1 

CHAPTER C8 RAIN LOADS

2 

3  C8.1 DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS

4  C8.1.1 Definitions

5  PRIMARY MEMBERS: Structural members having direct attachment to the columns, including

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6  girders, beams, and trusses.

7  SCUPPER: An opening in the side of a building (typically through a parapet wall) for the purpose

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8  of draining water off the roof.

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9 

C8.1.2 Symbols n
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10 
at
11 
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12  A = Tributary roof area, plus one-half the wall area that diverts rainwater onto the roof, serviced
2 2
by a single drain outlet in the secondary drainage system, in ft ( m ).
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13 
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14  D = Drain bowl diameter for a primary roof drain, or overflow dam or standpipe diameter for a
15  secondary roof drain, in in. (mm).
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16  i = Design rainfall intensity, in. / h ( mm / h ).

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17  Q = Flow rate out of a single drainage system, in gal./ min ( m3 / s ).

18  Lr = Length of level roof edge that allows for free overflow drainage of rainwater when the roof

19  edge is acting as the secondary drainage system, in ft (m).

20  β = Minimum rise in inches for a run of 1 ft (i.e., a β on 12 roof slope) to achieve no local
21  minimum.

1 
 
 1  γ = Unit weight of water.

2  Bp = Ponding amplification factor.

3  Cp = Flexibility coefficient related to primary members.

4  Cs = Flexibility coefficient related to secondary members.

5  EIp = Flexural rigidity of primary members.

6  EIs = Flexural rigidity of secondary members.

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7  Lp = Span of the primary members.

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8  Ls = Span of the secondary members.

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9  S = Spacing of the secondary members.
10 

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11 
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12  C8.2 ROOF DRAINAGE
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13  Roof drainage is a structural, architectural, and mechanical (plumbing) issue. The provisions of
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14  this chapter define rain loads and do not explicitly specify any requirements for the design of
15  drainage systems. Among the first steps in establishing the rain loads is the identification of the
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16  secondary drainage system for structural loads (SDSL). The SDSL is the roof drainage system by
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17  which water drains off the roof when the drainage systems that are required to be assumed to be
18  blocked, listed in Section 8.2, are blocked or not working.
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19  It is possible that a drainage system that is designated as a secondary or emergency overflow drain,
20  by the architect or mechanical (plumbing) engineer, is required to be assumed to be blocked, as
21  per Section 8.2. Such a drainage system cannot serve as the SDSL and the next point of discharge
22  that is not required to be assumed to be blocked will be the SDSL. As an example of an extreme
23  case where no overflow drainage is provided, flow of water over a parapet could serve as the
24  SDSL. However, this likely leads to large rain loads and an inefficient structure. Cases such as this
25  should be avoided, where possible, through design team coordination.

2 
 
 1  Rain loads are based on the condition of a blocked primary and other drainage systems (per Section
2  8.2) and a 15-minute duration storm with return period based on the risk category of the structure.
3  Therefore, the SDSL is of greater importance than the primary drainage system for the
4  determination of rain loads.

5  If the primary drainage system is a free-draining edge, then the edge can also serve as the SDSL
6  since it cannot become blocked as internal drains or scuppers can. Otherwise, the SDSL must be
7  distinct from the primary drainage system. One reason for this is so that activation of the SDSL
8  can serve as an urgent warning of blockage on the roof and the need for prompt maintenance of

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9  the primary drains. Similarly, the elevation of the SDSL must be at least 2 inches (5 cm) above
10  that of the primary drainage system so that the SDSL is not frequently activated, which would

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11  lessen the urgency of the warning and also make the SDSL more susceptible to blockage. The

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12  Uniform Plumbing Code (IAPMO 2021) and FM Global (2016) have similar requirements. Greater
13  separation may be warranted based on analysis and desired frequency of activation of the SDSL.
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14  In some areas of the country, ordinances are in effect that either limit the rate or delay the release
15  of rainwater flow from roofs into storm drains. Controlled flow drains are often used on such roofs.
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16  Those roofs must be capable of supporting the stormwater temporarily stored on them, similar to
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17  traditional roof drainage systems. Since controlled flow drains necessarily restrict the passage of
18  water, they can only be primary drains and cannot be considered to act as an SDSL.
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19  Roof drainage systems are not always designed to handle all the flow associated with intense,
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20  short-duration rainfall events. For example, the International Plumbing Code (ICC 2012) uses a 1-
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21  h duration event with a 100-yr return period for the design of both the primary and secondary
22  drainage systems. An adequate secondary (overflow) drainage system, which is used to limit the
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23  depth of water on the roof in the event of clogging of the primary drains, must be designed for an
24  adequately short-duration rainfall event. Some plumbing codes use an arbitrary 1-hour duration
25  storm event for the design of roof drain systems; however, the critical duration for a roof is
26  generally closer to 15 min (the critical duration depends on the roof geometry and drain sizes), and
27  therefore the plumbing codes do not appropriately account for the coincidence of both blocked
28  primary drains and short-duration rainfall events at the design mean recurrence interval (return
29  period or frequency). Graber (2009) provides guidance for determining the critical durations for
30  different types of roof configurations. A very severe local storm or thunderstorm in excess of the

