Chapter 4: RF/MW

Components and Devices:

Microwave Passive Devices

ER. KOBID KARKEE

KANTIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DHAPAKHEL, LALITPUR
Waveguide & Transmission Line 2
 Waveguide & Transmission Line 3

• Waveguide: hollow metal tube used to guide e.m. energy

from one point to another or through which e.m. waves
propagate.
• Typically one enclosed conductor filled with an
insulating medium.
• The transmission of e.m. energy along waveguide travels
at velocity slower than e.m. energy traveling through
free space.
• Transmission line: Two or more conductors separated by
some insulating medium.
Cont. 4

Transmission Waveguides
Line

Coaxial Rectangular Circular

Stripline
Line

Microstrip Ridge Flexible

 5

• It consists of a hollow rectangular waveguide

(rectangular cross section) that can propagate TM
and TE modes but not TEM since only one
conductor is present.
• The wall of the guides are conductors and therefore
reflection from them may take place.
• Applications: high-power systems, millimeter wave
applications, satellite systems, precision test
applications.
 6

• It is a standard convention to have the longest side of

the waveguide along x-axis [a (width) > b (length)]
 7

• It consists of a hollow, round (circular cross

section) metal pipe that supports TE and TM
waveguide modes.
• Applications: used in transmission of circularly
polarized waves, to connect components having
circular cross-section (e.g.: isolators or
attenuators) to rectangular waveguide.
 8

• The structure of such a circular waveguide with inner

radius a, is shown below:
Propagation Mode of EM 9
Wave
 Transverse Electromagnetic 10
(TEM)
• The electric field, E and the magnetic field, H are oriented
transverse to the direction of propagation of wave.
• Exists in plane waves and transmission lines (2
conductors).
y
• No cut-off frequency.
Ey

Direction of
Travel
z
Hx Hz

x
 Transverse Electric (TE) 11

• The electric field, E is transverse to the direction of

propagation of wave and the magnetic field, H has
components transverse and in the direction of the wave.
• Exists in waveguide modes.

Ey Direction of
travel
Hz
z
Hx
H
x
 Transverse Magnetic (TM) 12
• The magnetic field, H is transverse to the direction of
propagation of wave and the electric field, E has components
transverse and in the direction of the wave.
• Exists in waveguide modes.
y

E
Ey
Direction of
travel
z
Ez

Hx
x
13
 14

• Critical (cut-off) frequency, fc(Hz): the lowest frequency

for which a mode will propagate in a waveguide.
• Critical (cut-off) wavelength, λc (m/cycle): the largest
wavelength that can propagate in the waveguide without any
/ minimum attenuation (or the smallest free space
wavelength that is just unable to propagate in the
waveguide).
• Group velocity (vg, m/s):
a) The velocity at which a wave propagates.
b) Refers to the velocity of a group of waves.
c) It is also the velocity at which information signals or
energy is propagated.
 15
• Phase velocity (vp, m/s):
a) The velocity at which the wave changes phase.
b) It is the apparent velocity of the wave (i.e.: max
electric intensity point).
c) vp always equal to or greater than vg (vp ≥ vg).
d) It may exceed the velocity of light (velocity in
free space).
• The relationship between vg, vp and speed of light, c
is given by:
c2 = vgvp
 16

• Propagation wavelength in the waveguide (λg, m/s):

a)Wavelength of travelling wave that propagates down the
waveguide.
b)λg will be greater in the waveguide than in free space (λo).
• Waveguide characteristic impedance (Zo, Ω):
a)It depends on the cut-off frequency, which in turn is
determined by the guide dimension.
b)It is also closely related to the characteristic impedance of
free space (377 Ω).
c)Generally, Zo > 377 Ω.
 17

• Dominant mode (mode with lowest cutoff frequency)

for rectangular waveguide is TE1,0.
• A waveguide acts as a high-pass filter in that it passes
only those frequencies above the cutoff frequency.
vp
vg v p = c 2
g = o
c

c o
g = g =
f −f 1 − ( fc f )
2 2 2
c
 18

c c c ( g ) c
fc = = vp = =
2a c o 1 − ( fc f )
2

377 g
Zo = = 377 (TE mod e)
1 − ( fc f ) o
2

o
Z o = 377 (TM mod e)
g
 19

1. For a rectangular waveguide with a width of 3 cm and a

desired frequency of operation of 6 GHz (for dominant
mode), determine:
a) Cut-off frequency
b) Cut-off wavelength
c) Group velocity
d) Phase velocity
e) Propagation wavelength in the waveguide
f) Characteristic impedance
2. Repeat Example 1 for a rectangular waveguide with a width
of 2.5 cm and a desired frequency of operation of 7 GHz.
 20

• Dominant mode for circular waveguide is TE1,1.

