excitation
current that causes the max. Permissible temperature rise of the field winding of machine. II
EFFECT OF CHANGE OF EXCITATION
The torque of machine is determined by load and is not affected by the change of excitation
while the motor is running in synchronism. The torque angle is changed slightly if the power
supplied or load is constant. The power component of current on voltage phasor remains
constant and the condition for constant power is represented by a straight line as shown in fig.
below

32
The difference between E0 and V gives IaZs drop and the current Ia is represented by IaZs/Zs
X
lagging behind it by an angle   tan 1 S . With increase in excitation to E0’, the new current is
r
Ia’ lagging behind Ia’Zs by an angle θ.
The phase angle between applied voltage V and the current phasor is changed from  ...to... ' ,
this tips of the current phasor remaining on the straight line representing constant power. The
power factor of the motor is therefore changed from Cos  lagging to Cos  ' leading.
It is thus seen that when synchronous motor is overexcited, it takes leading current. This
property of synchronous motor is extremely useful as it enables to run the machine as power
factor correction or a phase advancer.

MACHINE ON INFINITE BUS BARS

I NO LOAD
Consider a synchronous machine connected to infinite bus bars:
a) Let the machine be running on no-load. If losses are supplied externally, no current is
coming from the machine or going into the machine. Thus induced voltage is equal to
terminal voltage

Et  V

Induced voltage Et lags behind field flux Фm by 900, but it is equal to and in phase with terminal
voltage V.
b) If now the excitation current in field winding is increased, flux will increase, induced emf
will tend to increase, there will appear a current in armature winding trying to
demagnetise the main field. This current is due to difference between Et and V

E t  V  Er
E t  V  Er
Er
Ir 
ZS

Where ZS is synchronous reactance

33
The reactive current lags terminal voltage by 900. The armature field due to this current is 1800.
Hence armature field demagnetises the main field.
c) Now consider that field excitation current is decreased, main flux Фm and emf Et also
tend to decrease. Again a difference of Et and V appears due to which a current flows in
the armature. This field of armature due to this current helps the main field Фm and this is
magnetising.
V-Et=Er

Er
Ir 
ZS

II MACHINE ON FULL LOAD (CONSTANT) ONLY EXCITATION VARIABLE:

Let’s consider a synchronous machine supplying full active power and only excitation varied.
Consider the case of generator first.
Et= induced emf by main field alone Фm
V= terminal voltage (constant)
Ia= active component of load current
ZS= synchronous impedance considered equal to synchronous reactance since resistance of
the armature winding is neglected.
a) First consider unit power factor.
Phasor V is fixed. At unit pf current is in phase with voltage and reactive component of current is
zero.

The voltage drop due to synchronous impedance is leading Ia by 900. Et is vector sum of V and
IaZS. Thus excitation must be adjusted so that Et = V + IaZS

If excitation is changed, Et will change, to establish the electrical balance. Voltage drop in
synchronous impedance will change since V is fixed (constant) , also there is no change in load
(constant) therefore Ia is constant and fixed in phase with V.
The only alternative is that another current purely reactive in nature will flow into the armature,
due to which additional voltage in ZS will establish electrical balance.
34
This new current has to be purely reactive because the active load is held constant. The voltage
drop by the reactive current in synchronous impedance differ the current by 900 in phase
because ZS is reactive in nature. Result is that the extremity of phasor Et must lie on the line
shown dotted in phasor diagram below

b) If excitation is decreased, a magnetising reactive component of armature current is

supplied. The leading reactive current assists the field winding to produce the necessary
flux. Total current is I, vector sum of Ia and Ir and  is p.f. angle between total current
and voltage. IZS is voltage drop ZS by total current vector sum of IaZS and IrZS
c) If excitation is increased, a lagging reactive demagnetising current component is
supplied, in addition to the constant power component. Thus the total current lags
behind V by an angle  .

From the above, following conclusion can be made:

1. A change in excitation changes the pf of the current supplied by the generator,
thus affecting reactive power.
2. In generator, reduced excitation result in leading power factor of current supplied
to bus bars and increased excitation result in lagging power factor.
3. A change in excitation has no effect on the active power of machine.

