1 

CHAPTER 29 WIND LOADS ON BUILDING APPURTENANCES AND OTHER

2  STRUCTURES: MAIN WIND FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM (DIRECTIONAL
3  PROCEDURE)

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4  29.1 SCOPE

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5  29.1.1 Structure Types. This chapter applies to the determination of wind loads on building

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6  appurtenances (such as rooftop structures and rooftop equipment) and other structures of all

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7  heights (such as solid freestanding walls and freestanding solid signs, chimneys, tanks, open
8  signs, single-plane open frames, ground-mounted fixed-tilt solar panel systems, and trussed

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9  towers) using the Directional Procedure.
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10  The steps required for the determination of wind loads on building appurtenances and other

n
11  structures are shown in Table 29.1-1. The steps required to determine wind loads on main wind
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12 
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force resisting system (MWFRS) on circular bins, silos, and tanks are shown in Table 29.1-2.
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13  User Note: Use Chapter 29 to determine wind pressures on the MWFRS of solid freestanding
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14  walls, freestanding solid signs, chimneys, tanks, open signs, single-plane open frames, ground-
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15  mounted fixed-tilt solar panel systems, and trussed towers. Wind loads on rooftop structures and
16  equipment may be determined from the provisions of this chapter. The wind pressures are
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/

17  calculated using specific equations, based upon the Directional Procedure.
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18  Table 29.1-1 Steps to Determine Wind Loads on MWFRS Rooftop Equipment and Other
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19  Structures
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Step 1: Determine Risk Category of building or other structure; see Table 1.5-1.
Step 2: Determine the basic wind speed, V , for applicable Risk Category; see Figures. 26.5-1
and 26.5-2.
Step 3: Determine wind load parameters:
 Wind directionality factor, K d ; see Section 26.6 and Table 26.6-1.

 Exposure category B, C, or D; see Section 26.7.

 Topographic factor, K zt ; see Section 26.8 and Figure. 26.8-1.

1
  Ground elevation factor, K e ; see Section 26.9 and Table 26.9-1

 Gust-effect factor, G ; see Section 26.11, except for rooftop equipment and ground-
mounted fixed-tilt solar panel systems.
 Combined ( GC r ) factor for rooftop equipment; see Section 29.4.1.

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

C Fo AF
Combined (GCpn and GCpm) factors for ground-mounted fixed-tilt solar panel systems;

at
see Section 29.4.5.
Step 4: Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K z or K h ; see Table 26.10-1.

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Step 5: Determine velocity pressure qz or qh ; see Eq.uation (26.10-1).

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Step 6: Determine force coefficient, C f , except for rooftop equipment and ground-mounted

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fixed-tilt
solar panel systems::
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

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Solid freestanding signs or solid freestanding walls, Figure. 29.3-1.
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

Chimneys, tanks, Figure. 29.4-1.
Open signs, single-plane open frames, Figure. 29.4-2.
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 Trussed towers, Fig.ure 29.4-3.

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 Rooftop equipment, using combined ( GC r ) factors listed in Section 29.4.1.

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 Rooftop solar panels, Figure. 29.4-7 and Equation. (29.4-6), or Fig.ure 29.4-8.
 Ground-mounted fixed-tilt solar panel systems, using combined (GCpn and GCpm)
e C
/

factors, see Section 29.4.5.2

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Step 7: Calculate wind force, F , or pressure, p , and moment, M:

o
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 Equation. (29.3-1) for signs and walls.

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 Eqsuations. (29.4-2) and (29.4-3) for rooftop structures and equipment.

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 Equation. (29.4-1) for other structures.

 Equation. (29.4-5) or (29.4-7) for rooftop solar panels.
 Equationss. (29.4-8) and (29.4-9) for ground-mounted fixed-tilt solar panel systems
1 

2  Table 29.1-2 Steps to Determine Wind Loads on MWFRS Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks.

2
 Step 1: Determine Risk Category of structure; see Table 1.5-1.
Step 2: Determine the basic wind speed, V , for applicable Risk Category; see Figs.ure 26.5-1
and 26.5-2.
Step 3: Determine wind load parameters:

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 Wind directionality factor, K d ; see Section 26.6 and Table 26.6-1.

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 Exposure category B, C, or D; see Section 26.7.

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 Topographic factor, K zt ; see Section 26.8 and Figure. 26.8-1.

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 Ground elevation factor, K e ; see Section 26.9 and Table 26.9-1

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 Enclosure classification, see Section 26.12.

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 Internal pressure coefficient, ( GCpi ), see Table 26.13-1.

 Gust-effect factor, G ; see Section 26.11.

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Step 4: Determine velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K z or K h ; see Table 26.10-1.
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Step 5: Determine velocity pressure qh ; see Eq.uation (26.10-1).
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Step 6: Determine force coefficient for walls, see Sections 29.4.2.1 and 29.4.2.4.
Step 7: Determine external pressure coefficient ( GC p ) for roofs and undersides if elevated,
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see Sections 29.4.2.2 and 29.4.2.3.

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Step 8: Calculate wind force, F , or pressure, p :

e C


/

Equation. (29.4-1) for walls.


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Eq.uation (29.4-4) for roofs.

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St B

1  29.1.2 Conditions.
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2  An appurtenance or structure that has design wind loads, determined in accordance with this
3  section, shall comply with all of the following conditions:

4  1. The structure is a regular-shaped structure as defined in Section 26.2; and

5  2. The structure does not have response characteristics making it subject to across-wind
6  loading, vortex shedding, or instability caused by galloping or flutter; nor does it have a
7  site location for which channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions
8  warrant special consideration.

3
 1  29.1.3 Limitations.

2  The provisions of this chapter take into consideration the load magnification effect caused by
3  gusts in resonance with along-wind vibrations of flexible structures. Structures that do not meet

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4  the requirements of Section 29.1.2, or that have unusual shapes or response characteristics, shall

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5  be designed using recognized literature documenting such wind load effects or shall use the

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6  Wind Tunnel Procedure specified in Chapter 31.