• For TE1,1 mode, x’11 = 1.841 (solution of Bessel function
equation).

cxnp 2a
fc = c =
2a xnp

c
vp = vg v p = c 2
1 − ( fc f )
2
 21

o
g =
1 − ( fc f )
2

g
Z o = 377 (TE mod e)
o

o
Z o = 377 (TM mod e)
g
22
 23

1. For a circular waveguide with a radius of 1 cm and a desired

frequency of operation of 10 GHz (for dominant mode),
determine:
a) Cut-off frequency
b) Cut-off wavelength
c) Group velocity
d) Phase velocity
e) Propagation wavelength in the waveguide
f) Characteristic impedance
2. Repeat Example 1 for a circular waveguide with a radius of
2.5 cm and a desired frequency of operation of 7 GHz.
 Coupling Probes and Loops
 Coupling Loops and Probes are common techniques for coupling 24
microwave signal to the waveguide.
 Inject or remove energy from waveguide
 Probes couple primarily to an electric field, loops couple to a magnetic
field.
 Mechanical as well as electrical considerations have to be taken into
account while deciding whether to use a coupling loop or coupling
probe. The important factors to be considered are:
 Possibility of voltage breakdown in the vicinity of an antinode.
 Ease of adjusting the coupling.

 Constancy of coupling as mechanical changes made.

 Prevention of interference with the electron stream.

 Matching.
Coupling Probes 25

 When a small probe is inserted into a waveguide and supplied

with microwave energy, it acts as a quarter-wave antenna.
 Current flows in the probe and sets up an E field such as the
one shown in figure.
 The E lines detach themselves from the probe.
 When the probe is located at the point of highest efficiency, the
E lines set up an E field of considerable intensity.
 26

Figure: Probe Coupling in rectangular waveguide

Coupling Probes 27
 The most efficient place to locate the probe is in the centre of the
"a" wall, parallel to the "b" wall and one quarter-wavelength from
the shorted end of the waveguide, as shown in figure
 The point at which the E field is maximum in the dominant mode.
 Therefore, energy transfer (coupling) is maximum at this point.
Note that the quarter-wavelength spacing is at the frequency
required to propagate the dominant mode.
 The amount of energy transfer can be reduced by decreasing the
length of the probe, by moving it out of the centre of the E field,
or by shielding it. Where the degree of coupling must be varied
frequently, the probe is made retractable so the length can be
easily changed.
Coupling Probes 28

➢ The size and shape of the probe determines its frequency,

bandwidth, and power-handling capability.
➢ The diameter of a probe increases, the bandwidth
increases. A probe similar in shape to a door knob is
capable of handling much higher power and a larger
bandwidth than a conventional probe.
➢ The greater power-handling capability is directly related to
the increased surface area. Two examples of broad-
bandwidth probes are illustrated in figure.
➢ Removal of energy from a waveguide is simply a reversal of
the injection process using the same type of probe.
 Coupling Loops
29
 Another way of injecting energy into a waveguide is by setting
up an H field in the waveguide.
 This can be accomplished by inserting a small loop which
carries a high current into the waveguide, as shown in figure.
 A magnetic field builds up around the loop and expands to fit
the waveguide, as shown in figure.
 If the frequency of the current in the loop is within the
bandwidth of the waveguide, energy will be transferred to the
waveguide.
 30

Figure: Loop Coupling in rectangular waveguide

 Coupling Loops
31
 For the most efficient coupling to the waveguide, the loop is
inserted at one of several points where the magnetic field will be of
greatest strength. Four of those points are shown in figure.
 When less efficient coupling is desired, you can rotate or move the
loop until it encircles a smaller number of H lines. When the
diameter of the loop is increased, its power-handling capability
also increases.
 The bandwidth can be increased by increasing the size of the wire
used to make the loop.
 When a loop is introduced into a waveguide in which an H field is
present, a current is induced in the loop.
 When this condition exists, energy is removed from the waveguide.
Slot/Aperture Coupling 32

