Active Filters 3.1 Introduction Uptiil now the various op-amp circuits are discussed, which are used in variety of applications. Another important filed of applications using op-amps is active filters. The filters are the circuits used to seperate the complex signals according to the frequency ranges. Basically filters are classified as digital filters and analog filters. The filters are widely used in communication, signal processing, wave shaping and in almost all modern electronic instruments. The analong filters using op-amps are called active filters. This chapter explains the basic concepts and design procedures required to design various types of active filters. 3.2 Active Filters A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specified band of frequencies while attenuating all the signals outside that band. It is a frequency selective circuit The filters are basically classified as active filters and passive filters. The passive filter networks use only passive elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors. On the other hand, active filter circuits use the active elements such as op-amps, transistors along with the resistors, inductors and capacitors. Modern active filters do not use inductors as the inductors are bulky, heavy and nonlinear. The inductors generate the stray magnetic fields. The inductors dissipate considerable amount of power. 3.2.1 Advantages of Active Filters The active filters have the following advantges over the passive filters, 1. All the elements along with op-amp can be used in the integrated form. Hence there is reduction in size and weight. In large quantities, the cost of the integrated circuit can be much lower than its equivalent passive network. 3. Due to availability of modem ICs, variety of cheaper op-amps are available. The op-amp gain can be easily controlled in the closed loop fashion hence active filter input signals is not attenuated. x . (3-1)Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-2 Active Filters 5. Due to flexibility in gain and frequency adjustments, the active filters can be easily tuned. 6. The op-amp has high input impedance and low output impedance hence the active filters using op-amp do not cause loading of the source or load. 7. The inductors are absent in the active filters hence the modem active filters are more economical. 8. Active filters can be realized under number of class of functions such as Butterworth, Thomson, Chebyshev, Cauer etc. 9. The response is improved as compared to passive filters due to ready availability of high quality components. 10. The design procedure is simpler than that for the passive filters. 11. Active filters can provide voltage gains, in contrast the passive filters often show a significant voltage loss. Inspite of the above advantages, the active filters also have certain limitations. The finite bandwidth of the active devices place a limit on the highest frequency of operation. For most of the applications, with present day technology, a reasonably good filter performance can be achieved approximately upto 500 kHz. As against this, passive filters can be used upto 500 MHz. Another important factor is the sensitivity. The active elements are much more sensitive to the temperature and the environmental changes than the passive elements. Hence due to changes in the parameters due to the environmental changes, the active filter performance deviates from its ideal response. ‘The requirement of d.c. power supply is another disadvantage of the active filters. The passive filters do not require the d.c. supply. ‘The most commonly used filters are, 1. Low Pass (LP) filter 2. High Pass (HP) filter 3. Band Pass (BP) filter 4, Band Reject (BR) filter. This is also called Band Stop or Band Elimination filter. 5. All Pass filter 3.3 Concept of Filter and Frequency Response The first basic type of filter is low pass filter. As the name suggests, it passes low frequency signal from input to output while it blocks high frequency signals from input. Consider a low pass filter represented by a block as shown in the Fig. 3.1. The input voltage v, has a low frequency signal along with some unwanted high frequency signals. The unwanted high frequency signals are called hash and are generated due to noise,Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-3 Active Filters scratching sounds etc. The function of low pass filter is to remove this hash from input and to produce low frequency signal output. This is shown in the Fig. 3.1. Input v, Output ve Signal with hash Low frequency output removing hash from input Fig. 3.1 Concept of low pass filtering If input consists many low frequency signals then each one gets transmitted to the output, without any change in amplitude. ‘Thus low pass filter is a circuit which passes the low frequency signals from input to output, rejecting the high frequency signals. 3.3.1 Frequency Response Any filter has two important characteristics, 1. Transfer function which is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input. It is denoted as T(s). Replacing variable s by jo we get the frequency domain transfer function T( jo). This also represents gain of the filter. TH) = yes VG ie, TGo) = ae T(jo) need not be always gain but sometimes it may be an attenuation or loss. Depending upon whether it is an attenuation or gain, it is represented as a or A. Mathematically attenuation or loss is defined as, a = ~20 log |T| dB v1) The unit of attenuation is decibel (4B). When the circuit provides attenuation or loss, |T| <1; log |T| is negative, hence to get « positive minus sign is introduced in equation (1). Similarly the gain is defined as, A = 2 log |T| aB -Q) When a circuit provides gain, |T| > 1; so log |T| is positive, hence A is positive. The unit of gain is also decibel (dB).Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-4 Active Filters 2. Consider a transfer function of the form given by, ay(s)+az _ NG) 70) = bi@eb, ~ Ds) ~“®) where aj, ay, b, and b, are real constants; may be either positive or negative. Then equation (3) can be modified as, Te) = 2 stt2/a1 8441 0 by s+b, 7b, stp; The constant K is called system gain factor or scale factor. The complex frequencies which make the value of the system function infinite are called poles. In our case, s = ~ p, is the pole of the system as the system function becomes infinite when it is substituted in the denominator. jo ‘The complex frequencies which make the value of the system function zero are called zeros. In our case, $= ~ 2 is the zero of the system as the system function becomes zero when it is substituted in the numerator. The pole-zero # = plot for the transfer function in equation (4) is as shown in 1m the Fig. 3.2. Note that the scale factor K is not specified in Fig. 3.2 pole-zero plot as it is a plot for frequencies only. ‘The highest power of s in the denominator ploynomial of T(s) represents the order of the filter. 3. The cut-off frequency ©, which indicates that frequency where filter changes its function. This means for a low pass filter, it passes all frequencies below 4 and rejects all frequencies above @,. The magnitude of transfrer function |T(jo)| remains constant for all frequencies below oy for low pass filter. While |T(jot)| decreases and becomes ideally zero for frequencies greater than @y. ima The graph of magnitude of Gain of Brick transfer function |T(jo)| against filter wall the frequency is called frequency response of a filter. For a low pass filter, the ideal frequency response is shown in the Fig. 33. Frequency The | T(ja)| is constant for @y. The frequency band 0 < @< ag is called pass band. Fig. 3.3 Ideal frequency response of low pass While the frequency band for > oyAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-5 Active Filters is called stop band. Due to a brick like structure, the characteristics is called brick wall, which is ideal for low pass filter. Practically such as instantaneous drop in |T(jo)| at @= aq is not possible. But the gain |T(jo)| starts decreasing from w, onwards and becomes almost zero after a band of frequencies. This band is called transition band which practically exists in all types of filters. The decrease in gain during transition band is called gain roll off. This rate depends on the order of the filter and is called n-pole roll off. More the value of n, more fast is the roll off and more ideal is the frequency response. This is shown in the Fig. 34 {T(jeo)} Gain of filter Brick 9 wall Fig. 3.4 Practical frequency response of low pass filter Practically the n pole roll off is measured as change in gain in decibles per decade change in frequency ie. dB/decade. The gain decreases by 3 dB from its constant value at © = and then it decreases by higher rate. After the end of transition band the gain becomes almost zero. Using proper design techniques, precision components and high speed op-amps, the practical response can be obtained very close to the ideal response. 3.4 Frequency Response Characteristics of other Types of Filters Let us study the frequency response characteristics of other types of filters which are high pass, band pass, band elimination and all pass filters. 3.4.1 High Pass Filter In the high pass filter, the filter rejects the frequencies which are less than cut-off frequency @y and it allows to pass the frequencies which are greater than w,. Thus the range of frequencies 0 < @ < @y is stop band while @ > dg is the pass band. The Fig. 35 shows the ideal and practical frequency response characteristics of high pass filter.Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-6 Active Filters Tico) IT(ja)) 1 pole roll off (a) Ideal response (b) Practical response Fig. 3.5 Frequency response characteristics of high pass filter Practically transition band is designed to be very small such that practical response almost matches with the ideal response and the two bands stop and pass are separated at cut-off frequency @, itself 3.4.2 Band Pass Filter The band pass filter has two stop bands and two cut-off frequencies. It rejects the frequencies less than @, and the frequencies higher than «,, while it passes the band of frequencies between w, and @,. Thus 0 < @ < @, and @> @, are the stop bands while ©, << @, is the pass band. The frequency between w, and @, where the gain |T( jo)| attains maximum value is called centre frequency denoted as @,. At @, and @,, the gain 3.dB down from its maximum value hence are called 3 dB frequencies. The difference ©,-0, is called bandwidth of the filter. The Fig. 3.6 shows the ideal and practical frequency response characteristics of band pass filter. IT(joo)} IT (jcoyt Stop Pass Stop _ band band band f : : i 0 * % ei ® 2 (a) Ideal response (b) Practical response Fig. 3.6 Frequency response characteristics of band pass filterAnalog & Digital IC-Design 3.4.3 Band Elimination Filter This is also called band rejection filter