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7  29.1.4 Shielding.

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8  There shall be no reductions in velocity pressure caused by apparent shielding afforded by

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9  buildings and other structures or terrain features.

10  29.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

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29.2.1 Wind Load Parameters Specified in Chapter 26.
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12  The following wind load parameters shall be determined in accordance with Chapter 26:
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13   Basic wind speed, V (Section 26.5);

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14   Wind directionality factor, K d (Section 26.6);

15   Exposure category (Section 26.7);

e C
/

16   Topographic factor, K zt (Section 26.8);

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17   Ground elevation factor, K e (Section 26.9); and

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St B

18   Enclosure classification (Section 26.12).

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19  29.3 Design Wind Loads: Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Signs

20  29.3.1 Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Freestanding Signs.

21  The design wind force for solid freestanding walls and solid freestanding signs shall be
22  determined by the following formula:

23  F  qh GC f As (lb) 𝐹 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐴 (lb) (29.3-1)

4
 1  𝐹 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐴 (N) F  q h GC f As (N) (29.3-1.SI)

2  where

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qh = Velocity pressure evaluated at height h (defined in Fig.ure 29.3-1) as determined in
3 

C Fo AF
4  accordance with Section 26.10.

at
5  Kd = Wind directionality factor, see Section 26.6.

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6  G = Gust-effect factor from Section 26.11.

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7  C f = Net force coefficient from Fig.ure 29.3-1.

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2
8  As = Gross area of the solid freestanding wall or freestanding solid sign, in ft ( m 2 ).
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M
D ut O C
e C
/
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o
St B
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9 

10 

5
 1  Notation

2  B = Horizontal dimension of wall or sign, ft (m)

3  e = Eccentricity of force, ft (m)

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4  F = Design wind force for other structures, lb (N)

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5  h = Height of the wall or sign, ft (m)

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6  Lr = Horizontal dimension of return corner, ft (m)

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7  Rmin = t / m in (B and s)

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8  Rmax = t / m ax (B and s)
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9  s = Vertical dimension of the wall or sign, ft (m)
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10 
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t = Thickness of the wall or sign, ft (m)
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11  ε = Ratio of solid area to gross area

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12  Force Coefficients, C f , for Case A and Case B

C

Clearance Aspect Ratio, B / s

e C
/

Ratio,  0 .0 5 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 4 5 10 20 30  45

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s/h
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St B

1 1.80 1.70 1.65 1.55 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.35 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30
0.9 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.45 1.45 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40
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0.7 1.90 1.85 1.75 1.70 1.65 1.60 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55 1.55
0.5 1.95 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.75 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.75
0.3 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85
0.2 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
 0 .1 6 1.95 1.90 1.85 1.85 1.80 1.80 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.90 1.90 1.95
13 

6
 1  FIGURE 29.3-1. Design Wind Loads (All Heights): Force Coefficients, Cf, for Other
2  Structures—Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Freestanding Signs.

Force Coefficients, C f , for Case C

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Region Aspect Ratio, B / s

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(horizontal 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 13  45

at
distance
from

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windward

D
edge)

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0 to s 2.25 2.60 2.90 3.10* 3.30* 3.40* 3.55* 3.65* 3.75* 4.00* 4.30*
sto 2s 1.50 1.70 1.90 2.00 2.15 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.45 2.60 2.55
2s to 3s 1.15 1.30 1.45 1.55 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.85 2.00 1.95
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3s to 10s 1.10 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.00 0.95
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3s to 4s 1.50 1.85
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4s to 5s 1.35 1.85
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5s to 10s 0.90 1.10

 10 s 0.55 0.55
C

3  * Values shall be multiplied by the following reduction factor when a return corner is present:
e C
/

Lr/S Reduction
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Factor
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0.3 0.90
St B

1.0 0.75
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2 0.60
4  Notes

5  1. The term “signs” in these notes also applies to freestanding walls.

6  2.1.Signs with openings comprising less than 30% of the gross area are classified as solid
7  signs. Force coefficients for solid walls or signs with openings less than 30% of gross
8  area shall be permitted to be multiplied by the reduction factor ( 1  (1  ε)1.5 ).

7
 1  3.2.To allow for both normal and oblique wind directions, the following cases shall be
2  considered:
3  For s / h  1 :
4  Case A: Resultant force acts normal to the face of the wall or sign through the geometric

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5  center.

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6  Case B: Resultant force acts normal to the face of the wall or sign at a distance from the

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7  geometric center toward the windward edge equal to 0.2 times the average width of the

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8  wall or sign.

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9  For double-faced signs with all sides enclosed and Rmax  0.4 , it is permitted to use force

10  eccentricity, e  (0.2  0.25 Rmax ) B . For double-faced signs with all sides enclosed and

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11  Rmin  0.75 , it is permitted to multiply tabulated C f values in Cases A and B by the

12  reduction factor, ( 1  0.133Rmin ).

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13  For B / s  2 , Case B need not be considered, while Case C must also be considered;
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14 
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Case C: Resultant forces act normal to the face of the wall or sign through the geometric
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15  centers of each region.

For s / h  1 :
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16 
17  The same cases as above except that the vertical locations of the resultant forces occur at
C

18  a distance above the geometric center equal to 0.05 times the average height of the wall
or sign.
e C

19 
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20  4.3.For Case C where s / h  0.8 , force coefficients shall be multiplied by the reduction factor
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21  ( 1.8  s / h ). It is permitted to apply this reduction with those specified in Note 23.
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22  5.4.Linear interpolation is permitted for values of s / h , B / s , and Lr / s other than shown.
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23  FIGURE 29.3-1 (Continued). Design Wind Loads (All Heights): Force Coefficients, Cf, for
24  Other Structures—Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Freestanding Signs.

25  29.3.2 Solid Attached Signs.