 Slots or apertures are sometimes used when very loose

(inefficient) coupling is desired, as shown in figure.
 In this method energy enters through a small slot in the
waveguide and the E field expands into the waveguide.
 The E lines expand first across the slot and then across the
interior of the waveguide.
 Minimum reflections occur when energy is injected or
removed if the size of the slot is properly proportioned to
the frequency of the energy.
 33

Figure: Aperture Coupling in rectangular waveguide

 34

 After learning how energy is coupled into and out of a

waveguide with slots, you might think that leaving the end
open is the most simple way of injecting or removing energy
in a waveguide.
 This is not the case, however, because when energy leaves a
waveguide, fields form around the end of the waveguide.
 These fields cause an impedance mismatch which, in turn,
causes the development of standing waves and a drastic loss
in efficiency.
 Various methods of impedance matching and terminating
waveguides are required.
 Waveguide Impedance Matching 35
 Waveguide transmission systems are not always perfectly impedance
matched to their load devices.
 The standing waves that result from a mismatch cause a power loss,
a reduction in power-handling capability, and an increase in
frequency sensitivity.
 Impedance-changing devices are therefore placed in the waveguide
to match the waveguide to the load. These devices are placed near
the source of the standing waves.
 Figure illustrates three devices, called irises, that are used to
introduce inductance or capacitance into a waveguide.
 An iris is nothing more than a metal plate that contains an opening
through which the waves may pass. The iris is located in the
transverse plane.
 An inductive iris and its equivalent circuit are illustrated in figure
view (A). The iris places a shunt inductive reactance across the 36
waveguide that is directly proportional to the size of the opening.
 Notice that the edges of the inductive iris are perpendicular to
the magnetic plane.
 `The shunt capacitive reactance, illustrated in view (B), basically
acts the same way. Again, the reactance is directly proportional
to the size of the opening, but the edges of the iris are
perpendicular to the electric plane.
 The iris, illustrated in view (C), has portions across both the
magnetic and electric planes and forms an equivalent parallel-LC
circuit across the waveguide.
 At the resonant frequency, the iris acts as a high shunt resistance.
Above or below resonance, the iris acts as a capacitive or
inductive reactance.
37
Waveguide Window 38

 Waveguide windows, also known as Diaphragms, Apertures

or Irises, are used to provide impedance matching in the
waveguide in the same way as we used stubs in case of
transmission lines. Three common types of windows
include:
 Inductive Windows
 Capacitive Windows
 Resonant Windows
 Inductive Window 39
 Conducting diaphragms extending in a waveguide from side walls as
shown in figure have the effect of adding an inductive susceptance
across the waveguide at the point at which diaphragms are placed.
 This is because, the iris in figure allows current to flow where none
flowed before.
 The electric field that advanced before now has conducting surface in
its plane, which permits current flow.
 Thus some energy is stored in the magnetic field which leads to an
increased inductance at that point of the waveguide.
 Such an element is therefore, called an inductive window.
 The amount of normalised inductive susceptance added is a function
of the window insertion distance l.
 Capacitive Window 40
 Conducting diaphragms extending into the waveguide from top and
bottom walls constitute what is known as a capacitive window as
shown in figure.
 These windows produce the effect of ac capacitive susceptance
shunted across the waveguide at that point.
 It is obvious that the potential which earlier had existed between
top and bottom walls of waveguide now exists between surfaces
that are closer.
 This results in an increased capacitance at that point.
 Capacitive windows are not used extensively because of the danger
of voltage breakdown which ultimately places a limit on the power
that can be transmitted through the waveguide.
Resonant Window 41
 A conducting diaphragm of the form shown in figure gives the
effect of a parallel tuned LC circuit connected across the guide
at the point where diaphragm is placed.
 An equivalent circuit is shown in figure. As a first
approximation, a resonant window may be considered to be a
combination of an inductive and a capacitive window, at the
same point in the guide.
 If the inner dimensions of aperture are properly chosen, the
frequency range covered is large. However, a limit of minimum
aperture size prevents any further changes.
Resonant Window 42
 The value of Q that can be obtained
is of the order of 10 and decreases as
the size of aperture is increased.
Since impedance offered by the
resonant window is very high for the
dominant mode, and the shunting
effect is negligible for the same
mode, other modes will be
significantly attenuated. Windows
are usually employed only to correct
a permanent mismatch, rather than
to provide adjustable matching.
 POSTS and SCREWS 43
 POSTS and SCREWS made from conductive material can be used for
impedance-changing devices in waveguides.
 Figure A and B, illustrate two basic methods of using posts and
screws.
 A post or screw which only partially penetrates into the waveguide
acts as a shunt capacitive reactance.
 When the post or screw extends completely through the
waveguide, making contact with the top and bottom walls, it acts as
an inductive reactance. Note that when screws are used the amount
of reactance can be varied.
 When the depth of the penetration is /4, a series resonance
occurs .
 44