35
MOTOR CONNECTED TO INFINITE BUSBARS
Let us consider the effect of varying excitation of a synchronous motor connected to infinite bus
bars.
A generator working on infinite bus bars will become motor if its excitation is maintained and
prime mover is replaced by a mechanical load.
For the motor, the current is in phase opposite to V, since it is forced into the machine against
the output voltage. Further as mechanical load is applied, the rotor field will retard with respect
to stator field and fall back by an angle δ.
Phasor diagram of synchronous motor when excitation is normal giving unit pf and when under
excited or overexcited are shown below
a) Unit power factor (Cos  =1) and excitation normal

b) Over excited, I Current leading terminal voltage VT

VT=Terminal voltage
Et=induced emf
V=output voltage

c) Under excitation current I lagging terminal voltage VT

36
The current phasor in motor is opposite in sign with respect to generator and hence is rotated
1800. Terminal voltage of supply is 1800 out of phase with the generated voltage of machine.
Thus when working as motor the following conclusion can be made:
1. When current drawn by motor is in phase with voltage, the excitation is said to be
normal.
2. When excitation is increased, motor draws power at leading power factor
3. When excitation is reduced, motor draws power at lagging power factor.

Thus change of excitation again changes reactive component of power only. The active power
is not affected by excitation.
As excitation is varied, the extremity of vector Et lies on the line shown dotted in the phasor
diagram below. This line is called power line. If full load is considered, the power line is called
full load power line.

Any power line is equivalent to VIa Watts/phase of power

37
TWO-REACTANCE CONCEPT FOR SALIENT POLE MACHINE:
In salient pole machines the reluctance of all magnetic paths which pass through the centre of
the machine and close to the frame are not the same. Any one of these closed paths which
passes through a pole core will have a very smaller reluctance than one which passes through
the air space between pole cores.
This non-uniformity of the reluctance of the different paths results in armature reaction effect
different from that in non-salient pole machine.
Because of non-uniformity of the reluctance of the magnetic paths, the mmf of the armature is
divided into two components namely:
(i) a direct acting component (d-axis)
(ii) quadrature (cross) component (q-axis)

It is known that when armature current is in phase with excitation voltage, the entire mmf of the
armature acts at right angles to the axis of the salient poles and therefore all the armature mmf
is in quadrature.
On the other hand if the armature current is in quadrature with excitation voltage E0, the entire
mmf of the armature acts directly upon the magnetic path through the salient poles and all of the
armature mmf is either directly opposing or directly aiding the mmf of the salient pole field
winding.
When phase difference between armature current and excitation voltage is between 00 and 900,
the armature mmf will have both a direct acting component and quadrature component. The
direct-acting component is proportional to the sine of the phase angle between the armature
current and excitation voltage while the quadrature component is proportional to the cosine of
the phase angle.
The two reactance concept is similar to the synchronous impedance concept in that the effect of
armature reaction is taken into account by means of equivalent armature reactance voltage.
Thus the two concepts for salient pole machine replace the effect of armature reactance by two
reactance voltages. These voltages are I d X ad and I q X aq where I d and I q are the
components of the armature current in q-axis and d-axis.
Each of these components of armature current also produces a leakage-reactance voltage
caused by the armature leakage flux. The armature leakage reactance is assumed to have the
same value XL for both component of current.
Therefore the synchronous reactance for each component of the armature mmf becomes

Direct axis synchronou s reac tan ce X sd  X ad  X l

Quadrature axis synchronou s reac tan ce X sq  X aq  X l
The voltage for each phase of the armature based on the two reactance concept is given as

V  E0  IRe  I d X sd  I q X sq
Where R e is the effective resistance.