26  The design wind pressure on a solid sign attached to the wall of a building, where the plane of
27  the sign is parallel to and in contact with the plane of the wall, and the sign does not extend
28  beyond the side or top edges of the wall, shall be determined using procedures for wind pressures

8
 1  on walls in accordance with Chapter 30 and setting the internal pressure coefficient, ( GCpi ),

2  equal to 0.

3  This procedure shall also be applicable to solid signs attached to but not in direct contact with the

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4  wall, provided that the gap between the sign and wall is no more than 3 ft (0.9 m) and the edge of

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5  the sign is at least 3 ft (0.9 m) in from free edges of the wall, (i.e., side and top edges and bottom

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6  edges of elevated walls).

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7  29.4 Design Wind Loads: Other Structures

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8  The design wind force for other structures (chimneys, tanks, open signs, single-plane open

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9  frames, and trussed towers), whether ground or roof mounted, shall be determined by the
10  following equation:
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11  𝐹 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐴 (lb) F  q z GC f A f (lb) (29.4-1)
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12  𝐹 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐴 (N) F  q z GC f A f (N) (29.4-1.SIsi)

D ut O

13  wWhere
C

14  qz = Vvelocity pressure evaluated at height z , as defined in Section 26.10, of the centroid of area
e C
/

15  Af .
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16  Kd = Wwind directionality factor, see Section 26.6.

o
St B

17  G = Ggust-effect factor from Section 26.11.

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18  C f = Fforce coefficients from Figures. 29.4-1 through 29.4-4.

19  A f = Pprojected area normal to the wind except where C f is specified for the actual surface
2
20  area, ft ( m 2 ).

21 

Force Coefficients, C f

9
 Cross Section h/D

Type of Surface 1 7 25
Square (wind normal to All 1.3 1.4 2.0
face)

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Square (wind along All 1.0 1.1 1.5

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diagonal)

at
Hexagonal or octagonal All 1.0 1.2 1.4

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Round, D qz  2.5 Moderately smooth 0.5 0.6 0.7

D
(𝐷 /𝐷 0.02

D qz  5.3 (in S.I.) Rough ( 0.7 0.8 0.9

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D  / D  0.02

) 0.02 𝐷′⁄𝐷
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0.08

n
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Very rough ( D  / D  0.08
se li Very rough 1.00.8 1.21.0 1.2
) 𝐷 ⁄𝐷 0.08 0.8
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Round, D qz  2.5 All 0.7 0.8 1.2

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D qz  5.3 (in S.I.)

C

1  Notation
e C
/

2  D = Diameter of circular cross section and least horizontal dimension of square, hexagonal, or
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3  octagonal cross sections at elevation under consideration, ft (m)

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4  D  = Depth of protruding elements such as ribs and spoilers, ft (m)

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5  h = Height of structure, ft (m)

2 2
6  qz = Velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, lb/ ft ( N / m ).

7  Notes

8  1. DThe design wind force shall be calculated based on the area of the structure projected
9  on a vertical plane normal to the wind direction. The force shall be assumed to act
10  parallel to the wind direction.
10
 1  2. Linear interpolation is permitted for h / D values other than shown.
2 

3  FIGURE 29.4-1. Other Structures (All Heights): Force Coefficients, C f , for Chimneys,

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4  Tanks, and Similar Structures.

C Fo AF
Force Coefficients, C f

at
Rounded Members

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ε Flat-Sided D qz  2.5(D qz  5.3) D qz  2.5(D qz  5.3)

D
Members
s.i s.i

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 0.1 2.0 1.2 0.8
0.1 to 0.29 1.8 1.3 0.9
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0.3 to 0.7 1.6 1.5 1.1

n
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5  Notation
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ε = Ratio of solid area to gross area
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6 
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7  D = Diameter of a typical round member, in ft (m)

C

2 2
8  qz = Velocity pressure evaluated at height z above ground, in lb/ ft ( N / m )
e C
/

9  Notes
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10  1. Signs with openings making up 30% or more of the gross area are classified as open
o
St B

11  signs.
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12  2. Calculation of the design wind forces shall be based on the area of all exposed members
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13  and elements projected on a plane normal to the wind direction. Forces shall be assumed
14  to act parallel to the wind direction.
15  3. Area, A f , consistent with these force coefficients is the solid area projected normal to

16  the wind direction.

17  FIGURE 29.4-2. Other Structures (All Heights): Force Coefficients, C f , for Open Signs

18  and Single-Plane Open Frames.

11
 Force Coefficients, C f

Tower Cross Section Cf

Square 4.0ε2  5.9ε  4.0

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Triangle 3.4ε2  4.7ε  3.4

C Fo AF
1 

at
2  Notation

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ε = Ratio of solid area to gross area of one tower face for the segment under consideration.

D
3 

4  Notes

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5  1. For all wind directions considered, the area, A f , consistent with the specified force
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6  coefficients shall be the solid area of a tower face projected on the plane of that face for

n
the tower segment under consideration.
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7 
8 
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2. SThe specified force coefficients are for towers with structural angles or similar flat-sided
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9  members.
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10  3. For towers containing rounded members, it is acceptable to multiply the specified force
11  coefficients by the following factor when determining wind forces on such members:
C

12  0.51ε 2  0.57, but not  1.0

e C
/
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13  4. Wind forces shall be applied in the directions resulting in maximum member forces and
o

reactions. For towers with square cross sections, wind forces shall be multiplied by the
St B

14 
15  following factor when the wind is directed along a tower diagonal:
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16  1 0.75ε,but not  1.2

17  5. Wind forces on tower appurtenances, such as ladders, conduits, lights, and elevators,
18  shall be calculated using appropriate force coefficients for these elements.
19  6. Loads caused by ice accretion, as described in Chapter 10, shall be accounted for.
20 

12
 1  FIGURE 29.4-3. Other Structures (All Heights): Force Coefficients, C f , for Open

2  Structures—Trussed Towers.

3  Guidance for determiningDetermination of G , C f , and A f for structures found in

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4  petrochemical and other industrial facilities that are not otherwise addressed in ASCE 7 can be

C Fo AF
5  foundis permitted in accordance withthe Wind Loads for Petrochemical and Other Industrial

at
6  Facilities (2011), published by ASCE, Reston, VAVirginia. Determination of G, Cf and Af for

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7  lighting system support poles is permitted in accordance with ASCE 72.