3 
 
 1  100-year return period storm may produce a deluge of such intensity and duration that properly
2  designed primary drainage systems are temporarily overloaded. Such temporary loads are typically
3  covered in design when blocked drains (see Section 8.2) and a rainfall duration of 15 min is
4  considered. The use of a 60-min duration/100-year return period rainfall event for the design of
5  the primary drainage system and the 15-min duration/100-year return period rainfall event for the
6  secondary drainage system (assuming the primary drainage system is completely blocked) is
7  consistent with the NFPA 5000 Building Construction and Safety Code (2021). Internal gutters
8  are typically designed for 2-min to 5-min duration rainfall events, since their critical duration is

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9  very short due to their limited storage volume and inability to attenuate a rainfall event. The use
10  of longer design storm return periods for Risk Categories III and IV buildings and structures is

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11  consistent with other loads in this standard. The return periods in Table 8.2-1 are based on the
12  collective judgment of the committee and availability of the necessary data.

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13  The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA’s) National Weather Service
14  n
Precipitation Frequency Data Server, Hydrometeorological Design Studies Center provides
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15  rainfall intensity data in inches per hour for 15-min duration storms with various mean recurrence
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16  intervals (http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/index.html). Precipitation intensity ( i in
17  Equation [C8.2-1]) is in the units of inches per hour; if precipitation depth is provided, a conversion
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18  to intensity is required.

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19  The following roof conditions adversely affect the critical duration, or increase the peak flow rate,
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20  and should be avoided or appropriately considered by the designer when determining the design
rain load:
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21 

1. Roofs with internal gutters that have limited storage capacity and quickly fill with
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22 
23  rainwater. Gutters are typically designed for 2-min to 5-min duration storms, since their
24  critical duration is much shorter than the critical duration for typical roofs with scuppers or
25  internal drains.
26  2. Architecturally complex roofs with internal gutters with significant gutter slopes.
27  Significant gutter slopes allow water to flow at high velocities, which need to be considered
28  when designing the gutter outlets and determining rain loads.
29  3. Areas susceptible to a concentration of flow, for example, when an addition is added to a
30  low-sloped gable roof (Figure C8.2-1). In this case, rainwater at the edge of the main roof

4 
 
 1  cannot build over the primary drains or the SDSL to attain the design flow rate, and the
2  water flows into and inundates the small roof extension.
3  4. Small roofs adjacent to large walls, where the wall is capable of contributing substantial
4  wind-driven rain flow (sheet flow down the wall) to the roof.
5  5. High roof areas that drain onto a low roof, increasing the tributary roof area and decreasing
6  the critical rainfall duration.

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7  n
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8  FIGURE C8.2-1. Low-slope gable roof with drainage condition at building extension.
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9  Items 4 and 5 can occur when building additions occur, i.e., the new construction imposes an
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10  unfavorable condition on the existing construction conditions.

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11  The amount of water that could accumulate on a roof from blockage of the primary drainage system
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12  is determined, and the roof is designed to withstand the load created by that water plus the uniform
13  load caused by water that rises above the inlet of the secondary drainage systems at its design flow.
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14  If parapet walls, cant strips, expansion joints, and other features create the potential for deep water
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15  in an area, it may be advisable to install in that area secondary (overflow) drains with separate
16  drain lines rather than overflow scuppers to reduce the magnitude of the design rain load. Where
17  geometry permits, free discharge is the preferred form of emergency drainage.

18  When determining these water loads, it is assumed that the roof does not deflect. This assumption
19  eliminates complexities associated with determining the distribution of water loads within
20  deflection depressions. However, it is quite important to consider this water when assessing
21  ponding instability in Section 8.4.

5 
 
 1  The depth of water, dh , above the inlet of the secondary drainage system (i.e., the hydraulic head)

2  is a function of the rainfall intensity, i , at the site, the area of roof serviced by that drainage system,
3  and the size of the drainage system.

4  The flow rate through a single drainage system is as follows:

5 
Q  0.0104Ai (C8.2-1)

6  Q  0.278  106 Ai (C8.2-1.si)

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7  The hydraulic head, dh , is related to flow rate, Q , for various drainage systems in Table C8.2-1.