Figure A: Conducting POSTS and SCREWS Penetrating

Figure B: Conducting POSTS and SCREWS Extending through

Attenuator 45

 An attenuator is a passive microwave component which,

when inserted in the signal path of a system, reduces the
signal by a specified amount.
 They normally possess a low VSWR which makes them
ideal for reducing load VSWR in order to reduce
measurement uncertainties.
 They are sometimes used simply to absorb power, either
to reduce it to a measurable level
Attenuators and Loads 46

 Attenuator works by putting carbon vane or flap into the

waveguide
 Currents induced in the carbon cause loss
 Load is similar but at end of guide
 Attenuators are classified as either fixed or variable and
either reflective or non-reflective.
 47

Lossy wall attenuator

Waveguide Termination 48

 Waveguide Junctions are used whenever it is desired to

combine two or more signals into one or split a signal into two
or more components in a waveguide system. The commonly
used waveguide junction includes:
 E-Plane tee junction
 H-plane tee junction
 Hybrid junction
 Magic Hybrid Tee
 Hybrid Ring (Rat-race Junction)
E-Plane Tee 49

 E-plane Tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its side arm
is parallel to the E field of the main guide.
 An E-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple
waveguide to the broader dimension of a rectangular waveguide,
which already has two ports.
 The arms of rectangular waveguides
make two ports called collinear ports i.e.,
Port1 and Port2, while the new one,
Port3 is called as Side arm or E-arm.
 This E-plane Tee is also called as Series
Tee.
E-Plane Tee 50

 As the axis of the side arm is parallel to the electric field, this
junction is called E-Plane Tee junction. This is also called as
Voltage or Series junction.
 The ports 1 and 2 are 180° out of phase with each other.
 The alongside figure shows the
connection made by the sidearm to the
bi-directional waveguide to form the
parallel port.
 The E-plane tee can be used as signal
combiner or splitter.
 51
 When the waves are fed into the side arm (Port 3), the waves
appearing at port 1 and port 2 of the collinear arm will be in
opposite phase and in the same magnitude➔Signal splitter.
 52
 When the two input waves are fed from Port 1 and Port 2 of
the collinear arm, the signals combine at Port 3 providing
phasor sum ➔Signal combiner.
 If the fields fed at port 1 and port 2 are of same amplitude
and phase, then the output at port 3 will be zero due to phase
cancellation.
 If the fields fed at port 1 and port 2 are
of same magnitude but 1800 out of
phase, then the output at port 3 will be
doubled in magnitude than that fed at
port 1 or port 3.
53
 H-Plane Tee 54
 An H-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple
waveguide to a rectangular waveguide which already has
two ports.
 The arms of rectangular waveguides make two ports called
collinear ports i.e., Port1 and Port2, while the new one,
Port3 is called as Side arm or H-arm.
 This H-plane Tee is also called as Shunt
Tee.
 All three arms lie in the plane of H-field
which is equally divided.
 H-Plane Tee 55
 As the axis of the side arm is parallel to the magnetic field,
this junction is called H-Plane Tee junction.
 This is also called as Current junction, as the magnetic field
divides itself into arms.
 The alongside figure shows the
connection made by the sidearm to the
bi-directional waveguide to form the
serial port.
H-Plane Tee 56