D
8  29.4.1 Rooftop Structures and Equipment for Buildings.

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9  The lateral force, Fh , and vertical force, Fv , for rooftop structures and equipment, except as

10  otherwise specified for roof-mounted solar panels (Sections 29.4.3 and 29.4.4) and structures
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n
11  identified in Section 29.4, shall be determined as specified followingas follows.:
N U M

12 
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The resultant lateral force, Fh , shall be determined from Eq.uation (29.4-2) and applied at a
M

13  height above the roof surface equal to or greater than the centroid of the projected area, A f .
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14  𝐹 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐴 (lb) Fh  q h (GC r ) A f (lb ) (29.4-2)

C

Fh  qh (GC r ) A f (N)
e C
/

15  𝐹 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐴 (N) (29.4-2.SIsi)

rik LI

16  wWhere
o
St B

Af
( GC r ) = 1.9 for rooftop structures and equipment with less than ( 0.1Bh ). ( GC r ) shall be
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17 
o

Af
18  permitted to be reduced linearly from 1.9 to 1.0 as the value of is increased from ( 0.1Bh ) to (
19  B h ).

20  qh = Vvelocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height of the building.

21  Kd = Wwind directionality factor, see Section 26.6.

13
 1  A f = Vvertical projected area of the rooftop structure or equipment on a plane normal to the
2
2  direction of wind, ft ( m 2 ).

3  The vertical uplift force, Fv , on rooftop structures and equipment shall be determined from

ite rm T
4  Eq.uation (29.4-3):

C Fo AF
at
5  𝐹 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐴 (lb) Fv  qh (GCr ) Ar (lb) (29.4-3)

or e R
𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐴 (N) Fv  qh (GCr ) Ar (N)

D
6  𝐹 (29.4-3.SIsi)

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7  wWhere

GC r = 1.5 for rooftop structures and equipment with Ar less than ( 0.1BL ). ( GC r ) shall be
8 
ot nd E
n
9  permitted to be reduced linearly from 1.5 to 1.0 as the value of Ar is increased from ( 0.1BL ) to (
N U M

10 
se li
BL ).
M

11  qh = Vvelocity pressure evaluated at the mean roof height of the building.
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12  Kd = Wwind directionality factor, see Section 26.6.

C

2
13  Ar = Hhorizontal projected area of rooftop structure or equipment, ft ( m 2 ).
e C
/
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14  29.4.2 Design Wind Loads: Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks with h 120 ft ( h  36.5 m ),
o
St B

15  D  120 ft ( D  36.5 m ), and 0.2 5  H / D  4.

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16  Grouped circular bins, silos, and tanks of similar size with center-to-center spacing greater than
17  two diameters shall be treated as isolated structures. For spacings less than 1.25 diameters, the
18  structures shall be treated as grouped and the wind pressure shall be determined from Section
19  29.4.2.4. For intermediate spacings, linear interpolation of the C p (or C f ) values shall be used.

20  29.4.2.1 External Walls of Isolated Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks.

14
 1  To determine the overall drag on circular bins, silos, and tanks using Eq.uation (29.4-1), a
2  dragforce coefficient ( C f ) of 0.63, based on the projected walls area ( DH Dℎ ), is permitted to

3  be used in lieu of Figure 29.4-1, provided that all of the following conditions are met: , where
4  H / D is in the range of 0.25 to 4.0 and the cylinder (diameter D ) is standing on the ground or

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5  supported by columns. The clearance height ( C ) shall be less than or equal to the height of the

C Fo AF
6  solid cylinder ( H ) as shown in Fig. 29.4-4.

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a. ℎ is in the range of 0.25 to 4.0 and the cylinder (diameter D) is standing on the

or e R
7 
8  ground or supported by columns, and

D
9  b. CThe clearance height, C, is less than or equal to the height of the solid, cylinder (ℎ ),

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10  as shown in Fig.ure 29.4-4, and
11  a.c. Tthe tank surface is moderately smooth, as defined in Figure 29.4-1.
12 
ot nd E
n
N U M
13  se li
Diagrams
M
D ut O C
e C
/
rik LI
o
St B
PU

14 
o

15  Notation

16  C = Clearance height above the ground, in ft (m).

17  D = Diameter of a circular structure, in ft (m).

18  h = Mean roof height, in ft (m).

19  H = Solid cylinder height, in ft (m).

15
 1  Z = Height to centroid of projected area of circular structure, in ft (m).

2   = Angle from wind direction to a point on the wall of a circular bin, silo, or tank, in degrees.

3  FigureIGURE 29.4-4. Other Structures, Design Wind Loads for Main Wind Force

ite rm T
4  Resisting Systems [ h 120 ft ( h  36.6 m )]: Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks on the Ground

C Fo AF
5  or Supported by Columns, where D  120 ft ( D  36.6 m ), 0.25  H / D  4.0 .  

at
or e R
6 

D
7  29.4.2.2 Roofs of Isolated Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks.

U er NT
8  The net design pressures on the roofs of circular bins, silos, and tanks shall be determined from
9  Eq.uation (29.4-4):
ot nd E
n
p  q h (GC p  (GC pi ))(lb / ft 2 )
N U M
10  se li 𝑝 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐺𝐶 (lb/ft2) (29.4-4)
M

p  q h ( GC p  ( GC pi ))( N / m 2 )
11  𝑝 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝐺𝐶 (N/m2) (29.4-4.SIsi)
D ut O

where
C

12 

13  qh = Vvelocity pressure for all surfaces evaluated at mean roof height h;
e C
/
rik LI

14  Kd = Wwind directionality factor, see Section 26.6;

o
St B

15  C p = Eexternal pressure coefficient from Fig.ure 29.4-5 for roofs;

PU

16  ( GCpi ) = Iinternal pressure coefficient for roofed structures from Section 26.13, and

17  G = Ggust-effect factor from Section 26.11.

18 

19  Diagrams

16
 ite rm T
C Fo AF
at
or e R D
1 

U er NT
2  Notation
ot nd E
b = Determined below, in ft (m), dependent on H / D for roofs with average θ less than 10

n
3 
N U M
4  degrees.
se li
M

5  h = Mean roof height, ft (m).