or band stop filter or notch filter. Its characteristics are exactly opposite to that of band pass filter. There are two pass bands and one stop band. The stop band is between two 3 dB frequencies @, and a,. For the frequency ranges 0 < @ < @, and @, > ware the two pass bands while the band for (©, <@< @, is the stop band. The frequency at which the gain is minimum (almost zero) is called centre frequency denoted as @,. At frequency , , the practical response shows a notch hence this filter is also called a notch filter. The Fig. 3.7 shows the ideal and practical characteristics of bend elimination filter. Applications 3-7 Active Filters ITjeo)) T(@)] (2) Ideal response (b) Practical response Fig. 3.7 Frequency response characteristics of band elimination filter 3.4.4 All Pass Filter The all pass filter passes all the frequencies but it produces the phase shift between the input and output The output and input voltages are equal in amplitude for all the frequencies but with the phase shift between the two. The frequency upto which the input-output amplitudes remains same is decided by the unity gain bandwidth (UGB) of the op-amp used. The characteristics showing phase shift between input and output is shown in Fig. 3.8. Fig. 3.8 Alll pass filterAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-8 Active Filters 3.5 Practical Filter Realization Before the actual discussion of practical filter realization, let us study various controlled sources which are considered as the basic active elements and how op-amp can be used as a controlled source, in the filters. 3.5.1 Controlled Sources We have seen that the various elements are classified as active elements and passive elements. An‘element is said to be active, if it can supply energy to an external circuit. The voltage and current sources are the active elements which are used in various electrical networks. The various controlled sources can be considered as the basic active elements. In the controlled sources, an input voltage can be used to control an output voltage or current, or an input current can be used to control an output voltage or current. Thus there are four different types of controlled sources which are, 1. Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) : In this source, the output voltage V. is oe + controlled by an input voltage V,. The ideal { voltage controlled voltage source is shown in yy Ky, Vo=KV; the Fig. 3.19, The output voltage is K times the input voltage where K is constant. = = The input impedance of ideal voltage controlled voltage source is infinite. Fig. 3.9 Ideal VCVS 2. Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS) : 2 h=KVy In this source, an output current I, is as controlled by an input voltage V). The ideal t voltage controlled current source is shown Mi kv in the Fig. 3.10. The output current is K times the input voltage where K is constant. Fig. 3.10 Ideal VCCS 3. Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) : —-1, In this source, the output voltage V, is * dependent on the input current 1). The ideal current controlled voltage source is shown in the Fig. 3.11. The output voltage is K times the input current where K is constant. Ky Vo = Kl, Fig. 3.11 Ideal CCVSAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-9 Active Filters 4. Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS) : In this source, the output current I, 1 —- hs po een is dependent on' the input current 1. ‘The ideal current controlled current Ki, source is shown in the Fig. 3.12. The output current I, is K times —— input current where K is constant. Fig. 3.12 Ideal CCCS 3.5.2 Op-amp as a Controlled Source Operational amplifier can be used to obtain various types of practical controlled sources. The op-amp itself is ideally considered as dual input infinite gain voltage controlled voltage source. The characteristics of ideal op-amp like infinite voltage gain, infinite input impedance, zero output impedance etc. are very useful to use op-amp to form various controlled sources. Op-amp as VCVS : The voltage controlled voltage source using op-amp can be obtained in two ways as shown in the Fig. 3.13 (a) and (b). Ry ) (o) Fig. 3.13 In the inverting mode, the input is applied to an inverting terminal of op-amp while in the noninverting mode, the input is applied to a noninverting terminal. In the inverting mode, Ry Vo = ~RE Yn =- KV, a where K = == Constant and negative sign indicates phase shift. 1Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-10 Active Filters In the noninverting mode, R, Vo = (t+Rt )=* Op-amp as VCCS : The voltage controlled —_ current source using op-amp can be obtained as ly shown in the Fig. 3.14. R, The inverting terminal is at ground Vye—wWw— potential as noninverting terminal is |) V, grounded. This is due to the virtual short. The input current to the op-amp is zero. So I, =I,. Thus controlling Vj, 1, can be controlled and thus the output current through R,, can be controlled. Fig. 3.14 J where Kae Op-amp as CCVS : R The current controlled voltage source using op-amp can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 3.15. Now, Ip =1y iy The op-amp input current is zero. ° Vo = -IoRy =-1)R,, =Kly where K = -R, The negative sign indicates opposite polarity Fig. 3.15 of the outpt voltage. Thus controlling I,, output voltage is controlled. Op-amp as CCCS : ‘The current controlled current source using op-amp can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 