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8  This table indicates that dh can vary considerably depending on the type and size of each drainage

system and the flow rate it must handle. For this reason, the single value of 1 in. (25 mm)

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9 

10  [i.e., 5 lb / ft 2 ( 0.24 kN / m 2 )] used in ASCE 7-93 was eliminated.

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Table C8.2-1. Flow Rate ( Q ) in Gallons per Minute for Secondary (Overflow) Roof Drains
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11 
12  at Various Hydraulic Heads ( d h ) above the Dam or Standpipe, in Inches.
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Hydraulic Head (in.) above Dam or Standpipe

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Overflow Dam 8 in. Overflow Overflow Overflow

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Diameter Dam 12.75 in. Dam Standpipe

Diameter 17 in. 6 in.
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Diameter Diameter
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Drain Outlet Size (in.)

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3 4 6 6 8 10 4
Drain Bowl Depth (in.)
Flow rate 2 2 2 2 3.25 4.25 2
(gal.&slash_escaped;min)
50 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 — 1.0
75 1.0 — ‘ — — — —
100 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
125 2.0 — — — — — —

6 
 
 150 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 — — 2.5
175 3.0 — — — — — —
200 — 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.5
225 — — — — — — —
250 — 2.5 2.5 1.5 — — 2.5
300 — 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 3.0
350 — 3.5 3.5 2.5 — — 3.5
400 — 5.5 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 —

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450 — — 4.0 3.0 — — —
500 — — 5.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 —

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550 — — 5.5 4.0 — — —

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600 — — 6.0 5.5 3.5 2.5 —
650 — — — — — — —
700 — — —n — 3.5 3.0 —
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800 — — — — 4.5 3.0 —
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900 — — — — 5.0 3.5 —
1,000 — — — — 5.5 3.5 —
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1,100 — — — — — 4.0 —
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1,200 — — — — — 4.5 —
1  Notes:
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1. Assume that the flow regime is either weir flow or transition flow, except where the
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2 
3  hydraulic head values are in shaded cells below the heavy line that designates orifice flow.
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4  2. To determine total head, add the depth of water (static head, ds ) above the roof surface to

5  the secondary drain inlet (which is the height of the dam or standpipe above the roof
6  surface) to the hydraulic head listed in this table.
7  3. Linear interpolation for flow rate and hydraulic head is appropriate for approximations.
8  4. Extrapolation is not appropriate.

9  Source: Adapted from FM Global (2012).

7 
 
 1  The hydraulic head, dh , can generally be assumed to be negligible for design purposes when the

2  secondary drainage system is free to overflow along a roof edge where the length of the level roof
3  edge ( Lr ) providing free drainage is

Lr  Ai / 400 (C8.2-2)
4 

5  Lr  Ai / 3,100 (C8.2-2.si)

6  Equation (C8.3-2) is based on the assumption that hydraulic head ( dh ) of approximately 0.25 in.

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7  (6 mm) above the level roof edge, which represents a rain load of 1.3 lb / ft 2 ( 6.3 kg / m2 ), is
8  negligible in most circumstances.

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9  Flow rates and corresponding hydraulic heads for roof drains are often not available in industry
10  codes, standards, or drain manufacturers’ literature for many commonly specified drain types and
11 
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sizes. Since the hydraulic characteristics and performance of roof drains can depend not only on
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12  the size of the drain outlet but also on the geometry of the drain body (e.g., the diameter of the
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13  drain dam and depth of the drain bowl), determining the flow rate and corresponding hydraulic
14  head for a drain can be difficult based only on hydraulic calculations. This is particularly true when
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15  considering the difficulty in predicting the flow regime (i.e., weir flow, orifice flow, or transition
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16  between the two) and the significant effect that flow regime has on the relationship between flow
17  rate and corresponding hydraulic head for a drain.
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18  Based on a drain flow testing program completed by FM Global (2012), the hydraulic heads
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19  corresponding to a given range of drain flow rates are provided in Tables C8.2-1 and C8.2-2. This
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20  drain testing program included six sizes of primary roof drains and seven sizes and types of
21  secondary (overflow) roof drains. The drains were tested with debris guards (strainers) in place
22  and in a test basin with a relatively smooth bottom surface (waterproofing membrane) to simulate
23  typical smooth-surface roofing material. Measurements of water depth in the test basin were made
24  at a distance of 2 ft (0.6 m) or more from the drain, which ensured that the head measurements
25  were not significantly affected by surface water velocity, and therefore were made where the
26  velocity head was negligible, which was confirmed when comparing water depth based on direct

8 
 
1  depth measurements to hydraulic head based on pressure taps embedded in the bottom surface of
2  the test basin.