D ut O

6  H = The solid cylinder height, ft (m).

C

7  D = Diameter of a circular structure, ft (m).

e C
/

8  θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees.

rik LI

External Pressure Coefficients, C p

o
St B

Zone 1  0.8
PU

Zone 2  0.5
o

9  Notes

10  For roofs with average θ less than 10 degrees, the dimension, b, shall be determined as follows:

H /D b

0.25 0.2D
0.5 0.5D
 1.0 0.1h+0.6D

17
 1  Linear interpolation shall be permitted.

2 

3  FigureIGURE 29.4-5. Other Structures, Design Wind Loads for Main Wind Force

ite rm T
4  Resisting Systems [h<120 ft (h<36.6 m)] [h  120 ft (h  36.6 m)] : External Pressure

C Fo AF
5  Coefficients, C p , for Isolated Roofs of Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks, where D  120 ft (

at
6  D  36.6 m ), 0.25  H / D  4.0 .

or e R D
7 

The external pressures on the conical, flat, or dome roofs (roof angle less than 10°) of circular

U er NT
8 
9  bins, silos, or tanks shall be equal to the external pressure coefficients, C p , given in

10  Fig.ure 29.4-5 for Zones 1 and 2. The external pressures for dome roofs (roof angle greater than
ot nd E
n
11  10°) shall be determined from Fig.ure 27.3-2.
N U M
se li
29.4.2.3 Undersides of Isolated Elevated Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks.
M

12 
D ut O

13  External pressure coefficients, C p , for the underside of elevated circular bins, silos, or tanks
C

14  with clearance height, C , above ground less than or equal to the solid cylinder height, H , shall
15  be taken as 0.8 and  0.6 . For structures with clearance height above ground of less than or equal
e C
/

16  to one-third of the cylinder height, use linear interpolation between these values and C p  0.0 ,
rik LI

17  according to the ratio of C / h , where C and h are defined, as shown in Figure. 29.4-4.
o
St B

18  29.4.2.4 Roofs and Walls of Grouped Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks.
PU

19  For closely spaced groups of three or more circular bins, silos, or tanks with center-to-center
20  spacing less than 1 .2 5 D , roof pressure coefficients, C p , and drag force coefficient, C f , on

21  projected walls shall be calculated using Fig.ure 29.4-6. The net design pressures on the roofs
22  shall be determined from Eq.uation (29.4-4). The overall drag shall be calculated based on
23  Equation. (29.4-1).

24  Diagrams

18
 ite rm T
C Fo AF
at
or e R D
U er NT
1 

2  Notation
ot nd E
n
D = Diameter of a circular structure, in ft (m).
N U M
3 
se li
h = Mean roof height, in ft (m).
M

4 
D ut O

5  H = The solid cylinder height, in ft (m).

C

6  θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

e C

Drag Force Coefficient ( C f ) on Projected Walls

/
rik LI

H /D Cf Use with

1 1.3
o

qh
St B

2 1.1
PU

qh
o

4 1.0 qh

7 

Roof Pressure Coefficients, C p , for Use with qh

H /D Zone 1 Zone 2
θ<10  0.5  0.9  0.5

 1.0  1.3  0.7

19
 10   θ< 30  4  1.0  0.6

1 

2  FIGURE 29.4-6. Other Structures, Design Loads for Main Wind Force Resisting Systems
[h < 120 ft (h < 36.6 m)]: Drag Force Coefficients, C f , and Roof Pressure Coefficients, C p ,

ite rm T
3 

C Fo AF
4  for Grouped Circular Bins, Silos, and Tanks on the Ground or Supported by Columns,

at
5  where D  120 ft ( D  36.6 m ), 0.25  H / D  4.0 , and center-to-center spacing  1 .2 5 .

or e R
6  29.4.3 Rooftop Solar Panels for Buildings of All Heights with Flat Roofs or Gable or Hip

D
7  Roofs with Slopes Less Than 7 Degrees°.

U er NT
8  As illustrated in Fig.ure 29.4-7, the design wind pressure for rooftop solar panels apply to those
9  located on enclosed or partially enclosed buildings of all heights with flat roofs, or with gable or
ot nd E
hip roof slopes with θ  7  , with panels conforming to:

n
10 
N U M
11 
se li
Lp≤6.7 ft (2.04 m) L p  6.7 ft (2.04 m) ,
M

12  ω  35 ,
D ut O

13  h1≤2 ft (0.61 m) h1  2 ft (0.61 m) ,

C

14  h2≤4 ft (1.22 m) h2  4 ft (1.22 m) ,

e C
/
rik LI

15  with a minimum gap of 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) provided between all panels, and the spacing of gaps
16  between panels not exceeding 6.7 ft (2.04 m). In addition, the minimum horizontal clear distance
o
St B

17  between the panels and the edge of the roof shall be the larger of 2( h2  h pt ) and 4 ft (1.2m), for
PU

18  the design pressures in this section to apply. The design wind pressure for rooftop solar panels
19  shall be determined by Eq.uations (29.4-5) and (29.4-6):

20  𝑝 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 (lb/ft2) p  q h (GC rn )(lb / ft 2 ) (29.4-5)

21  𝑝 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 (N/m2) p  qh (GC rn )(N / m 2 ) (29.4-5.SIsi)

22  wWhere qh is the velocity pressure for all surfaces evaluated at mean roof height, h, and

20
 1  Kd is the wind directionality factor; see Section 26.6.

