Chapter 8

RF/Microwave
Measurements
PRESENTED BY:
KOBID KARKEE
KANTIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DHAPAKHEL, LALITPUR
 Introduction 2

 At low frequencies
 parameters such as voltage, current, etc. can be measured.
 from these impedance, power factor and phase angle can
be calculated.
 At microwave frequencies
 It is more convenient to measure power instead of V and I.
 Properties of devices and circuits at microwave
frequencies are characterized by S-parameters, power,
frequency and VSWR and noise figure.
 Power Measurement 3

 Power is defined as the quantity of energy

dissipated or stored per unit time.
 Microwave power is divided into three categories:
 low power (less than 10mW),
 medium power (from 10mW to 10W) and
 high power (greater than 10W).

 Average power concept is used in microwaves

PAvg = PPeak X Duty cycle
 Power Measurement 4

 The general measurement technique for average power is to

attach a properly calibrated sensor to the transmission line
port at which the unknown power is to be measured.
 The output from the sensor is connected to an appropriate
power meter.
 The RF power to the sensor is then turned off and the power
meter zeroed. This operation is often referred to as “zero
setting” or “zeroing.”
 Power is then turned on. The sensor, reacting to the new input
level, sends a signal to the power meter and the new meter
reading is observed.
 Power Measurement 5

 Sensors for the measurement of microwave power can be

divided into two categories:
 Deviceswhose resistance changes with applied
power such as Schottky diode detectors, bolometer,
thermocouple, etc. (used for low power
measurements).
 Devices
whose temperature changes with the applied
power like calorimeter (used for medium to high
power measurement).
 Power Measurement
Schottky Barrier Diode Detectors 6
 These are used as square law detector whose
output is proportional to square of the input
power.
 These are able to detect and measure power as
low as −70 dBm (100 pW) at frequencies up to 18
GHz.
 The RF input signal is applied to R1, it passes
through R2.
 The diode detects the input power and converts
into heat energy.
 The corresponding temperature rise provides a
change in electrical parameters which outputs
current in low frequency circuitry.
 Calorimeter Method 7

 Calorimetric method is
used for high power
microwave measurements
which involves conversion
of microwave energy into
heat.
 The heat is absorbed by a
fluid (usually water) and
then temperature of fluid is
measured to calculate
power.
 Calorimeter Method 8

 There are two methods to measure the heat of the

fluid:
 Direct heating method: The rate of production of heat is
measured by observing the rise in temperature of
dissipating medium.
 Indirect heating method: In this method heat is
transferred to another medium before measurement.
 Inboth the methods static calorimeter and circular
calorimeter are used.
 Static Calorimeter 9
 Static calorimeter consists of a 50 ohm coaxial cable which is filled by
dielectric load with a high hysteresis loss.
 The load has sufficient thermal isolation from surrounding.
 The load dissipates the microwave power.
 The average power input in watts is given by:
𝟒. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝒎𝑪𝒑𝑻
𝑷= 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝒕
where, m = mass of thermometric medium in grams.
Cp= Specific heat of medium in cal/grams
T = rise in temperature in degrees or Kelvin
t= time in seconds
 Circular Calorimeter
 In circulating calorimeters the calorimeter fluid
10
(water) is constantly flowing through a water
load,
 The heat introduced into the fluid makes exit
temperature higher than the input temperature.
 The average power is given by

𝑷 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟖𝟕𝒗𝒅𝑪𝒑(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏) 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

where, v = rate of flow of calorimeter fluid in cc/sec
d = specific gravity of the fluid in gm/cc
T1=inlet temperature
T2 = outlet temperature
 Calorimeter Wattmeter/Powermeter 11
 The unknown RF power is checked against
a 1200-cps (Hz/cycles per second)
comparison power in the bridge circuit.
 Two temperature-sensitive resistors serve
as gauges.
 In operation, the unknown RF heats an
input load resistor.
 This resistor and one gauge are in close
thermal proximity so that heat generated
in the input load heats the gauge and
unbalances the bridge.
 Calorimeter Wattmeter/Powermeter 12
 The unbalanced signal is amplified
and applied to the comparison load
resistor which is in close proximity to
the second gauge, and rebalances the
bridge.
 The meter measures the power
supplied to the comparison load to
rebalance the bridge.
 Efficient heat transfer from the loads
to the temperature gauges is
accomplished by immersing the
components in an oil stream.
 Power Measurement 13

Bolometer Bridge Method

 Bolometers are power sensors that operate by
changing resistance due to a change in temperature.
 Used for low power measurements.
 The change in temperature results from converting RF
or microwave energy into heat within the bolometric
element.
 There are two principle types of bolometers, barretters
and thermistors.
 Bolometer 14
A barretter is a thin wire (like a fuse made of platinum or
tungsten) that has a positive temperature coefficient of
resistance.
 Thermistors are semiconductors with a negative temperature
coefficient.