3  Table C8.2-2. Flow rate ( Q ) in cubic meters per second for secondary (overflow) roof drains
4  at various hydraulic heads ( d h ) above the dam or standpipe, in millimeters.

Hydraulic Head (mm) above Dam or Standpipe

Overflow Dam 203 mm Overflow Dam Overflow Overflow
Diameter 329 mm Diameter Dam 432 Standpipe

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mm 152 mm
Diameter Diameter

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Drain Outlet Size (mm)

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76 102 152 152 203 254 102
Flow Rate ( Drain Bowl Depth (mm)

m3 / s ) 51 51 51 n 51 83 108 51
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0.0032 13 13 13 13 13 — 25
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0.0047 25 — ‘ — — — —
0.0063 38 25 25 25 13 25 38
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0.0079 51 — — — — — —
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0.0095 51 38 38 25 — — 64
0.0110 76 — — — — — —
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0.0126 — 51 51 38 38 38 64
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0.0142 — — — — — — —
0.0158 — 64 64 38 — — 64
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0.0189 — 76 76 51 51 38 76
0.0221 — 89 89 64 — — 89
0.0252 — 140 89 76 64 51 —
0.0284 — — 102 76 — — —
0.0315 — — 127 89 76 64 —
0.0347 — — 140 102 — — —
0.0379 — — 152 140 89 64 —

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 0.0410 — — — — — — —
0.0442 — — — — 89 76 —
0.0505 — — — — 114 76 —
0.0568 — — — — 127 89 —
0.0631 — — — — 140 89 —
0.0694 — — — — — 102 —
0.0757 — — — — — 114 —
1  Notes:

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2  1. Assume that the flow regime is either weir flow or transition flow, except where the
3  hydraulic head values are in shaded cells below the heavy line that designates orifice flow.

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4  2. To determine total head, add the depth of water (static head, ds ) above the roof surface to

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5  the secondary drain inlet (which is the height of the dam or standpipe above the roof
surface) to the hydraulic head listed in this table.
6 
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3. Linear interpolation for flow rate and hydraulic head is appropriate for approximations.
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7 
8  4. Extrapolation is not appropriate.
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9  Source: Adapted from FM Global (2012).

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10  Refer to Figure C8.2-1 for a schematic view of a secondary drain and the relationship between the
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11  drain, the roof surface, and the head.

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12 

10 
 
 1  FIGURE C8.2-2. Schematic cross section of secondary (overflow) roof drain and total head
2  ( d s  d h ). Drain debris guard (strainer) and ring clamp (gravel stop) not shown for clarity.

3  The following method can be used to approximate hydraulic head for differing drain body
4  dimensions:

5  (a) For weir flow and transition flow regime designations (cells that are not shaded) in Tables C8.2-
6  1 and C8.2-2:

7  Where the specified secondary (overflow) drain dam or standpipe diameter differs from what is

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8  provided in Tables C8.2-1 and C8.2-2, the hydraulic head can be adjusted based on
9  Equation (C8.2-3), while holding flow rate constant; however, it is advisable not to use an adjusted

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10  design hydraulic head less than 80% of the hydraulic head indicated in the tables (for a given flow

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11  rate) unless flow test results are provided to justify the hydraulic head values.

12 
d h 2  [( D1 / D2 ) 0.67 ]( d h1 )
(C8.2-3)n
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13  where
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14  d h1 = Known hydraulic head from Tables C8.2-1 and C8.2-2;

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15  D1 = Overflow dam or standpipe diameter for secondary (overflow) drain, corresponding to d h1

16  for a given flow rate, as shown in Tables C8.2-1 and C8.2-2;
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17  d h 2 = Hydraulic head to be determined for the specified secondary drain; and
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D 2 = Specified overflow dam or standpipe diameter for secondary (overflow) drain corresponding
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18 

19  to d h 2 for a given flow rate.

20  Example 1: Determine the total head for an 8-in. secondary drain (8 i-in. outlet diameter) with a
21  10-in. diameter  2 in. high overflow dam ( ds ) at a flow rate ( Q ) of 300 gal. / min .

22  From Table C8.2-1:

23  D1  12.75in. (dam diameter).

11 
 
 1  d h1  2.0 in. for 300 gal./ min , 8-in. outlet.

2  For the specified 10-in. diameter overflow dam on an 8-in. drain outlet:

3  D2  10 in. (dam diameter).

4  Therefore,

5  d h 2  [( D1 / D2 ) 0.67 ]( d h1 )

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6  d h 2  [(12.75 in. / 10 in.) 0.67 ](2.0 in.)  2.4 in. at Q  300 gal./ min

Total head  d h 2  d s  2.4 in.  2 in.  4.4 in.