2 

3  (GCrn )  (γ p )(γ c )(γ E )(GCrn ) nom (29.4-6)

ite rm T
C Fo AF
4  wWhere

at
γp

or e R
5  = min(1.2, 0.9  h pt / h ) ;

D
6  γc = max(0.6  0.06 L p , 0.8) ; and

U er NT
7  γE = 1.5 for uplift loads on panels that are exposed and within a distance 1.5( Lp ) from the

end of a row at an exposed edge of the array; γ E  1.0 elsewhere for uplift loads and for all
ot nd E
8 

n
N U M
9  downward loads, as illustrated in Fig.ure 29.4-7. A panel is defined as exposed if d1 to the roof
se li
10  edge  0 .5 h and one of the following applies:
M

1. d1 to the adjacent array  max(4h2 , 4 ft (1.2m) or

D ut O

11 

12  2. d2 to the next adjacent panel  max(4h2 , 4 ft (1.2m).

C

13  (GCrn )nom = nominal net pressure coefficient for rooftop solar panels as determined from
e C
/

14  Fig.ure 29.4-7.

rik LI

15  Diagrams
o
St B
PU

21
 1 
PU
St B
rik LI
e C
o
D ut O C
o / M
N U M
ot nd E
U er NT
se li D
n
or e R
C Fo AF
ite rm T

22
at
 ite rm T
C Fo AF
at
or e R D
U er NT
ot nd E
n
N U M
se li
M
D ut O C
e C
/
rik LI
o
St B
PU

1 

2 

3  FigureIGURE 29.4-7. Design Wind Loads (All Heights): Rooftop Solar Panels for Enclosed
4  and Partially Enclosed Buildings, Roof   7  .

5  Continues

6  Notation

23
 1  A = Effective wind area, ft 2 ( m 2 ).

2  An = Normalized wind area, non-dimensional.

3  d1 = For rooftop solar array, horizontal distance orthogonal to the panel edge to an adjacent

ite rm T
panel or the building edge, ignoring any rooftop equipment in Fig.ure 29.4-7, ft (m).

C Fo AF
4 

at
5  d2 = For rooftop solar arrays, horizontal distance from the edge of one panel to the nearest edge

or e R
6  in the next row in Fig.ure 29.4-7, ft (m).

D
7  h = Mean roof height of a building except that eave height shall be used for roof angle θ less than

U er NT
8  or equal to 10°, ft (m).

9  h1 = Height of the gap between the panels and the roof surface, ft (m).
ot nd E
n
10  h2 = Height of a solar panel above the roof at the upper edge of the panel, ft (m).
N U M
se li
M

11  h pt = Mean parapet height above the adjacent roof surface for use with Eq.uation (29.4-5), ft

12  (m).
D ut O C

13  Lp = Panel chord length.

e C

WL = Width of a building on its longest side in Fig.ure 29.4-7, ft (m).

/

14 
rik LI

15  WS = Width of a building on its shortest side in Fig.ure 29.4-7, ft (m).

o
St B

16  γE = Array edge factor as defined in Section 29.4.4.

PU

17  θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

18  ω = Angle that the solar panel makes with the roof surface in Fig.ure 29.4-7, degrees.

19  Notes

20  1. ( GCrn ) acts toward (+) and away (-) from the top surface of the panels.

21  2. Linear interpolation is allowed for ω between 5° and 15 degrees°.

24
 1  3. An  (1, 000 / [max( Lb ,15) 2 ] A, where A is the effective wind area of the structural

2  element of the solar panel being considered, and Lb is the minimum of 0.4(hWL)0.5 or h or
3  Ws in ft (m).
4 

ite rm T
5  FigureIGURE 29.4-7 (Continued). Design Wind Loads (All Heights): Rooftop Solar Panels

C Fo AF
6  for Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Buildings, Roof   7  .

at
When , ω  2  , h2  0.83 ft (0.25 m), and a minimum gap of 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) is provided

or e R
7 

between all panels, and the spacing of gaps between panels does not exceed 6.7 ft (2.04 m), the

D
8 
9  procedure of Section 29.4.4 shall be permitted.

U er NT
10  The roof shall be designed for both of the following:

1. The case where solar collectors are present. Wind loads acting on solar collectors in
ot nd E
11 

n
12  accordance with this section shall be applied simultaneously with roof wind loads
N U M
13 
se li
specified in other sections acting on areas of the roof not covered by the plan projection
M

14  of solar collectors. For this case, roof wind loads specified in other sections need not be
applied on areas of the roof covered by the plan projection of solar collectors.
D ut O

15 
16  2. Cases where the solar arrays have been removed.
C

17  29.4.4 Rooftop Solar Panels Parallel to the Roof Surface on Buildings of All Heights and
e C
/

18  Roof Slopes.

rik LI

19  The design wind pressures for rooftop solar panels located on enclosed or partially enclosed
o
St B

20  buildings of all heights, with panels parallel to the roof surface, with a tolerance of 2 degrees°
PU

21  and with a maximum height above the roof surface, h2 , not exceeding 10 in. (0.25 m), shall be
o

22  determined in accordance with this section. A minimum gap of 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) shall be
23  provided between all panels, with the spacing of gaps between panels not exceeding 6.7 ft
24  (2.04 m). In addition, the array shall be located at least 2h2 from the roof edge, a gable ridge, or

25  a hip ridge. The design wind pressure for rooftop solar collectors shall be determined by
26  Eq.uation (29.4-7):

27  𝑝 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝛾 𝛾 (lb/ft2) p  q h ( GC p )(γ E )(γ a )(lb / ft 2 ) (29.4-7)

25
 1  𝑝 𝑞 𝐾 𝐺𝐶 𝛾 𝛾 (N/m2) p  q h (GC p )(γ E )(γ a )( N / m 2 ) (29.4-7.SIsi)

2  where

qh = velocity pressure for all surfaces evaluated at mean roof height, h,;

ite rm T
3 

C Fo AF
4  Kd = wind directionality factor, see Section 26.6.

at
5 

or e R D
GC p
6  ( ) = Eexternal pressure coefficient for C&C of roofs with respective roof zoning,
7  determined from Figures. 30.3-2A-I through 30.3-7 or 30.5-1;

