1 

CHAPTER C7 SNOW LOADS

2 

3  C7.1 DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS

4  Methodology. The procedure established for determining design snow loads is as follows:

5  1. Determine the ground snow load for the geographic location (Sections 7.2 and C7.2).
6  2. Generate a flat roof snow load from the ground load, with consideration given to (1) roof

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7  exposure (Sections 7.3.1, C7.3, and C7.3.1); (2) roof thermal - condition (Sections 7.3.2,
8  C7.3, and C7.3.2); and (3) occupancy and function of structure (Sections 7.3.3 and C7.3.3).

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9  3. Consider roof slope (Sections 7.4 through 7.4.5 and C7.4).

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10  4. Consider partial loading (Sections 7.5 and C7.5).
11  5. Consider unbalanced loads (Sections 7.6 through 7.6.4 and C7.6).
12  n
6. Consider snow drifts: (1) on lower roofs (Sections 7.7 through 7.7.2 and C7.7) and (2) from
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13  projections (Sections 7.8 and C7.8).
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14  7. Consider sliding snow (Sections 7.9 and C7.9).
8. Consider extra loads from rain on snow (Sections 7.10 and C7.10).
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15 
16  9. Consider ponding loads (Section 7.11 and C7.11).
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17  10. Consider existing roofs (Sections 7.12 and C7.12).

11. Consider other roofs and sites (Section C7.13).
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18 
19  12. Consider the consequences of loads in excess of the design value (see the following text).
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20  Loads in Excess of the Design Value. The philosophy of the probabilistic approach used in this
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21  standard is to establish a design value that reduces the risk of a snow load–induced failure to an
22  acceptably low level. Because snow loads in excess of the design value may occur, the implications
23  of such “excess” loads should be considered. For example, if a roof is deflected at the design snow
24  load so that slope to drain is eliminated, “excess” snow load might cause ponding (Section C7.11)
25  and perhaps progressive failure.

26  The snow load/dead load ratio of a roof structure is an important consideration when assessing the
27  implications of “excess” loads. If the design snow load is exceeded, the percentage increase in
28  total load would be greater for a lightweight structure (i.e., one with a high snow load/dead load
1 
 
 1  ratio) than for a heavy structure (i.e., one with a low snow load/dead load ratio). For example, if a
2  40 lb / ft 2 ( 1.92 kN / m 2 ) roof snow load is exceeded by 20 lb / ft 2 ( 0.96 kN / m 2 ) for a roof that

3  has a 25 lb / ft 2 ( 1.19 kN / m 2 ) dead load, the total load increases by 31% from 65 to 85 lb / ft 2

4  (3.11 to 4.07 kN / m 2 ). If the roof had a 60 lb / ft 2 ( 2.87 kN / m 2 ) dead load, the total load would

5  increase only by 20% from 100 to 120 lb / ft 2 (4.79 to 5.75 kN / m 2 ).

6  C7.2 GROUND SNOW LOADS, pg

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7  The mapped snow load provisions in Fig. 7.2-1 were developed from an extreme-value statistical
8  analysis of weather records of snow on the ground (Ellingwood and Redfield 1983). The map was

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9  produced by the Corps of Engineers, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory
(CRREL).The lognormal distribution was selected to estimate ground snow loads, which have a

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10 
11  2% annual probability of being exceeded (50-yr mean recurrence interval).

12  n
Maximum measured ground snow loads and ground snow loads with a 2% annual probability of
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13  being exceeded are presented in Table C7.2-1 for National Weather Service (NWS) “first-order”
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14  stations at which ground snow loads have been measured for at least 11 years during the period
1952–1992.
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15 
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16  Table C7.2-1 Ground Snow Loads at National Weather Service Locations Where Load
17  Measurements Are Made
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2
Ground Snow Load ( lb/ ft )
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Location Years of Record Maximum Observed 2% Annual

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Probabilitya
ALABAMA
Birmingham 40 4 3
Huntsville 33 7 5
Mobile 40 1 1
ARIZONA
Flagstaff 38 88 48
Tucson 40 3 3

2 
 
 Winslow 39 12 7
ARKANSAS
Fort Smith 37 6 5
Little Rock 24 6 6
CALIFORNIA
Bishop 31 6 8
Blue Canyon 26 213 242
Mt. Shasta 32 62 62

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Red Bluff 34 3 3
COLORADO

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All cities NA NA See Table 7.2-2

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CONNECTICUT
Bridgeport 39 21 24
Hartford 40 n23 33
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New Haven 17 11 15
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DELAWARE
Wilmington 39 12 16
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GEORGIA
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Athens 40 6 5
Atlanta 39 4 3
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Augusta 40 8 7
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Columbus 39 1 1
Macon 40 8 7
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Rome 28 3 3
IDAHO
All cities NA NA See Table 7.2-3
ILLINOIS
Chicago 26 37 22
Chicago-O’Hare 32 25 17
Moline 39 21 19