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7 

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8  (b) For orifice flow regime designations for roof drains, as shown in the shaded cells in
9  Tables C8.2-1 and C8.2-2:
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10  The depth of the drain bowl can affect the hydraulic head acting on the drain outlet for a given
11  flow rate; therefore, where the depth of the specified drain bowl is less than the depth of the tested
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12  drain bowl (indicated in the tables), the difference in drain bowl depth should be added to the
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13  hydraulic head from the tables to determine the design hydraulic head and total head. Where the
14  depth of the specified drain bowl is greater than that indicated in the tables, the difference in drain
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15  bowl depth can be subtracted from hydraulic head in the tables to determine the design hydraulic
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16  head and total head; however, it is advisable not to use an adjusted design hydraulic head less than
80% of the hydraulic head provided in the tables (for a given flow rate) unless flow test results are
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17 
18  provided to justify the hydraulic head values.
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19  Example 2: Determine the total head for a 4 in. secondary drain (4-in. outlet diameter) with a drain
20  bowl depth of 1.5 in. and a 2.5 in. high overflow dam ( ds ), at a flow rate ( Q ) of 350 gal./ min .

21  From Table C8.3-1: When Q  350 gal./ min , for a 4-in. drain with an 8-in. dam, d h  3.5 in. , the

22  flow regime is orifice flow (shaded portion of the table), and the drain bowl depth is 2 in.

23  The specified drain bowl depth is 1.5 in., and since this is 0.5 in. less than the drain bowl depth
24  referenced in the table, the hydraulic head from the table is increased by 0.5 in.

12 
 
 1  Therefore, for the proposed drain: d h  3.5 in.  0.5 in.  4.0 in.

2  Total head  d h  d s  4.0 in.  2.5 in.  6.5 in.

3  Drain outlet sizes are generally standard in the industry, so it is unlikely that adjustments to
4  hydraulic head values in Tables C8.2-1 and C8.2-2 based on differing drain outlet sizes will be
5  needed.

6  Where a roof drain is installed in a sump pan located below the adjoining roof surface, reductions

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7  in hydraulic head and rain load on the adjoining roof surface should only be credited when based
8  on hydraulic analysis from a qualified plumbing engineer.

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9  Refer to Tables C8.2-3, C8.2-4, C8.2-5, and C8.2-6 for flow rates of rectangular and circular (pipe)

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10  roof scuppers at various hydraulic heads. Note that these tables are based on the assumption that
11  no backwater is present (i.e., free outfall) at the discharge end of the scupper. If backwater is
12 
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present, then the hydraulic head can be expected to increase for the same flow rate.
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13  Table C8.2-3. Flow Rate, Q , in gallons per minute for scuppers at various hydraulic heads (
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14  d h ) in inches.
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Drainage Hydraulic Head, dh , in.

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System 1 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 7 8

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6-in. 18 50 b
90 b
140 b
194 321 393
wide
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channel
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scuppera
24-in. 72 200 b
360 b
560 b
776 1,284 1,572
wide
channel
scupper
6-in. 18 50 b
90 b
140 b
177 231 253
wide, 4-
in. high,

13 
 
 closed
scuppera
24-in. 72 200 b
360 b
560 b
708 924 1,012
wide, 4-
in. high,
closed
scupper
6-in. 18 50 b
90 b
140 b
194 303 343

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wide, 6-
in. high,

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closed
scupper

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24-in. 72 200 b
360 b
560 b
776 1,212 1,372
wide, 6-
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in. high,
closed
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scupper
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1  a
Channel scuppers are open-topped (i.e., three-sided). Closed scuppers are four-sided.
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2  b
Interpolation is appropriate, including between widths of each scupper.
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3  Source: Adapted from FM Global (2012).

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4  Table C8.2-4. In SI, Flow Rate, Q , in cubic meters per second for scuppers at various
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5  hydraulic heads ( d h ) in millimeters.

Drainage Hydraulic Head dh , mm

System 25 51 64 76 89 102 114 127 178 203
b b b
152-mm 0.0011 0.0032 0.0057 0.0088 0.0122 0.0202 0.0248
wide channel
scuppera

14 
 
 b b b
610-mm 0.0045 0.0126 0.0227 0.0353 0.0490 0.0810 0.0992
wide channel
scupper
b b b
152-mm 0.0011 0.0032 0.0057 0.0088 0.0112 0.0146 0.0160
wide, 102-
mm high,
closed
scuppera

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b b b
610-mm 0.0045 0.0126 0.0227 0.0353 0.0447 0.0583 0.0638
wide, 102-

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mm high,
closed

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scupper
152-mm 0.0011 0.0032 b
n
0.0057 b
0.0088 b
0.0122 0.0191 0.0216
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wide, 152-
mm high,
at

closed
m

scupper
b b b
or

610-mm 0.0045 0.0126 0.0227 0.0353 0.0490 0.0765 0.0866

wide, 152-
nf

mm high,
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closed
scupper
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1  a
Channel scuppers are open-topped (i.e., three-sided). Closed scuppers are four-sided.