U er NT
8  γE = Aarray edge factor = 1.5 for uplift loads on panels that are exposed and within a distance

1.5( Lp ) of 2h2 from the end of a row at an exposed edge of the array; γ E  1.0 elsewhere for
ot nd E
9 

n
N U M
10  uplift loads and for all downward loads, as illustrated in Fig.ure 29.4-7. A panel is defined as
11 
se li
exposed if d1 to the roof edge  0.5h and one of the following applies:
M

d1 to the adjacent array  4 ft (1.2 m)array > 2h2 or

D ut O

12 
C

13  d2 to the next adjacent panel  4 ft panel > 2h2. (1.2 m);
e C
/

14  γa = Ssolar panel pressure equalization factor, defined in Fig.ure 29.4-8.

rik LI
o
St B
PU

26
 Box in upper right
corner for SOLID
line should say
“gap = 0.25” (6.4
mm) and H2 = 10:

ite rm T
(254 mm)”.

C Fo AF
at
or e R
1 

D
U er NT
ot nd E
n
N U M
se li
M
D ut O C

2 

3  FIGURE 29.4-8. Solar Panel Pressure Equalization Factor, γa , for Enclosed and Partially
e C
/

4  Enclosed Buildings of All Heights.

rik LI

5  NotesOTE: Bilinear interpolation between the solid line and the dashed line is permitted.
o
St B

6  NOTE: Change to = signs for solid line.

PU

The roof shall be designed for both of the following:

o

7 

8  1. The In the case where solar panels are present, w. Wind loads acting on solar collectors in
9  accordance with this section shall be applied simultaneously with roof wind loads
10  specified in other sections acting on areas of the roof not covered by the plan projection
11  of solar collectors. For this case, roof wind loads specified in other sections need not be
12  applied on areas of the roof covered by the plan projection of solar collectors.
13  2. Case where the solar panels have been removed.

27
 1   

2  29.4.5 Ground-Mounted Fixed-Tilt Solar Panel Systems.

3  29.4.5.1 Scope: Wind loads shall be calculated in accordance with Sections 29.4.5.2 and 

ite rm T
29.4.5.3 for ground‐mounted fixed‐tilt solar photovoltaic (PV) panel systems installed in rows 

C Fo AF
4 

at
5  satisfying the following geometric limitations:  

or e R
6  6 ft (1.8 m) ≤ Lc ≤ 14 ft (4.4 m) 

D
7  (Wg/Lc) ≥ 7  
8  0° ≤ ω ≤ 60°  

U er NT
9  0.5 ≤ (h/Lc) ≤ 0.8  
10  0.20 ≤ (Lc/S) ≤ 0.60  
ot nd E
n
11  sp ≤ 0.014Lc   
N U M
12  se li
SL ≤ 0.25Lc   
M

13  ST ≤ 2S  
14  Number of rows ≥ 3  
D ut O

15  The rows have the same chord length.  
C

16  The ratio of area blocked by support framing to total area below lowest edge of panels ≤ 
17  8% over any length of 4Lc.  
e C
/

18   
rik LI

19  where 
o
St B
PU

20  Lc = Ppanel chord length, ft (m).  
o

21  Wg = Sshortest row length in array, ft (m).  
22  ω = Aangle between the solar panels and the ground surface, degrees.  
23  h = Mmean height of panel, ft (m).  
24  S = Ccenter‐to‐center row spacing, ft (m).  
25  sp = Ggap between adjacent panels in both directions.   
26  SL = Hhorizontal distance in longitudinal direction of open area within a single row.  
27  ST = Hhorizontal distance in transverse direction of open area between adjacent rows.  

28
 1    

2  29.4.5.2 Design Wind Loads.   

3  The design force, Fn, and design moment about the center‐of‐plane of panels, Mc, for ground‐

ite rm T
4  mounted solar panels shall be determined by Equation. (29.4‐8) and Equation. (29.4‐9), 

C Fo AF
5  respectively:  

at
or e R
6     Fn = qh[±(GCgn)]A (lb)       (29.4‐8)  

D
7  Fn = qh[±(GCgn)]A (N)      (29.4‐8.SIsi)  

U er NT
8     Mc = qh[±(GCgm)]ALc (lb‐ft)      (29.4‐9)  

9  Mc = qh[±(GCgm)]ALc (N‐m)      (29.4‐9.SIsi)  
ot nd E
n
10   where  
N U M
se li
M

11  GCgn = [±(GCgn_static) ± (GCgn_dynamic)]     (29.4‐10)  
D ut O

12  GCgm = [±(GCgm_static) ± (GCgm_dynamic)]     (29.4‐11)  
C

13  qh = Vvelocity pressure for all surfaces evaluated at the mean height of the panel, h in lb./ft2 
14  (N/m2).  
e C
/
rik LI

15  (GCgn_static) = Sstatic net pressure coefficient, as determined from Figure 29.4‐10.  
o
St B

16  (GCgn_dynamic) = Ddynamic net pressure coefficient, as determined from Figure 29.4‐11, and shall 
PU

17  be applied with the sign that yields the most adverse load effect.  
o

18  (GCgm_static) = Sstatic moment coefficient, as determined from Figure 29.4‐10.  

19  (GCgm_dynamic) = Ddynamic moment coefficient, as determined from Figure 29.4‐11, and shall be 
20  applied with the sign that yields the most adverse load effect.  

21  A = Eeffective wind area of element, ft2 (m2).  

29
 1  Interior shielded Zone 1 and exterior perimeter Zone 2 shall be designed and designated, as 
2  shown in Fig.ure 29.4‐9.  

3  For arrays with 0.20 ≤ (Lc/S) < 0.25, all rows shall be designed using Zone 2 static and dynamic 

ite rm T
4  coefficients.  

C Fo AF
5  For all locations, Kzt shall be determined per Equation 26.8‐1. Where Kzt exceeds 1.0 per 

at
6  Equation 26.8‐1, the static and dynamic coefficients for the Zone 2 shall be used throughout the 

or e R
7  entire array.   