3.16. As the op-amp input current is zero, the input I, and current through R, is same. Now, I, = hthAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-11 Active Filters As R, and Rp are in parallel due to the virtual short, —k R, ty Re 2 1 Ry = uf R; 1 fs beh =i, one gh = 4.1 Fig. 3.16 where K = 143 Thus controlling the input current 1, the output current I,, can be controlled. In most of the filters, op-amp used in noninverting mode as a voltage controlled voltage source is used. In active filters, a basic structure can be used to design any type of filter of any order. Such a standard structure available for second order active filter design is called Sallen-Key structure. Knowing this second order structure, selecting proper components, first order to any order active filter can be designed. Let us study and derive the transfer function of Sallen-key basic structure for second order active filter design. 3.6 First Order Active Filters To realize an active filter using op-amp as an active element, one can use capacitor as external element. In frequency domain the impedance offered by capacitor is given by, 11 Zcleje = 37 jot +) When such a component is used as filter element then naturally the gain becomes frequency dependend with magnitude as well as phase. Because the impedance offered by capacitor is infinite for d.c. conditions i.e. at zero frequency. Hence it acts as open circuit. But at infinite frequency, the impedance offered by capacitor becomes zero, hence it acts as short circuit. Let us consider basic op-amp applications namely differentiator and integrator. 3.6.1 Ideal Differentiator An ideal differentiator is as shown in the Fig. 3.17. As node B is grounded, voltage V, = 0. Due to virtual ground, voltage V, is also equal to zero. As ideally input current of op-amp is zero, entire current 1, flows through the feedback resistance R.Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-12 Active Filters Fig. 3.17 Ideal differentiator We can write, at the input side, dVin d I = CH (Vin Va) = CGE +) At the output side, current I, is given by, Va -V. R l= +8) Equating equations (2) and (3), we get, - 4) Taking Laplace transform of the equation (4), we get, V,(s) = - CR [s V,,(5)] Vols) © Tie = FO" +65) Replacing s by jo, we get, Voli) _ Feces =~ RO) (jo) = =j@RC Let cm = ae be the scaling frequency then, jo) = YO, oo Te) = y2Goy" Tap 7a, < (6)Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-13 Active Filters. The magnitude of the gain is given by, ‘ © A = |T Go)| = 8n( 7) (in dB) At very low frequency like = 0, the gain is zero but as frequency increases, gain also increases at @ = @y the gain becomes zero dB. After that the gain increases at a rate 20dB/decade. When w < Wy, the ratio w/e, is less than unity, hence 20 log (=) is negative. But when @ > @y, the ratio / @, is greater than unity, hence 20 log (=) positive. The frequency response of differentiator is as shown in the Fig, 3.18. Fig. 3.18 Magnitude plot of ideal differentiator Thus from the equation (6), we can conclude that in every decade, the amplitude varies (either increases or decreases) by 20 dB while the circuit provides 90° phase lag (negative angle indicates phase lag). For lower frequencies i.e. © < wy the impedance Z,, offered by capacitor is very large as compared with resistor R, then the circuit provides attenuation which is indicated by negative decibels. While for higher frequencies ic. « > @y, the impedance Z,. is very small as compared with R, thus the circuit provides gain indicated by positive decibels. Lastly the frequency = «4g is called unity gain frequency because at that frequency circuit provides unity gain indicated by zero decibels. 3.6.2 Ideal Integrator An ideal integrator is as shown in the Fig. 3.19. Node B is grounded, hence V, = 0. Due to the virtual ground node A is at same potential, V, = 0. As the input current of the op-amp is zero, the current I, flows through the capacitor C.Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-14 Active Filters Fig. 3.19 Ideal integrator At input side, we can write, At output side, we can write, = chi, -Vo) = - oe +9) Equating equations (8) and (9), we can write, <= (10) Taking Laplace transform of equation (10), we get, v0 = “ff Vols) 1 (11) Vins) ~~ (ROs Replacing s by ja, we get, VoG@) _ 1 1 Vino) ~ ~ ROVGo) ~~ FRCa) Let oy = gc be the scaling frequency, we can write,Analog & Digital 1C-Design & Applications 3-15 Active Filters T(jo) +(12) ‘The magnitude of the gain is given by, 1 en ip) = TG)! = logio (2) (13) (in dB) a At very low frequencies such as dec. (@ = 0) the gain becomes infinite because the impedance offered by capacitor ie. Z, is too large as compared with resistor R. Thus capacitor acts as open circuit. When capacitor is open circuited, the op-amp is driven in open loop configuration. The open loop gain of the op-amp is ideally infinite. As the frequency increases, the gain drops, and the response is similar to low pass filter. At very low frequencies, the gain is very large at @ = @y the gain becomes unity (0 dB). Then for @> «, Fig. 3.20 Magnitude plot of ideal integrator the gain rolls off at a rate of 20 dB/decade as shown in the Fig. 3.20. 