2  b
Interpolation is appropriate, including between widths of each scupper.

3  Source: Adapted from FM Global (2012).

4  Table C8.2-5. Flow Rate ( Q ) in gallons per minute, for circular scuppers at various hydraulic
5  heads ( d h ) in inches.

15 
 
 Scupper Flow (gal.&slash_escaped;min)
Scupper Diameter (in.)
d h (in.) 5 6 8 10 12 14 16

1 6 7 8 8 10 10 10
2 25 25 30 35 40 40 45
3 50 55 65 75 75 90 95
4 80 90 110 130 140 155 160
5 115 135 165 190 220 240 260

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6 155 185 230 270 300 325 360
7 190 230 300 350 410 440 480

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8 220 280 375 445 510 570 610

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1  Notes:

2 
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1. Hydraulic head ( dh ) is taken above the scupper invert (design water level above base of
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3  scupper opening).
2. Linear interpolation is appropriate for approximations.
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4 
5  3. Extrapolation is not appropriate.
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6  Source: Data from Carter (1957) and Bodhaine (1968).

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7  Table C8.2-6. Flow Rate ( Q ) in Cubic Meters per Second for Circular Scuppers at Various
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8  Hydraulic Heads ( d h ) in Millimeters.

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3
Scupper Flow Rate ( m / s )
Fo

dh (mm) Scupper Diameter (mm)

127 152 203 254 305 356 406
25 0.0004 0.0004 0.0005 0.0005 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006
51 0.0016 0.0016 0.0019 0.0022 0.0025 0.0025 0.0028
76 0.0032 0.0035 0.0041 0.0047 0.0047 0.0057 0.0060
100 0.0050 0.0057 0.0069 0.0082 0.0088 0.0098 0.0101
127 0.0073 0.0085 0.0104 0.0120 0.0139 0.0151 0.0164

16 
 
 152 0.0098 0.0117 0.0145 0.0170 0.0189 0.0205 0.0227
178 0.0120 0.0145 0.0189 0.0221 0.0259 0.0278 0.0303
203 0.0139 0.0177 0.0237 0.0281 0.0322 0.0360 0.0385
1  Notes:

2  1. Hydraulic head ( dh ) is taken above the scupper invert (design water level above base of

3  scupper opening).
4  2. Linear interpolation is appropriate for approximations.
3. Extrapolation is not appropriate.

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5 

6  Source: Data from Carter (1957) and Bodhaine (1968).

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7  The accumulation of water on a roof can be exacerbated by the deflection of the roof, an effect

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8  known as ponding. Rain loads cause deflections, which allow the accumulation of more water,
9  which increases the rain loads, and the cycle continues until failure or stabilization. Failure will
10  n
result if the structure does not possess enough stiffness to limit this progression or enough strength
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11  at the stabilized condition.
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12  The definition of rain load was changed in the 2022 edition of the standard to include the additional
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13  load due to ponding. This eliminates the need to perform a separate ponding instability check,
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14  however, the effects of ponding need to be explicitly included in the rain load. There are several
15  methods to compute the additional load due to ponding, any of which are acceptable for use in
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16  design.
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17  The additional load may be computed iteratively. The first step in such an analysis is to compute
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18  the rain load neglecting the ponding contribution (i.e., with dp = 0), which serves as a first
19  approximation of the rain load. Then, a structural analysis is performed to compute deflections
20  under unfactored dead load and the unfactored first approximation of the rain load, excluding
21  ponding. These deflections are used to compute dp and update the rain load, which in turn is used
22  to compute new deflections. Successive analyses, each with loads updated based on the deflected
23  shape of the roof eventually converge to the correct value of dp, or diverge, indicating ponding
24  instability.

17 
 
 1  Other methods of computing the load include the use of springs with negative stiffness (Baber and
2  Rigsbee 2010), closed-form solutions for simple cases (Silver 2010), or amplified first-order
3  analysis (Denavit 2019).

