Chapter 8

RF/Microwave Measurements

1
Introduction
• At low frequencies
• parameters such as voltage, current, etc. can be measured.
• from these impedance, power factor and phase angle can be
calculated.
• At microwave frequencies
• It is more convenient to measure power instead of V and I.
• Properties of devices and circuits at microwave frequencies are
characterized by S-parameters, power, frequency and VSWR and
noise figure.

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Power Measurement
Power is defined as the quantity of energy dissipated or stored per
unit time.
Microwave power is divided into three categories:
low power (less than 10mW),
medium power (from 10mW to 10W) and
high power (greater than 10W).
Average power concept is used in microwaves
PAvg = PPeak X Duty cycle

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Power Measurement
 The general measurement technique for average power is to attach a
properly calibrated sensor to the transmission line port at which the
unknown power is to be measured.
 The output from the sensor is connected to an appropriate power
meter.
 The RF power to the sensor is then turned off and the power meter
zeroed. This operation is often referred to as “zero setting” or “zeroing.”
 Power is then turned on. The sensor, reacting to the new input level,
sends a signal to the power meter and the new meter reading is
observed.
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Power Measurement
Sensors for the measurement of microwave power can be divided
into two categories:
 Devices whose resistance changes with applied power such as
Schottky diode detectors, bolometer, thermocouple, etc. (used for
low power measurements).
 Devices whose temperature changes with the applied power like
calorimeter (used for medium to high power measurement).

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Power Measurement
Schottky Barrier Diode Detectors
These are used as square law detector whose output is proportional
to the input power.
These are able to detect and measure power as low as −70 dBm (100
pW) at frequencies up to 18 GHz.
The RF input signal is applied to R1, it passes through R2.
The diode detects the input power and converts into heat energy.
The corresponding temperature rise provides a change in electrical
parameters which outputs current in low frequency circuitry.
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Calorimeter Method
• Calorimetric method is used
for high power microwave
measurements which
involves conversion of
microwave energy into heat.
• The heat is absorbed by a
fluid (usually water) and
then temperature of fluid is
measured to calculate
power.

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Calorimeter Method
• There are two methods to measure the heat of the fluid:
• Direct heating method: The rate of production of heat is measured
by observing the rise in temperature of dissipating medium.
• Indirect heating method: In this method heat is transferred to
another medium before measurement.
• In both the methods static calorimeter and circular
calorimeter are used.

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Static Calorimeter
• Static calorimeter consists of a 50 ohm coaxial cable which is filled by dielectric
load with a high hysteresis loss.
• The load has sufficient thermal isolation from surrounding.
• The load dissipates the microwave power.
• The average power input in watts is given by:
4.187𝑚𝐶𝑝𝑇
𝑃= 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑡
where, m = mass of thermometric medium in grams.
Cp= Specific heat of medium in cal/grams
T = rise in temperature in degrees or Kelvin
t= time in seconds
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Circular Calorimeter
• In circulating calorimeters the calorimeter fluid (water) is constantly flowing
through a water load,
• The heat introduced into the fluid makes exit temperature higher than the input
temperature.
• The average power is given by

𝑃 = 4.187𝑣𝑑𝐶𝑝(𝑇2 − 𝑇1) 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

where, v = rate of flow of calorimeter fluid in cc/sec
d = specific gravity of the fluid in gm/cc
T1=inlet temperature
T2 = outlet temperature
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Calorimeter Wattmeter/Powermeter
• The unknown RF power is checked against a 1200-cps
(Hz/cycles per second) comparison power in the
bridge circuit.
• Two temperature-sensitive resistors serve as gauges.
• In operation, the unknown RF heats an input load
resistor.
• This resistor and one gauge are in close thermal
proximity so that heat generated in the input load
heats the gauge and unbalances the bridge.
• The unbalanced signal is amplified and applied to the
comparison load resistor which is in close proximity to
the second gauge, and rebalances the bridge.
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Calorimeter Wattmeter/Powermeter
• The meter measures the power supplied
to the comparison load to rebalance the
bridge.
• Efficient heat transfer from the loads to
the temperature gauges is accomplished
by immersing the components in an oil
stream.

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Power Measurement
Bolometer Bridge Method
Bolometers are power sensors that operate by changing
resistance due to a change in temperature.
The change in temperature results from converting RF or
microwave energy into heat within the bolometric element.
There are two principle types of bolometers, barretters and
thermistors.

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Bolometer
A barretter is a thin wire (like a fuse made of platinum or tungsten) that has a
positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
Thermistors are semiconductors with a negative temperature coefficient.