3.7 Low Pass Filter with Gain A low pass filter with gain can be obtained by simply connecting a resistor in parallel with a capacitor in feedback path in an ideal integrator as shown in the Fig. 3.21. Fig. 3.21 A low pass filter with gain using integrator circuitAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-16 Active Filters The operation amplifier has input offset voltage (V,,,) and the input bias current (1,). In the absence of input voltage or at zero frequency (d.c.), op-amp gain is very high. The input offset voltage gets amplified and appears at the output as an error voltage. The bias current also results in a capacitor charging current and adds its effect in an output error voltage. The two components, due to high d.c. gain of op-amp cause output to ramp up or down, depending upon the polarities of offset voltage and/or bias current. After some time, output of op-amp may achieve its saturation level. Hence there is a possibility of op-amp saturation due to such an error voltage and it is very difficult to pull op-amp out of saturation. Thus the output of an ideal integrator in the absence of input signal is likely to be offset towards the positive or negative saturation levels, In the presence of the input signal also, the two components namely offset voltage and bias current, contribute an error voltage at the output. Thus it is not possible to get a true integration of the input signal at the output. Output waveform may be distorted due to such an error voltage. Another limitation of an ideal integrator is its bandwidth, which is very small. Hence an ideal integrator can be used for a very small frequency range of the input only. Due to all these limitations, an ideal integrator is not used in practice. Some additional components are used along with the basic integrator circuit to reduce the effect of an error voltage, in practice. Such an integrator is called Practical Integrator Circuit. 3.7.1 Analysis of Low Pass Filter with Gain Refer Fig. 3.21. Node B is connected to ground terminal. Hence V, = 0. Similarly due to virtual ground V, = 0. As the input current of op-amp is zero, we can write, T= h+h a = CHIVA Vol Putting V, = 0, we get, Vin _ _ ¢4Vo_Vo Rg dt ~R, Taking Laplace transform of this equation, Vin(s) _ Vols) RL 7 TCE Vin(s) _ _[8R2C-1 Ye se Vols) -&z Ry V,(s) = acai Val)Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applicatior 7 Active Filters: Vols) Ry 1 TO) = Ya)” Ry HCH woth 3.7.2 Frequency Response of Low Pass Filter with Gain Consider equation (1), Vols) Ro 1 Vins) Ry sR7CFT 1s) = Replacing s by ja, Tje) = 72h =e +) Ry 1 a = Rand wy = Be then Ty 14j{2 % At low frequencies i.e. for @< @, the capacitive reactance is higher than Ry, hence can be neglected compared with R,. Hence the op-amp simply acts as inverting amplifier which provides gain Ty = -R, /'R,- At o=0, T(ja) +) I py = Be +0 1 " IT Go| ie. |T (jo)| in dB 20 og [52 Ja8 = [Tol 4B 1 Here Ty is called a d.c. gain which is obained at = 0 ie. d.c. condition. Thus we get a horizontal line at value |p] (apy. Now at higher frequencies, ie. for > @s, the capacitive reactance is very smaller than R, Thus now we can neglect R, compared with capacitive reactance Zc. Thus at higher frequency, the line with slope - 20 dB / decade acts as asymptote which passes through point @, = jz whichis the unity gain frequency (indicated by zero decibels). At @= @, equation (3) becomes, T(jo) = ITGo)| = ol)Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-18 Active Filters In alternative form, we can write, |T(jo)|4B = |T)|dB-3 4B (8) Thus @, is called - 3 dB frequency at which power reduces to half of its maximum. value. This frequency is the frequency at which the operation of the circuit changes from being amplifier to integrator. So from © = @, (3 4B frequency) to @= @, (unity gain frequency) integration takes place. But below @= (, integration does not take place. As the integrator operation is limited to narrow bandwidth in higher frequency region, above circuit is called lossy integrator. The uen mse is as shown in the hoe a Fig. 3.22 Magnitude plot of low pass filter with gain From frequency plot we can conclude that the response is nothing but the low pass filter characteristics. The frequencies in low frequency region are passed with gain almost equal to |Ty| dB. But the higher frequencies ie. @> ag are attenuated and stoped by the filter. Thus «y is the cut-off frequency of a low pass filter with gain Ty. mm Example 3.1: Design a low pass filter with a d.c. gain of 20 dB and cut-off frequency at 1.0 kHz. At what frequency gain drops to 0 dB ? Calculate phase at that frequency. Solution : a) A d.c. gain |Ty| dB = 20 dB ie 20 1810(R*) = 20dB Ry g = 10 (1) Let R, = 10 kQ then R, = 10 (R,) = 10 (10 K) = 100 ka For low pass filter, the cut-off frequency is given by, J % = RC 1 = ———__,.—_—_ = 15915 nF c= J OR2 — 2xnx103 «100x109 Hence the low pass filter with 20 dB dc. gain and cut-off at 1 kHz is as shown in the Fig. 3.23.Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-19 Active Filters 100 kQ +-(2) But |T(jo)| = 1, we get, 10 2 1+(m) = 1% le 1000 f = 9.9498 kHz Similarly the phase at f = 9.9498 kHz is given by, sone o* | = 180°- tan”! 