D
8  29.4.5.3 Design Support Posts and Foundations.  

U er NT
9  The support posts and foundations shall be designed for the simultaneous application of the 
10  design force, Fn, and design moment, Mc.  The design value used for the horizontal component 
ot nd E
n
11  of Fn shall not be less than 0.1 times the vertical component of Fn.  
N U M

12 
se li
29.4.5.4 Reduced Frequency for Ground‐Mounted Solar Panel Systems.   
M

13  The reduced frequency, Ns, for ground‐mounted solar panel systems shall be determined by 
D ut O

14  Equation. (29.4‐12):   
C

15  Ns = 0.682nLc/V        (29.4‐12) 
e C
/

16  Ns = nLc/V        (29.4‐12.SIsi) 
rik LI

17  where  
o
St B
PU

18  n = lowest natural frequency of the mode of interest (moment or bending) in Hz, and.  
o

19  V = basic wind speed in mi/h (m/s). 

20  Diagrams 

30
 ite rm T
C Fo AF
at
or e R D
1   

U er NT
2  Notation  

3  Ddp = Hhorizontal distance of Zone 2 from row end, ft (m); dp = 4Lc or 30 ft (9.1 m), whichever is 
ot nd E
n
4  smaller.  
N U M
5  se li
ds = Hhorizontal offset between adjacent rows with staggered ends, ft (m).   
M

6  1. Where an open area for access and/or clearance purposes exceeds a distance equal 
D ut O

7  to 0.25Lc in the longitudinal direction or 2S in the transverse direction, a new Zone 2 is 
C

8  formed where the array meets it.  
9  2. Where ds > 1.5Lc, the Zone 2 width shall be increased to ds in the longitudinal 
e C
/

10  direction.   
rik LI

11  3. The Zone 2 width shall always be three rows in the transverse direction.   
o
St B

12  Figure 29.4‐9. Parameters for Application of Ground‐Mounted Fixed‐Tilt Solar Panel System 
PU

13  Requirements. 
o

31
 1  Static Net Pressure Coefficients for Zones 1 and 2 (GCgn_static)

ite rm T
C Fo AF
at
or e R D
2   

U er NT
3  Static Moment Coefficients for Zones 1 and 2  (GCgm_static) 
ot nd E
n
N U M
se li
M
D ut O C

4   
e C
/

5  Notes  
rik LI

6  1. Linear interpolation shall be permitted for values of ω between 5° and 15 degrees°.   
o
St B

7  2. (GCgn) denotes net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces of the solar 
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8  panels); plus and minus signs signify forces acting toward and away from the panels, 
9  respectively; each structural element shall be designed to withstand the worst structural effects 
10  produced by these two load cases.  
11  3. (GCgm) denotes moments about the center‐of‐plane of the panels (contributions from top 
12  and bottom surfaces of the solar panels) that comprise the full chord length (Lc); positive 
13  coefficients denote moments acting in a counterclockwise direction (see Fig.ure 29.4‐9), 
14  whereas negative coefficients denote moments acting in a clockwise direction; each structural 

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 1  element shall be designed to withstand the worst structural effects produced by these two load 
2  cases.  

3  Figure 29.4‐10. Design Wind Loads: Static Wind Load Coefficients for Ground‐Mounted Fixed‐

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4  Tilt Solar Panel Systems. 

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5  Dynamic Net Pressure Coefficients for Zones 1 and 2 (GCgn_dynamic) 

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6   
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7  Figure 29.4‐11 Design Wind Loads: Dynamic Wind Load Coefficients for Ground‐Mounted 
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8  Fixed‐Tilt Solar Panel Systems. 

9  Dynamic Moment Coefficients for Zones 1 and 2 (GCgm_dynamic) 

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2  Notation  
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3  A1 = 4Lc2 or 500 ft2 (46.5 m2), whichever is smaller.   
4  A2 = 15Lc2 or 1,000 ft2 (92.9 m2), whichever is smaller.  
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5  β = damping ratio (% of critical) in mode of interest.  
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6   
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7  Notes  
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8  1. Dynamic coefficients at a damping ratio, β, other than 1% damping (0.01) shall be calculated 

9  by multiplying the coefficients in this figure by  0.01/𝛽  (0.01/\beta)where β ≤ 0.05.  

10  2. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of effective wind area, A, shall be permitted.  
11   
12  Figure 29.4‐11 (Continued). Design Wind Loads: Dynamic Wind Load Coefficients for Ground‐
13  Mounted Fixed‐Tilt Solar Panel Systems. 

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 1   

2   

3  29.5 PARAPETS

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4  Wind loads on parapets are specified in Section 27.3.5 for buildings of all heights designed using

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5  the Directional Procedure, and in Section 28.3.2 for low-rise buildings designed using the

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6  Envelope Procedure.

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7  29.6 ROOF OVERHANGS

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8  Wind loads on roof overhangs are specified in Section 27.3.4 for buildings of all heights
9  designed using the Directional Procedure, and in Section 28.3.3 for low-rise buildings designed
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using the Envelope Procedure.

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29.7 MINIMUM DESIGN WIND LOADING
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12  The design wind force for other structures shall be not less than 16 lb / ft 2 ( 0.77 kN / m 2 )
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13  multiplied by the area, A f .

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14  29.8 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

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15  The following consensus standards and other documents shall be considered part of this standard
and are referenced in this chapter.
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16 
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17  ASCE 72, Design of Steel Lighting System Support Pole Structures, American Society of Civil
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18  Engineers, Reston, Virginia,. 2020.

19  Cited in: Sections 29.4 and C29.4
20 
21  ASCE Task Committee on Wind-Induced Forces, Wind Loads for Petrochemical and Other
22  Industrial Facilities, American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011.
23  Cited in: Sections 29.4 and C29.4
24 

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 1  No consensus standards and other documents that shall be considered part of this standard are
2  referenced in this chapter.

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