Barretter Thermistor
Kobid Karkee, KEC Dhapakhel 14
Power Measurement
Bolometers are usually operated in standard
Wheatstone bridge circuit.
A bolometer mounting is placed on one of the
arms of the bridge.
The microwave power incident on the
bolometer changes its resistance which
imbalances the bridge.
The change in the galvanometer current
measures the incident power.
Proportionate calibration of galvanometer can
be done to read the power.
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Single Bridge Bolometer
• Initially the bridge is at its balanced condition
under zero incident power.
• The microwave power applied to bolometer
arm will change its resistance causing an
unbalance.
• The non-zero power is recorded in voltmeter
which is calibrated to read the level of input
microwave power.
• Suppose under balanced condition, the dc
bias voltage of bolometer is E1 and E2 is the dc
bias voltage of bolometer after microwave
input is applied.
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Single Bridge Bolometer
• The change in dc bias voltage (E1 – E2) is
directly proportional to the microwave power.
• Disadvantage of using single bridge:
• The change of resistance due to mismatch
at the microwave input part results in
incorrect reading.
• The thermistor is sensitive to changes in
ambient temperature resulting in false
reading.
• These disadvantages can be overcome by
using microwave double bridge.

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Double Bridge Bolometer
• The upper bridge measures the microwave
power.
• The lower bridge compensates the effects of
ambient temperature variation(V1=V2).
• The added microwave power due to mismatch
is compensated by the negative dc feedback.
• The initial zero setting of the bridge is done by
adjusting E1= E2= E0 with no input signal
applied.
• In absence of input signal E1/2 is the dc
biasing voltage across the sensor at balance.
• In presence of input signal E2/2 is the dc
biasing voltage across the sensor at balance.
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Double Bridge Bolometer
• The average input Pav is equal to the change
in dc power:

• For any change in temperature if the voltage

change by ΔE, the change in RF power is given
by:

• Since V1+V2 >> ΔV , ΔP=0, so the second

equation can be used directly to calculate the
average power.

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Thermocouple Sensors
• A thermocouple is a junction of two dissimilar
metals or semiconductors.
• The semiconductor used in thermocouple is n-type
Si.
• A thin film of titanium-nitride resistive load is
deposited on a Si substrate which forms one
electrode of thermocouple.
• The thermocouple generates an emf when two
ends are heated up differently by absorption of
microwaves in resistive loads.
• The emf is proportional to the incident microwave
power to be measured.

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Thermocouple Sensors
• As shown in figure, C2 is the RF bypass capacitor
and C1 is the input coupling capacitor or dc block.
• The emf generated in the parallel thermocouples
are added to appear across C2.
• The output leads going to the dc voltmeter are at
RF ground so that the output meter reads pure dc
voltage proportional to the input microwave
power.
• For square wave modulated microwave signal peak
power can be calculated from average power as
Ppeak = (Pavg X T)/τ where T is time period
τ is pulse width

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Slotted Line Carriages
• A slotted line carriage is a microwave instrument which is used to measure:
• Wavelength
• Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) and standing wave pattern
• Impedance, reflection coefficient and return loss measurement
• It has a coaxial E-field probe which penetrates inside a rectangular waveguides
slotted in sections from the outer wall.
• The probe is able to transverse a longitudinal narrow slot and locate the
standing waves maxima(Vmax) and minima(Vmin) along the line giving VSWR.

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VSWR Meter
• VSWR meter is a highly sensitive, high gain, low noise voltage amplifier tuned
normally at fixed frequency of 1KHZ square wave of which microwave signals
modulated.
• The modulated signal is then amplified and detected which then measured
with a calibrated voltmeter.
• This meter indicates calibrated VSWR reading for any loads.

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Spectrum Analyser
• Spectrum analyser is a microwave instrument which provides signal
spectrums, i.e. the plot of amplitude against the frequencies.
• The simplified block diagram is shown below:

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Spectrum Analyser
• The microwave signal to be measured is superheterodyned with sweep
voltage produced by a sweep generator and oscillates with local oscillator.
• The mixed signal is then amplified by narrow bandwidth intermediate
frequency amplifier.
• The signal is then detected and video amplified for display in terms of
amplitude and frequency.
• The sweep voltage is sawtooth type signal.
• The zero flyback time of sweep voltage moves the spot on display
horizontally in synchronization with frequency sweep.
• This makes the horizontal position function of frequency and amplitude of
signal the vertical deflection of the signal.

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Vector Network Analyser (VNA)
• VNA measures both amplitude
and phase over a wide range of
frequencies.
• When an RF signal is applied to
a network, such as a filter,
amplifier, or transmission line,
that signal is altered in
magnitude and phase.
• If the magnitude and phase of
the altered signal can be
compared to the magnitude
and phase of the originating RF
signal, the characteristics of
that network can be evaluated.

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Vector Network Analyser (VNA)
• The network, or component, being tested is called the Device Under Test
(DUT).
• The RF signal that is input to the DUT is the Reference signal.
• The DUT will alter the Reference signal's two components, Magnitude and
Phase.
• The DUT will change the magnitude component, due to it's resistive
natures.
• It will alter the phase component due to it's reactive natures.
• These two altered components of the Reference signal are measured by
the magnitude and phase comparators within the VNA with reference
signal.

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Vector Network Analyser (VNA)
• The output of the Magnitude Comparator is some value that
represents the difference between the voltage, or power, of it's two
input signals.
• This value of differential magnitude is called the Magnitude Vector.
• The output of the Phase Comparator is some value that represents
the difference between the phase of it's two input signals.
• This value of differential phase is called the Phase Vector.

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