 If two input of waves are fed

into port 1 and port 2 of the
collinear arm, the output wave
at port 3 will be the phasor
sum.
 If port 1 and port 2 are
terminated with matched load
and the input is fed into port 3,
the wave will split equally into
port 1 and port 2 in phase.
57
Magic Tee (Hybrid Tee) 58
 A magic tee is combination of E-Plane tee and H-Plane tee.
 It is formed by attaching two simple waveguides one
parallel and the other series, to a rectangular waveguide
which already has two ports.
 This is also called as E-H Plane Tee, or Hybrid or 3dB
coupler.
 The arms of rectangular waveguides make
two ports called collinear ports i.e., Port 1
and Port 2, while the Port 4 is called as H-
Arm or Sum port or Parallel port. Port 3 is
called as E-Arm or Difference port or Series
port.
 Characteristics of Magic Tee 59

 If a signal of equal phase and magnitude is sent to port 1 and port 2,

then the output at port 3 is zero and the output at port 4 will be the
additive of both the ports 1 and 2.
 If a signal is sent to port 3, (E-arm) then the power is divided
between port 1 and 2 equally but in opposite phase, while there
would be no output at port 3. Hence, S43 = 0.
 If a signal is fed at port 4, then the power is divided between port 1
and 2 equally, while there would be no output at port 3. Hence, S34 =
0.
 If a signal is fed at one of the collinear ports, then there appears no
output at the other collinear port, as the E-arm produces a phase
delay and the H-arm produces a phase advance. So, S12 = S21 = 0.
Characteristics of Magic Tee 60
 Applications of Magic Tee 61

 It is used as a duplexer − A duplexer is a circuit which works as both

the transmitter and the receiver, using a single antenna for both
purposes. Port 1 and 2 are used as receiver and transmitter where
they are isolated and hence will not interfere. Antenna is connected
to E-Arm port. A matched load is connected to H-Arm port, which
provides no reflections. Now, there exists transmission or reception
without any problem.
 It is used as a mixer − E-Arm port is connected with antenna and the
H-Arm port is connected with local oscillator. Port 2 has a matched
load which has no reflections and port 1 has the mixer circuit, which
gets half of the signal power and half of the oscillator power to
produce IF frequency.
Practical Example of Magic Tee 62
 Suppose there are two identical radar transmitters in equipment
stock. A particular application requires twice more input power to an
antenna than either transmitter can deliver. Give your appropriate
solution for the given problem with explanation.
Solution:
 A magic tee may be used to couple the two transmitters to the
antenna in such way that the transmitters do not load each other.
For that, the two transmitter should be connected to port 3 and 4
respectively as shown in figure.
 Transmitter 1, connected to port 3, causes a wave to emanate
from port 1 and another at port 2, both equal in magnitude but
opposite in phase.
 Transmitter 2, connected to port 4, gives rise to a wave at port 1
63
and another at port 2, both equal in magnitude and in phase.
 At port 1 the two opposite waves cancel each other.
 At port 2 the two in-phase waves add together so double output
power at port 2 is obtained for the antenna
 Hybrid Ring 64
 Hybrid Ring is also called Rat-Race
Circuits
 A normal three-port Tee junction is
taken and a fourth port is added to it, to
make it a ratrace junction.
 All of these ports are connected in
angular ring forms at equal intervals
using series or parallel junctions.
 This microwave device is used when
there is a need to combine two signals
with no phase difference and to avoid
the signals with a path difference.
 Hybrid Ring 65
 The mean circumference of total race is
1.5λ and each of the four ports are
separated by a distance of λ/4.
 The alongside figure shows the image of
a Rat-race junction.
 Operation of Hybrid Ring 66
 Case I:
 If the input power is applied at port 1, it
gets equally split into two ports, but in
clockwise direction for port 2 and anti-
clockwise direction for port 4. Port 3
has absolutely no output.
 The reason being, at ports 2 and 4, the
powers combine in phase, whereas at
port 3, cancellation occurs due to λ/2
path difference.
 Operation of Hybrid Ring 67
 Case II:
 If the input power is applied at port
3, the power gets equally divided
between port 2 and port 4. But there
will be no output at port 1.
 Case III:
 If two unequal signals are applied at
port 1 itself, then the output will be
proportional to the sum of the two
input signals, which is divided
between port 2 and 4.
 Now at port 3, the differential output
appears.
 68
 The S-Matrix for an ideal hybrid ring can be expressed as,