Thermistor
Barretter
 Bolometers 15
 Bolometers are usually operated in standard Wheatstone
bridge circuit.
A bolometer mounting is placed on one of the arms of the
bridge.
 The microwave power incident on the bolometer changes its
resistance which imbalances the bridge.
 The change in the galvanometer
current measures the incident
power.
 Proportionate calibration of
galvanometer can be done to read
the power.
 Single Bridge Bolometer
 Initially the bridge is balanced
16
condition by the adjustment of R5 done
under zero incident power.
 The microwave power applied to
bolometer arm R4 will change its
resistance causing an unbalance.
 The non-zero power is recorded in
voltmeter which is calibrated to read
the level of input microwave power.
 Suppose under balanced condition, the
dc bias voltage of bolometer is E1 and
E2 is the dc bias voltage of bolometer
after microwave input is applied. Balanced Bolometer Bridge Circuit
 Single Bridge Bolometer 17
 The change in dc bias voltage (E1 – E2)
is directly proportional to the
microwave power.
 Disadvantage of using single bridge:
 The change of resistance due to mismatch
at the microwave input part results in
incorrect reading.
 The thermistor is sensitive to changes in
ambient temperature resulting in false
reading. Balanced Bolometer Bridge Circuit

 These disadvantages can be overcome

by using microwave double bridge.
 Double Bridge Bolometer
18
 The upper bridge measures the microwave
power.
 The lower bridge compensates the effects of
ambient temperature variation(V1=V2).
 The added microwave power due to
mismatch is compensated by the negative dc
feedback.
 The initial zero setting of the bridge is done
by adjusting E1= E2= E0 with no input signal
applied.
 In absence of input signal E1/2 is the dc
biasing voltage across the sensor at balance.
 In presence of input signal E2/2 is the dc
biasing voltage across the sensor at balance.
 Double Bridge 19
Bolometer
 The average input Pav is equal to the
change in dc power:

 For any change in temperature if the

voltage change by ΔE, the change in
RF power is given by:

 Since V1+V2 >> ΔV , ΔP=0, so the

second equation can be used directly
to calculate the average power.
 Thermocouple Sensors 20
 A thermocouple is a junction of two
dissimilar metals or semiconductors.
 The semiconductor used in thermocouple is
n-type Si.
 A thin film of titanium-nitride resistive load
is deposited on a Si substrate which forms
one electrode of thermocouple.
 The thermocouple generates an emf when
two ends are heated up differently by
absorption of microwaves in resistive loads.
 The emf is proportional to the incident
microwave power to be measured.
 Thermocouple Sensors
21
 As shown in figure, C2 is the RF bypass capacitor
and C1 is the input coupling capacitor or dc block.
 The emf generated in the parallel thermocouples
are added to appear across C2.
 The output leads going to the dc voltmeter are at
RF ground so that the output meter reads pure dc
voltage proportional to the input microwave
power.
 For square wave modulated microwave signal
peak power can be calculated from average power
as
Ppeak = (Pavg X T)/τ where T is time period
τ is pulse width
 Slotted Line Carriages
 A slotted line carriage is a microwave instrument which is used to
22
measure:
 Wavelength
 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) and standing wave pattern
 Impedance, reflection coefficient and return loss measurement
 It has a coaxial E-field probe which penetrates inside a rectangular
waveguides slotted in sections from the outer wall.
 The probe is able to transverse a
longitudinal narrow slot and
locate the standing waves
maxima(Vmax) and minima(Vmin)
along the line giving VSWR.
 VSWR Meter 23
 VSWR meter is a highly sensitive, high gain, low noise voltage
amplifier tuned normally at fixed frequency of 1KHZ square
wave with which microwave signals are modulated.
 The modulated signal is then amplified and detected which is
then measured with a calibrated voltmeter.
 This meter indicates calibrated VSWR reading for any loads.
 Spectrum Analyser 24

 Spectrum analyser is a microwave instrument which

provides signal spectrums, i.e. the plot of amplitude against
the frequencies.
 The simplified block diagram is shown below:
 Spectrum Analyser 25
 The microwave signal to be measured is superheterodyned with
sweep voltage produced by a sweep generator and oscillates with
local oscillator.
 The mixed signal is then amplified by narrow bandwidth intermediate
frequency amplifier.
 The signal is then detected and video amplified for display in terms of
amplitude and frequency.
 The sweep voltage is sawtooth type signal.
 The zero flyback time of sweep voltage moves the spot on display
horizontally in synchronization with frequency sweep.
 This makes the horizontal position function of frequency and
amplitude of signal the vertical deflection of the signal.
 Vector Network Analyser (VNA) 26
 VNA measures both amplitude
and phase over a wide range of
frequencies.
 When an RF signal is applied to a
network, such as a filter,
amplifier, or transmission line,
that signal is altered in
magnitude and phase.
 If the magnitude and phase of
the altered signal can be
compared to the magnitude and
phase of the originating RF
signal, the characteristics of that
network can be evaluated.
 Vector Network Analyser (VNA) 27

 The network, or component, being tested is called the Device

Under Test (DUT).
 The RF signal that is input to the DUT is the Reference signal.
 The DUT will alter the Reference signal's two components,
Magnitude and Phase.
 The DUT will change the magnitude component, due to it's
resistive natures.
 It will alter the phase component due to it's reactive natures.
 These two altered components of the Reference signal are
measured by the magnitude and phase comparators within the
VNA with reference signal.
 Vector Network Analyser (VNA) 28

 The output of the Magnitude Comparator is some value that

represents the difference between the voltage, or power, of
it's two input signals.
 This value of differential magnitude is called the Magnitude
Vector.
 The output of the Phase Comparator is some value that
represents the difference between the phase of it's two input
signals.
 This value of differential phase is called the Phase Vector.