4  For any type of analysis, all flexural, shear, and axial member deformations, and all other
5  component and connection deformations that contribute to the deflection of the roof should be
6  considered. If an open-web steel joist or truss is modeled as a beam without shear deformations,
7  then it is common to reduce the moment of inertia by 15% to account for shear deformations. Axial
8  deformations of columns are typically small and can often be neglected.

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9  For rectangular framed bays consisting of primary members supporting equally spaced secondary

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10  members, approximate results can be obtained via amplified first-order analysis as follows. Load
11  effects due to the total load are obtained by performing a first-order analysis with unfactored dead

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12  load and unfactored rain load excluding the ponding contribution (i.e., with dp = 0) and multiplying
the result by the amplification factor, Bp (Equation C8.2-4), which depends on flexibility
13 
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14  coefficients, Cp (Equation C8.2-5) and Cs (Equation C8.2-6). Using this method, rain loads are
15  calculated by first computing the total load (dead load plus rain load) and subtracting out the dead
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16  load.
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17  𝐵 (C8.2-4)
.
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_____________________
18 
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19  𝐶 (C8.2-5)
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______________
20 

21  𝐶 (C8.2-6)

_____________
22 

23  Example:

24  Consider a bay on a flat roof with structural steel framing. W24x76 girders span 40 ft and support
25  W18x35 beams that also span 40 ft and are spaced at 8 ft. The dead load is 15 psf and ds + dh = 5

18 
 
 1  in. Neglecting the effects of ponding, dead load and rain load result in a combined load of 15 psf
2  + 5.2 psf/in (5 in.) = 41 psf. Approximating the effects of ponding using Equation C8.2-4, dead
3  load and rain load result in a combined load of Bp (41 psf) = (1.44)(41 psf) = 59 psf, where Bp is
4  computed as shown below. Thus, the rain load (sum of static head, hydraulic head, and ponding
5  head), R is equal to 59 psf – 15 psf = 44 psf. The total factored load for strength design in
6  accordance with Section 2.3.1 is 1.2D + 1.6R = 1.2(15 psf) + 1.6(44 psf) = 88.4 psf. In this method,
7  the ponding head, dp, is not explicitly computed, but can be determined from the rain load.

lb 1 𝑘 1 ft 12 in. 12 in.

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62.4  40 ft 40 ft
𝛾𝐿 𝐿 𝑓𝑡 1000 lb. 12 in. 1 ft. 1 ft.
8  𝐶 0.155
𝜋 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 29,000 ksi 2100 in.

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9 

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lb 1 𝑘 1 ft 12 in. 12 in.
62.4  8 ft 40 ft
𝑓𝑡 1000 lb. 12 in. 1 ft. 1 ft.
10  𝐶
𝛾𝑆𝐿
𝜋 𝐸𝐼 n
𝜋 29,000 ksi 510 in.
0.128
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1 1
12  𝐵 1.44
1 1.15𝐶 𝐶 1 1.15 0.155 0.128
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13  C8.3 BAYS WITH LOW SLOPE

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14  The provisions of Section 8.3 require additional investigation of low-sloped bays which may be
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15  susceptible to ponding loads despite not being subject to rain load per Section 8.2.
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16 

17  An example structure is shown in Figure C8.3-1. The leftmost bay with the parapet and the center
18  bays impound water during the design event. These bays are subject to rain load, as per Section
19  8.2, and are susceptible to ponding instability. Ponding is addressed for these bays by the inclusion
20  of the ponding head, dp, in the calculation of rain load. Bays at the edge of a building with a
21  perimeter curb would also impound water up to the height of the curb and would therefore also be
22  subject to rain load per Section 8.2.

19 
 
 1 

2 

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3  FIGURE C8.3-1. Identification of bays requiring additional investigation.

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4  Source:

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5  If a bay is above the water level or adjacent to a free-draining edge, the depth of water on the
6 
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undeflected roof may be zero (i.e., ds = 0), but there is still the potential for isolated ponds to form
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7  in low points in the deflected shape of the roof. However, this will only occur when the slope of
8  the roof is low. Low points (i.e., local minimums) in the deflected shape can be identified by
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9  performing a structural analysis. The provisions utilize simplified limits on the roof slope to
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10  identify cases which require further investigation. These limits were developed by applying an
assumed maximum deflected shape to all members. The limits were derived assuming rectangular
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11 
12  bays with sinusoidal deflected shape with a maximum deflection of L/240 (where L is the span)
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13  and rigid eaves. When secondary members are perpendicular and adjacent to a free draining edge,
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14  the minimum rise (β in inches) for a run of 1 ft (i.e., a β on 12 roof slope) to achieve no local
15  minimum is
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16  𝛽 𝜋 (C8.3-1)

17  where Lp and Ls are the spans of the primary and secondary members, respectively (β = 0.23 in.
18  for Ls = 40 ft and Lp = 60 ft). When secondary members are parallel and adjacent to a free draining
19  edge, the minimum rise (β in inches) for a run of 1 ft to achieve no local minimum is

20  𝛽 𝜋 (C8.3-2)

20 
 
 1  where S is the spacing of the secondary members (β = 0.76 in. for Ls = 60 ft and S = 5 ft). For
2  interior bays regardless of the orientation of the members, the minimum rise (β in inches) for a run
3  of 1 ft to achieve no local minimum is β = π/20 (β = 0.16 in.) but is specified as 0.25 in. in Section
4  8.3.2.