 The phase cancellation occurs only at a designed frequency for

an ideal hybrid ring.
 Actual Hybrid ring have same leakage couplings, and therefore
the zero elements in the matrix are not quite equal to zero.
 Rat-race junction is used for combining two signals and
dividing a signal into two halves.
Practical View of Waveguide Tee 69

H-Plane Tee E-Plane Tee

Magic Tee
 Directional Couplers 70
 A Directional coupler is a device that
samples a small amount of Microwave
power for measurement purposes.
 The power measurements include
incident power, reflected power, VSWR
values, etc.
 Directional Coupler is a 4-port
waveguide junction consisting of a
primary main waveguide and a
secondary auxiliary waveguide.
 It is used to couple the Microwave power which may be unidirectional or bi-
directional.
 Properties of Directional 71
Couplers
 All the terminations are matched to the ports.
 When the power travels from Port 1 to Port 2, some portion of it gets
coupled to Port 4 but not to Port 3.
 As it is also a bi-directional coupler, when the power travels from Port
2 to Port 1, some portion of it gets coupled to Port 3 but not to Port 4.
 If the power is incident through Port 3, a portion of it is coupled to Port
2, but not to Port 1.
 If the power is incident through Port 4, a portion of it is coupled to Port
1, but not to Port 2.
 Port 1 and 3 are decoupled as are Port 2 and Port 4.
➢ Ideally, the output of Port 3 should
be zero. However, practically, a 72
small amount of power called back
power is observed at Port 3.
➢ The alongside figure indicates the
power flow in a directional coupler.
where,
Pi = Incident power at Port 1

Pr = Received power at Port 2

Pf = Forward coupled power at

Port 4

Pb = Back power at Port 3

Directional Coupler Parameter 73

 The performance of directional coupler is measured

in terms of four basic parameters:
1. Coupling Factor (C):
 Measure of how much of power is being sampled.
 Ratio of power levels in main and auxiliary waveguides.
 Ratio of incident power to forward power.
Directional Coupler Parameter 74

2. Directivity (D):
 Measure of how well the directional coupler
distinguishes between forward and reverse
travelling power.
 Ratio of forward coupled power level and back
power level in auxiliary waveguide.
Directional Coupler Parameter 75

3. Isolation (I):
 Measures the directional properties.
 Ratio of incident power in main waveguide to the
reverse power at auxiliary waveguide.
 I = C.D
 I (dB)= [C]dB+[D]dB
Directional Coupler Parameter 76

4. Return/Insertion Loss (R):

 Ratio of power incident to the power transmitted in
the primary arm.
 Two-Hole Directional Couplers 77

 This is a directional
coupler with same
main and auxiliary
waveguides, but with
two small holes that are
common between
them.
 These holes are λg/4
distance apart where λg
is the guide
wavelength.
Two-Hole Directional Couplers 78

 A two-hole directional coupler is designed to meet the ideal

requirement of directional coupler, which is to avoid back power.
 Some of the power while travelling between Port 1 and Port 2,
escapes through the holes 1 and 2.
 The magnitude of the power depends upon the dimensions of the
holes.
 This leakage power at both the holes are in phase at hole 2, adding
up the power contributing to the forward power Pf.
 However, it is out of phase at hole 1, cancelling each other and
preventing the back power to occur.
 Hence, the directivity of a directional coupler improves.
Phase Shifter 79

 Microwave phase shifter is an instrument or device that

produces desired change in the phase of a propagating wave
without any attenuation.
 Similar to attenuator but uses ferrite instead of carbon vane.
 It is a device designed to alter the phase of microwave signals
at the output of a microwave transmission line with respect
to the phase of the microwave signals at the input of the line.
 The phase of an electromagnetic wave of a given frequency
can be shifted when propagating through a transmission line.
 The phase shift is achieved by changing the electrical length
of the line.
Phase Shifter 80

 When a wave propagates on a line, a phase difference

prevails between any two arbitrary points along its path.
 Usually, it is constant, and is determined by the velocity of
propagation.
 The phase difference between two points, ‘L’ distance apart
can be written as