1x103 = 180° - 84.26° > = 95.74°Analog & Digital [C-Design & Applications 3-20 Active Filters 3.8 High Pass Filter with Gain A high pass filter with gain can be obtained by simply connecting a series resistance with capacitor in an ideal differentiator as shown in the Fig. 3.24. R, r Fig. 3.24 High pass filter with gain using differentiator circuit 3.8.1 Analysis of High Pass Filter with Gain Node B is connected to ground terminals. Hence V, = 0. Similarly due to virtual ground, V, = 0. As the input current of op-amp is zero, the current I at input as well as at output is same. At input side, we can write, where Z = R, in series with C. ea(]) sue (Vy = 0) +) --Q) Taking Laplace transform of above equation, Vols) _ __Rp__ -sCR, Vin) ~ “Tp T+sR\C ” rRAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-21 Vols) _ -R2 _sR\C Vint) Ry T¥sR,C _ Vols) _ -Ry sR, TS) = VG)" Ry Trsk,C 3.8.2 Frequency Response of High Pass Filter with Gain Consider equation (4), we get, Vols) _ -Ry _sR,C VG)" Ry Tesk,C Ts) = Replacing s by jo, we get, _ _ Vo(ja) joR,C Te) = Vi Gay T+joR,C To) vf) a) +6) A) The frequencies @, and ty are two break frequencies. Let RC, is much larger than R\C, then «, < oy. So as frequency increases, gain increases till @ = ay at a rate +20dB / decade. At w= ap, the cut-off occurs hence it is - 3 dB frequency. For higher frequencies, @ > wy, the capacitive reactance is much smaller than Rj, we can neglect it being replaced by short circnit. Then the gain remains almost constant to value |T,| 4B. ‘Thus at «@ the operation of the circuit changes from being differentiator to amplifier.Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-22 Active Filters At @= @), the gain becomes unity hence it is called unity gain frequency. The frequency response of the high pass filter is as shown in the Fig. 3.25. From response we can conclude that the response shown is the high pass filter characteristic. For the frequencies @ < wy, the filter provides attenuation and are stopped by it. But all higher frequencies, @ > a, the attenuation is zero and all are passed with gain almost equal to |Ty|4B. Thus @) is the cut-off frequency of high pass filter with high frequency gain Ty. 3.9 Wideband Band Pass Filter Fig. 3.25 Magnitude plot of high pass filter with gain By combining the elements of a low pass filter and high pass filter, a band pass filter with wideband can be realized as shown in the Fig. 3.26. Ry Ro Va Min “ets T Fig. 3.26 Wideband band pass filter circuit (combining a low pass filter and high pass filter) 3.9.1 Analysis of Wideband Band Pass Filter At input side, R, and C, are in series. Let _ 1 _ sR,C, +1 Zs Rte =A) In the feedback path, R, and C, are in parallel. 1 R. Let Be nist; )- mae +2)Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-23 Active Filters Then the equivalent circuit becomes Fig. 3.27 Equivalent circuit The node B is connected to ground terminals. Hence V, = 0. Due to the virtual ground, V, = 0. The input current of op-amp is zero, so the current at input side is same as that at output side. At input side, we can write, Vin=Va_ _ Vin zee 8) At output side, we can write, wf) 7 Vo 22 Va "Zi “O) Substituting values of Z, and Z,, we get, v, . (rte) Vin (A) 1 _ Vols) 1 sC TS) = Wea) -- Brae |e)Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-24 Active Filters Te) = We. re SRiC \(=axs) (6) Vin) Ry | T¥8RiC] }| TFSRIC. From equation (6) it is clear that for above transfer function there is zero at s = 0 ie. at origin. While there are two poles respectively at = ~~ and 5 = — 11 i R,C, Replacing s by jo, we get, _ Raf joR,Cy 1 Na) = “(ree T¥j@R{C; ®) R, 1 1 Let Ty = -;2. aa) & @ oor, then oF RY ORC ORG 14j2 To) = %)-———--_. (8) 0 ig] wig] o ® Here Hy is called mid frequency gain which is almost constant @=«, to @=,. Above filter acts as a band pass filter if @, <@,. The frequencies @, and , are called lower and upper 3 dB frequencies. The frequency response of wideband band pass filter is as Fig. 3.28 Frequency response of wideband band pass filter 3.10 Standard Second Order Responses In general, for standard first order responses of low pass filter and high pass filter, the transfer function is of similar type as given below. ayo) = Nd ._NGa wt Beja) (2) 14j(/2 % It is clear that, the denominator term is same in both first order filters. The numerator N{o) determines the response. For low pass filter, N(j@) = 1 while for high pass filter Nia) =i } Duet the seating factor Tye the de. gin or high foquency gain i ow a pass and high pass filter, the response nature is unaltered. Only depending upon value ofAnalog & Digital |C-Design & Applications 3-25 Active Filters the T, whether it is positive or negative, the magnitude plot gets shifted up to done as discussed in earlier section. For first order filter, the degree of denominator polynomial is. Now in case of the second order filters, the degree of denominator polynomial is 2. The standard form of all the second order functions is given by, Te = ——No__ a) 2 s s — | +(28)/— 1 (a) a( a, Now the degree of the numerator polynomial may be equal to 2 or less than 2 but can't be greater than 2. The frequency (p is called undamped natural frequency or simply natural frequency which is measured in rad/sec. The parameter which is newly introudced is ¢ (zeta) which is known as damping ratio. The roots of the denominator polynomial are given by, GHG) ——ay % os fae? 4 tans et] Spa, pa = Sam ty 8a - 05 Spr,p2 = ~So*¥ 6-Day, Spu.pa = Lt Y8?=1l -@) From equation (3) it is clear that there are two poles of a standard second order responses and the location of poles are controlled by none other than &. From equation (3), we can list different conclusions which are required in the analysis of second order filters. 1. If §> 1, then the term under radical sign is positive. Thus we get both the poles as real and negative poles. Thus these two poles will be located in the left half of a s-plane in pole-zero plot. Thus the natural response consists two exponential decaying factors. Such response is termed to be overdamped response. 