5 

6  An example of a bay that requires additional investigation, per Section 8.3, is shown in Figure
7  C8.3-2. Rainwater would simply flow off the free-draining edge if the roof was rigid. However, if

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8  the deflection of the first secondary member upslope from the free-draining edge exceeds the initial
9  difference in elevation, then a pond can form. To determine if the bay will be subjected to rain

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10  loads, only deflection due to dead load should be considered. For an evaluation of ponding in the
11  presence of snow per Section 7.11, deflection due to dead load plus snow load should be

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12  considered. Not all bays requiring additional investigation per Section 8.3 will have rain loads. If
it is determined that positive slope to the free-draining edge is maintained even for the deflected
13 
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14  roof, then neither rain loads nor ponding instability need to be considered in design. If the analysis
15  determines that a pond will form, then Section 8.2 can be used to determine the rain load. In such
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16  a case, water level would be taken as the elevation of the free-draining edge plus a nominal amount
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17  of hydraulic head (e.g., dh = 1/4 in.).

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Fo

21 
 
 Free-draining edge
(rigid)

Secondary member parallel

to the free-draining edge

UNDEFLECTED ROOF

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DEFLECTED ROOF
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WITH RAINWATER
1 
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2  FIGURE C8.3-2. Example of bay requiring additional investigation, per Section 8.3.
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3  Source:
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4  If a bay does not have impounded water and the slope is not low, then it is expected that any
rainwater will drain off the roof and neither rain loads nor ponding instability need to be considered
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5 
6  in design.
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7  C8.4 DRAINAGE TO EXISTING ROOFS

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8  In some cases, existing roofs have failed when alterations, additions, or new construction caused
9  rain loads to increase on the existing roof. In many of these cases, the drainage systems had not
10  been modified to account for the increased flow of water nor was the roof strengthened to account
11  for the increased loads. Increased loads may be significant for existing roof structures designed to
12  older codes that did not require secondary drainage systems. Installation of scuppers or other
13  overflow drainage systems can help mitigate large increases in load.

14 

22 
 
 1  New construction can increase rain flow to an existing roof in cases such as a new wall constructed
2  directly adjacent to an existing roof where sheet flow down the wall diverts onto the roof.

3  REFERENCES

4  Baber, T. T., and Rigsbee, E. D. (2010). “Noniterative Finite Element Analysis of Ponding.”
5  Structures Congress 2010, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1150–1159.

6  Bodhaine , G. L. (1968). “Measurement of peak discharge at culverts by indirect methods.”

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7  Techniques of water-resources investigations of the United States Geological Survey: Book 3
8  Application of hydraulics. Reston, VA: US Geological Survey.

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9  Carter , R. W. (1957). “Computation of peak discharge at culverts.” Geological Survey Circular

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10  376. Reston, VA: US Geological Survey.

11  Denavit, M. D. (2019). “Approximate ponding analysis by amplified first-order analysis.”

12  Engineering Structures, 197, 109428. n
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13  FM Global. (2016). Loss prevention data 1–54, roof loads for new construction. Norwood, MA:
14  Factory Mutual Engineering Corp.
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15  Fisher, J. M. and Denavit, M. D. (2018). "Structural Design of Steel Joist Roofs to Resist Ponding
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16  Loads," Technical Digest 3, 3rd Edition, , Florence, SC: Steel Joist Institute.
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17  Graber , S. D. (2009). “Rain loads and flow attenuation on roofs.” J. Arch. Eng. 15(3), 91–101.
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18  IAMPO (International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials). (2021) “Uniform
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19  Plumbing Code,” Ontario: IAMPO.

20  International Code Council (ICC) (2021) “International plumbing code.” Washington, DC.

21  NFPA (National Fire Protection Association). (2021). NFPA 5000 building construction and
22  safety code . NFPA, Quincy, MA.

23  Silver, E. (2010). “A Strength Design Approach to Ponding.” Engineering Journal, AISC, 47(3):
24  175–187.

23 
 
 1 

 
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24