 Types of phase shifters:

1. Dielectric Phase Shifter
2. Rotary Phase Shifter
Dielectric Phase Shifter 81
 A simplest waveguide phase shifter consists
of a rectangular waveguide loaded with a
dielectric slab of thickness t, height h, and
dielectric constant ε in such a way that
dimension h is parallel to the electric field of
the dominant TE10 mode as shown in figure.
 The inserted dielectric reduces the velocity
of propagation of microwaves which results
in an increased electrical path.
Rotary Phase Shifter 82

 A precision rotary phase shifter is shown in figure.

E∠2θ0

E∠θ0
Precision Rotary Phase Shifter 83

 The instrument consists of two rectangular to circular

waveguide tapered transitions, together with two quarter-
wave sections on both sides of the free rotatable central half
wave section.
 The quarter-wave sections are oriented at an angle 450 relative
to the broad wall of rectangular waveguide.
 The incoming linearly polarized TE11 mode is decomposed into
two modes polarized parallel and perpendicular to the quarter
wave section.
 When a half wave section happens to be in its zero set position,
the outgoing wave suffers a total phase of 900+1800=2700.
Precision Rotary Phase Shifter 84

 Consequently, the wave going out of the second quarter wave

section suffers a total phase of 2700+900=3600 i.e., no phase
change under ideal conditions.
 However, when the central half wave section is rotated by an
angle θ outgoing wave suffers a phase delay of 2θ.
Phase Shifter 85

Applications:
 Phased shifters are used in a variety of communication and radar
systems.
 They are used in microwave instrumentation and measurement
systems.
 They are used in various industrial applications.
Microwave circulators 86
 A microwave circulator is a multiport waveguide junction in
which the wave can flow only from the nth port to the
(n+1)th port in one direction.
 Although there is no restriction on the number of ports, the
four-port microwave circulator is the most common.
 One type of four-port microwave circulator is a combination
of two 3-dB side-hole directional couplers and a rectangular
waveguide with two nonreciprocal phase shifters as shown
in figure.
Microwave circulators 87

4-port Circulator Symbol

 Microwave circulators 88

 All four ports are matched and transmission of power takes

place in cyclic order only.
 An ideal circulator is lossless.
 The working of circulator is based on principle of Faraday
rotation- “If circularly polarized wave is placed through a
ferrite rod which has been influenced by axial magnetic
field then the axis of polarization gets tilted clockwise with
the same amount to the H-field strength and the geometry
of ferrite.”
Microwave circulators 89

Four-port Circulator
Schematic
 Microwave circulators 90

 Each of the two 3-dB couplers in the circulator introduces a

phase shift of 90°, and each of the two phase shifters
produces a certain amount of phase change in a certain
direction as indicated.
 When a wave is incident to port 1, the wave is split into two
components by coupler 1.
 The wave in the primary guide arrives at port 2 with a
relative phase change of 180°.
 Microwave circulators 91

 The second wave propagates through the two couplers and

the secondary guide and arrives at port 2 with a relative
phase shift of 180°.
 Since the two waves reaching port 2 are in phase, the
power transmission is obtained from port 1 to port 2.
 However, the wave propagates through the primary guide,
phase shifter, and coupler 2 and arrives at port 4 with a
phase change of 270°.
 Microwave circulators 92

 The wave travels through coupler 1 and the secondary

guide, and it arrives at port 4 with a phase shift of 90°.
 Since the two waves reaching port 4 are out of phase by
180°, the power transmission from port 1 to port 4 is zero.
 A similar analysis shows that a wave incident to port 2
emerges at port 3 and so on.
 As a result, the sequence of power flow is designated as
1→2 →3 →4 →1.
 Microwave circulators 93