38
CONSTRUCTION OF TWO-REACTION FROM TEST DATA:
The values of X sd and X sq are determined by applying a balanced reduced external voltage to
an unexcited generator running at speed a little less than the synchronous speed. Due to
voltage V applied to the stator terminals, a current I will flow causing a stator mmf. This stator
mmf moves slowly relative to the poles and induces an emf in the field circuit in a similar fashion
to that of rotor in an induction motor at slip frequency. The effect will be that the stator mmf will
move slowly relative to the poles.
a) When the axis of the poles and axis of the armature reaction mmf wave conside, the
armature mmf acts through the field magnetic circuit. The voltage applied to the
armature is then equal to drop caused by the direct component of armature reaction and
leakage reactance.
b) When the armature reaction mmf is in quadrature with the field poles, the applied voltage
is equal to the leakage reactance drop plus the equivalent voltage drop of the cross-
magnetising field component.
From oscillograph record

max imum voltage

X sd 
min imum current

min imum voltage

X sq 
max imum current

CONSTRUCTION
For construction, the values of Xsd and Xsq must be known.
From the specified load, the voltage vector and current vector at the load p.f. angle  are
drawn as shown in the diagram below.

39
1. The resistive voltage drop IRe is added to vector V. Now from the extremity of the IRe
vector line, perpendicular to current vector OI and equal to IXsq is drawn then a line from
origin O and passing through the extremity of IXsq vector is drawn. The line gives the
direction of excitation voltage E0.
2. Knowing the direction of E0, the values of Id and Iq are determined. By adding vector ally
I d X sd and I q X sq to the extremity of resistive drop IRe, the magnitude of excitation
voltage E0 is determined as shown in the figure above.
3. It should be noted that the triangle involving the voltage IXsq and IqXsq is similar to the
triangle of the currents (shaded in fig.)
4. If the perpendicular drawn from the extremity of the IRe vector is produced so that its
length is equal to IXsd , the vector E0 , which is normally obtained from the synchronous
impedance method, can be determined.
'
In figure above the extremity of E 0 is shown on the line perpendicular to I d X sd and it is
slightly greater than E0, making the regulation as obtained by the synchronous method
greater than that obtained by the two reaction method. The difference depends upon the
saliency (ratio of pole pitch to pole arc) and increases with the increase in value of
saliency. One of the greatest difference between the two methods is the magnitude of
the torque angle, which is much larger when determined from the synchronous
impedance vectors than when found from the two reaction diagram.
EXAMPLE 1
A 3 phase Y-connected salient pole synchronous generator is driven at a speed near
synchronous with field circuit open, and the stator is supplied from a balanced 3 phase
supply. Voltmeter connected across the line gave min. and max. reading of 2800V and
2820V. The line current fluctuated between 360A and 275A.
Find the direct and quadrature axis synchronous reactance per phase. Neglect armature
resistance.
SOLUTION
Maximum voltage = 2820V
Minimum voltage = 2800V
Maximum current = 360A
Minimum current = 275A

a) Direct axis synchronous reactance between lines

max imum..voltage 2820
   10.25
min imum..current 275
10.25
Direct axis synchronous reactance per phase X sd   5.92
3

40
 b) Quadrature axis synchronous reactance between lines
min imum..voltage 2800
   7.778
max imum..current 360
7.778
Quadrature axis synchronous reactance per phase X sq   45
3

EXAMPLE II
An alternator has a direct-axis synchronous reactance of 0.8 p.u. and quadrature axis
synchronous reactance of 0.5 p.u. Draw the vector diagram for full load at a lagging p.f. of 0.8
and find the p.u. value of the open circuit voltage, with full load excitation. Neglect resistance
and saturation
SOLUTION:
OA=V
AB=IXsq=0.5 times of terminal voltage = 0.5V
OB=
 
OA 2  AB 2  2OA  AB   Cos 90 0    V 2  0.5V   2V  0.5V   0.6  1.36V
2

BD  FC  I d X sd  X sq   ISin  X sd  X sq   I X sd  X sq Sin  0.8V  0.5V Sin

BH VSin   IX sq 0.6V  0.5V
Tan     1.375
OH VCos 0.8V

Or   Tan 11.375  54 0

Sin 54 0  0.809 Therefore,

BD  0.8V  0.5V   0.809  0.2427V

Therefore, EMF generated, E 0  OD  OB  BD  1.36V  0.2427V   1.6027V

41