2. If & = 0, then the poles are given by, Spi,p2 = ti% 4) ‘pl, p2Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-26 Active Filters Thus the poles are purely imaginary and complex conjugate of each other. Both these poles will lie on the imaginary axis. The natural response for such imaginary poles is sustained or undamped_ with frequency a. 3) If 0 < € < 1, then from equation (3), we can write, Spa, p2 = ~E0b ty (1-8? 6) The poles are complex conjugate in nature and lie on the left half of s-plane and not along the imaginary axis, Such response is underdamped response. 4) For & < 0, from equation (3) it is clear je that the poles lie on right half of s-plane as = Soi, p2= smo (6) <7 Now the response becomes unstable ‘ } giving diverging response as the exponential pepe. [ab term is growing and not the decaying. Thus 0 for the stable operation of all the filters, & value must be always greater than 0. The jo root locus of a general second order transfer Fig. 3.29 Root locus of a general 2" function is as shown in Fig. 3.29. order transfer function Replacing s by join equation (1), we get, Tho) = NGO) {8) “fe Let Q = 7g be a dimensionless quantity, then above expression can be rearranged as given below, Ngo) aj: s) To) = @) 3.10.1 Low Pass Response (T,,) In general, all second order low pass filter response can be represented in the standard form given by, To) = [Top] [Tp (io)]Digital IC-Design & Applications 3 - 27 Active Filters Note that Typ is a constant called as d.c. gain. The function T; p(«) is given by, Tia) = ———_ (8) {2} fs) ®% ‘0 . Let us consider following approximations so that we can construct a magnitude response. 1. For @ << ay we can neglect 2 and 3 term in denominator. Hence, the function can be stated as per consideration, T,p > 1. Thus the low frequency asymptote is given by \Typ] dB = 0 2. For @>> ag the 24 term in denominator is dominant, then we get T, » > ~ ‘Thus the high frequency asymptote is given by, 2 vi. ITipl dB = 2010g|7o (3) o ie. ITjpldB = ~ 40106} +) Above equation is of the type y = mx ie. a straight line of slope m equal to -40 dB/decade. Now in second order response the slope is doubled to - 40 dB/decade as compared with that in first order response with only - 20 dB/decade. 3. For @ = Gy the two asymptote meet together. Because first and third term in denominator cancel each other, we get, Typ = - jQ. ie. [TpldB = | -j Q| = QaB (10) The value of Q decides the response of the second order functions. Typically value of Q ranges from 0.5 to 100. For lower values of Q the asympote gradually changes to other asympote. But for high values of Q, we get peak in the response as shown in the Fig. 330. The most commonly preferred value of Q is unity. Gain (in 4B) Fig. 3.30 Second order low pass filter response for different values of QAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-28 Active Filters The value of Q after which peaking of the magnitude response starts is z ie. 0.707. Such a magnitude response with Q = 0.707 is called maximally flat response which is nothing but Butterworth response. 1 . At Q = —=0707, with o=ap, t Q yn" with @= @ 1 [Typ] = Q 4B = 7, = 0707 Thus the frequency @p is called cut-off frequency of low pass filter. For Q > 2, for the peaked response, the frequency at which |Typl is maximum can 8 = os a, “3 | (11) be defined as Then corresponding maxima is given by, ITepl max = 2 wa(12) i 4Q? From above equations it is clear that, for higher values of Q, say Q > 5, we get, @~ % ITrplmax=2 Such peaked responses are useful in cascade design of higher order filters. 3.10.2 High Pass Response (T,,,) Similar to low pass response, we can in general express high pass response Tysp a8, TG) = MToypl Typ (io)] Note that Tyyyp is called high frequency gain. The function Typ (jw) is given by, -=(13) When we replace s by jw, we get double zero at origin with a pair of pole as compared with low pass response. It is observed that the magnitude plot of the high pass function Typ is exactly the mirror image of the magnitude plot of low pass function T,p asAnalog & Digital [C-Design & Applications 3-29 Active Filters j = is replaced by —!. The response for different values of Q is as shown in the ® Fig. 331. Fig. 3.31 Magnitude response of second order high pass function for different values of Q 3.11 KRC Filters A single stage of R - C filter gives standard first order response. When we cascade two such stages of R - C filter, it gives a standard second order response. Consider a second order low pass filter using passive elements as shown in the Fig. 3.32(a). R R R AWW AN Vin I cy © (a) Passive fiter “ (b) Active filter Fig. 3.32 Active and passive second order low pass filter By the property of capacitor, at lower frequencies both act as open circuit, thus the signal is passed through the circuit to output without any gain in case of passive filter. At higher frequencies, both the capacitors act as short circuit, thus the input signal gets directly shunted to ground by C, and C, step by step. Thus the attenuation is provided in two steps. Hence such filters are named as second order filters. Moreover first order filter indicates - 20 dB/decade slope in the magnitude response while the second order filter indicates — 40 dB/decade slope in the magnitude response.Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-30 Active Filters Now the passive type of second order low pass filter is able to provide asymptotic slope of - 40 dB/decade in the magnitude response. But the main drawback of all passive filters is that they do not have flexibility to control the response at @=@y i.e. at cut-off. Moreover the value of Q for all passive filters is less than 0.5 (i.e. Q < 0.5). As we have discussed earlier that with such a lower value of Q, the transition of one asymptote to other asymptote is very gradual and not fast. For fast transition of one asymptote to other asymptote in a magnitude response at @=@), we must modify the response at that cut-off frequency. One of the possible ways to achieve this is to use a controlled amount of positive feedback. Consider active second order low pass filter as shown in the Fig. 332(b). The second stage consists R, and C,. The output V, is measured across C,. This output voltage is amplified using amplifier with gain K and the fed back via C, as shown in the Fig. 3.32 (b). The main requirement of this positive feedback is that it should be effective near @=«) only. Now if @<<@p, the capacitor C, acts as open circuit, then its impedance will be too large and hence signal is not fed back. If @>>@p, the C, acts as short circuit hence output voltage becomes too small thus again the signal is not fed back. But at «=«p, signal is fed back where peaking of response near @=@y is achieved by controlling gain of filter. Such filters are called KRC filters or Sallen-Key filters. 3.11.1 KRC Low Pass Filters Consider a Sallen-Key pass filter in which op-amp is used in noninverting mode. Fig. 3.33 Sallen-Key low pass filter (KRC filter) Let K be the gain of op-amp and for noninverting mode the gain can be written as, K=1+ e --(1)Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-31 Active Filters As the gain provided by op-amp is K, the voltage at node B can be written as, Vy = ae a) But from output node, 1 Yo = KRG Hi (8) At node A applying KCL, we get 1, +1L,+1, = 0 Nin Vay. Now eliminating V, and collecting all the terms we get, Vols) _ K Tis) = = ——__,___* ________iw = VG) (RyCyRyC,)s? +[(1-K) RyCy #RyCy #RCy] 8+1 Putting s = jo, we get, a kK Go) = ———_____*___________ 1a? RyCyRyCp + joo{(1 -K) RyCy +RyCo +RyCp] Let us compare equation (5) with standard form of second order low pass function given by, +6) TE = Typ Tp (0d = Tp ——--_—- (6)Analog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-32 Active Filters But for individual stages, the cut-off frequencies are given by, 1 1 er r= RC Me MRS Substituting in equation (7), we get, «= ee a) This equation (8) indicates that the frequency ois the geometric mean of @, and @, which are frequencies of the two stages in cascade. Comparing last term in denominator, we get, () ™ Jol -K)R, G+ G+ Gl=+5 Q= 1 = RC, RG FRG oC 1 But @) = . Putting in abor tio uty = “rere Putting in above equation, we get a Ri, | [RiGp | [RG a 9) OOWYR Ce *VRaCr YRC, Thus from equations (6), (7) and (9) it is clear that values of K and Q depends on the ratio of different components in the circuit. While @, is dependent on product of different component values. But due to the tolerances of the components and the non-ideal parameters of the op-amp, the actual values of the parameters of active filter are different than designed values. Thus for tuning filters, following procedures is used. i) For desired value of wp, adjust R,. But this varies value of Q. ii) After adjusting value of wp, adjust value of Ry for desired value of Q, this will not vary the value of @). But not that once Ry is changed, value of K will be varied, but from the point of view of frequency response it is not important because K is simply the gain of op-amp. Thus by adjusting K, Ry, Ry, C, and C, we can fulfil three equations mentioned earlier. The procedure is to fix any two component values and obtain design equations for remaining three components. 3.11.11 Equal-component KRC Low Pass Filter To obtain equal-component KRC low pass filter let us select, R= Rak ad,=G=CAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-33 Active Filters Then equations (6), (7) and (9) becomes, Tur = K _ li % = RE 1 QO aR ‘Then the design equations for equal-component KRC low pass filter are given by, .. (10) mm Example 3.2 : Using design equations for the equal-component KRC filter, specify values of components if fy = 1 kHz, Q = 4. What will be dc. gain ? Solution : Let C, = C, = C = 0.1 pF Then using design equation, 1 1 1 p--. = ——___1 ______. 15915 1a GC > BmIIC ~ 2x 0x1 x10 x0.1x10~ * Now using another design equation, 1 1 K= 3-9 =3-gr tes Thus the d.c. gain of the equal-component KRC low pass filter is 2.75. But K = 14+ 8-275 Ra Ry _ Ry Let Ry = 10k then Rg = (1.75) (10 x 10°) = 17.5 kQAnalog & Digital IC-Design & Applications 3-34 Active Filters Hence the equai-component KRC low pass filter with Q = 4 and w) = 1 kHz is as shown in the Fig. 3.34. 10 kQ ATS kKQ + Lm Re 1.5915kQ 1.5915 kK. Fig. 3.34 3.1.1.2 Unity-gain KRC Low Pass Filter Unity-gain filter means K = 1. That means the non-inverting amplifier must be replaced by a voltage follower. This adjustment reduces the components in the circuit and along with that the bandwidth of the circuit is also increased. The circuit is as shown in the Fig. 3.35. Vie Fig. 3.35 Unity-gain KRC low pass filter with voltage follower configuration In unity-gain KRC low pass filter, let us assume, R, = R =C then, R, = mR, C,=nC