 S matrix of perfectly matched, lossless, non-reciprocal 4 port

circulator
 Microwave Isolators 94

 An isolator is a nonreciprocal transmission device that is used

to isolate one component from reflections of other
components in the transmission line.
 An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power for
propagation in one direction and provides lossless
transmission in the opposite direction.
 Thus the isolator is usually called uniline.
 Isolators are generally used to improve the frequency
stability of microwave generators, such as klystrons and
magnetrons, in which the reflection from the load affects the
generating frequency.
 Microwave Isolators 95
 In such cases, the isolator placed between the generator and
load prevents the reflected power from the unmatched load
from returning to the generator.
 As a result, the isolator maintains the frequency stability of
the generator.
 Isolators can be constructed in many ways.
 They can be made by terminating ports 3 and 4 of a four-port
circulator with matched loads.
 On the other hand, isolators can be made by inserting a ferrite
rod along the axis of a rectangular waveguide as shown in
figure. The isolator here is a Faraday-rotation isolator.
Microwave Isolators 96
 Microwave Isolators 97

 Let the incident wave has E-field in x-direction when it

propagates through ferrite rod, it is rotated by 450.
 It is launched into waveguide which is at 450.
 Reflected wave from load travels in reverse direction and is
again rotated by 450 by ferrite rod.
 Reflected E-field in resistive vane-1 is in y-direction and it is
completely attenuated.
 Microwave Cavities 98
 A microwave cavity or radio frequency (RF) cavity is a
special type of resonator, consisting of a closed (or largely
closed) metal structure that confines electromagnetic fields
in the microwave region of the spectrum.
 The structure is either hollow or filled with dielectric
material.
 They are used in oscillators and transmitters to create
microwave signals, and as filters to separate a signal at a
given frequency from other signals, in equipment such as
radar equipment, microwave relay stations, satellite
communications, and microwave ovens.
 Microwave Cavities 99

 In addition to their use in electrical networks, RF cavities can

manipulate charged particles passing through them by
application of acceleration voltage and are thus used in
particle accelerators.
 Most resonant cavities are made from closed (or short-
circuited) sections of waveguide or high-permittivity dielectric
material (dielectric resonator).
 Electric and magnetic energy is stored in the cavity and the
only losses are due to finite conductivity of cavity walls and
dielectric losses of material filling the cavity.
 Microwave Cavities 100

 Every cavity has numerous resonant frequencies that

correspond to electromagnetic field modes satisfying
necessary boundary conditions on the walls of the cavity.
 Because of these boundary conditions that must be
satisfied at resonance (tangential electric fields must be
zero at cavity walls), it follows that cavity length must be an
integer multiple of half-wavelength at resonance.
 Hence, a resonant cavity can be thought of as a waveguide
equivalent of short circuited half-wavelength transmission
line resonator.
 Rectangular Cavity Resonator 101

 A rectangular cavity
resonator is a closed
section of a rectangular
waveguide.
 The electromagnetic fields
in the cavity are excited via
external coupling. An
external power source is
usually coupled to the
cavity by a small aperture, a
small wire probe or a loop.
 Rectangular Cavity Resonator 102

 Quality factor:
The quality factor Q of a cavity can be decomposed into two
parts, representing different power loss mechanisms:
1. Qc, resulting from the power loss in the walls which
have finite conductivity.
 Rectangular Cavity Resonator 103

Where k is the wave number given by

Rs is the surface resistivity given by

 Rectangular Cavity Resonator 104

2.Qd resulting from the power loss in the lossy dielectric

material filling the cavity.

Where δ is the loss tangent.

The overall Q-factor is
 Rectangular Cavity Resonator 105

 Resonant frequency is given by

 Circular Cavity Resonator 106

 It is a circular waveguide with two ends closed by a metal

wall.
 Circular Cavity Resonator 107

 Its resonant frequency is given by

where Xmn denotes the n-th zero of the m-th Bessel function,
and X'mn denotes the n-th zero of the derivative of the m-th
Bessel function.
 MASER 108

 MASER (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation) are semiconductor devices
which works on the principle of amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation i.e. atomic energy is
converted into electromagnetic energy.
 Principle of Operation:
 By providing additional energy, electrons from the
existing orbit can be liberated and it will emit energy at
the same frequency.
 MASER 109

 The electron is shifted to next higher energy level, this is

called pumping.
 Thispumping is done at frequency corresponding to the
energy difference between two energy levels.
 The re-emission of energy is simulated and the signal at
this frequency is thus amplified.
 The re-emitted frequencies are microwaves.
 Gasammonia, hydrogen, cesium, ruby, alumina silica
(Al203) are materials used in masers.