3 
 
 Peoria 39 27 15
Rockford 26 31 19
Springfield 40 20 21
INDIANA
Evansville 40 12 17
Fort Wayne 40 23 20
Indianapolis 40 19 22
South Bend 39 58 41

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IOWA
Burlington 11 15 17

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Des Moines 40 22 22

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Dubuque 39 34 32
Sioux City 38 28 28
Waterloo 33 n25 32
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KANSAS
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Concordia 30 12 17
Dodge City 40 10 14
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Goodland 39 12 15
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Topeka 40 18 17
Wichita 40 10 14
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KENTUCKY
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Covington 40 22 13
Jackson 11 12 18
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Lexington 40 15 13
Louisville 39 11 12
LOUISIANA
Alexandria 17 2 2
Shreveport 40 4 3
MAINE
Caribou 34 68 95

4 
 
 Portland 39 51 60
MARYLAND
Baltimore 40 20 22
MASSACHUSETTS
Boston 39 25 34
Nantucket 16 14 24
Worcester 33 29 44
MICHIGAN

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Alpena 31 34 48
Detroit Airport 34 27 18

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Detroit City 14 6 10

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Detroit—Willow 12 11 22
Flint 37 20 24
Grand Rapids 40 n32 36
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Houghton Lake 28 33 48
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Lansing 35 34 36
Marquette 16 44 53
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Muskegon 40 40 51
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Sault Ste. Marie 40 68 77

MINNESOTA
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Duluth 40 55 63
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International Falls 40 43 44
Minneapolis-St. Paul 40 34 51
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Rochester 40 30 47
St. Cloud 40 40 53
MISSISSIPPI
Jackson 40 3 3
Meridian 39 2 2
MISSOURI
Columbia 39 19 20

5 
 
 Kansas City 40 18 18
St. Louis 37 28 21
Springfield 39 14 14
MONTANA
All cities NA NA See Table 7.2-4
NEBRASKA
Grand Island 40 24 23
Lincoln 20 15 22

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Norfolk 40 28 25
North Platte 39 16 13

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Omaha 25 23 20

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Scottsbluff 40 10 12
Valentine 26 26 22
NEVADA n
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Elko 12 12 20
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Ely 40 10 9
Las Vegas 39 3 3
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Reno 39 12 11
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Winnemucca 39 7 7
NEW HAMPSHIRE
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ll cities NA NA See Table 7.2-8

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NEW JERSEY
Atlantic City 35 12 15
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Newark 39 18 15
NEW MEXICO
All cities NA NA See Table 7.2-6
NEW YORK
Albany 40 26 27
Binghamton 40 30 35
Buffalo 40 41 39

6 
 
 NYC–Kennedy 18 8 15
NYC–LaGuardia 40 23 16
Rochester 40 33 38
Syracuse 40 32 32
NORTH
CAROLINA
Asheville 28 7 14
Cape Hatteras 34 5 5

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Charlotte 40 8 11
Greensboro 40 14 11

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Raleigh-Durham 36 13 14

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Wilmington 39 14 7
Winston-Salem 12 14 20
NORTH DAKOTA
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Bismarck 40 27 27
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Fargo 39 27 41
Williston 40 28 27
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OHIO
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Akron-Canton 40 16 14
Cleveland 40 27 19
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Columbus 40 11 11
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Dayton 40 18 11
Mansfield 30 31 17
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Toledo Express 36 10 10
Youngstown 40 14 10
OKLAHOMA
Oklahoma City 40 10 8
Tulsa 40 5 8
OREGON
All cities NA NA See Table 7.2-7

7 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA
Allentown 40 16 23
Erie 32 20 18
Harrisburg 19 21 23
Philadelphia 39 13 14
Pittsburgh 40 27 20
Scranton 37 13 18
Williamsport 40 18 21

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RHODE ISLAND
Providence 39 22 23

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SOUTH

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CAROLINA
Charleston 39 2 2
Columbia 38
n9 8
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Florence 23 3 3
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Greenville- 24 6 7
Spartanburg
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SOUTH DAKOTA
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Aberdeen 27 23 43
Huron 40 41 46
nf

Rapid City 40 14 15
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Sioux Falls 39 40 40
TENNESSEE
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Bristol 40 7 9
Chattanooga 40 6 6
Knoxville 40 10 9
Memphis 40 7 6
Nashville 40 6 9
TEXAS
Abilene 40 6 6

8 
 
 Amarillo 39 15 10
Austin 39 2 2
Dallas 23 3 3
El Paso 38 8 8
Fort Worth 39 5 4
Lubbock 40 9 11
Midland 38 4 4
San Angelo 40 3 3

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San Antonio 40 9 4
Waco 40 3 2

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Wichita Falls 40 4 5

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UTAH
Milford 23 23 14
Salt Lake City 40 n11 11
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Wendover 13 2 3
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VERMONT
Burlington 40 43 36
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VIRGINIA
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Dulles Airport 29 15 23
Lynchburg 40 13 18
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National Airport 40 16 22
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Norfolk 38 9 10
Richmond 40 11 16
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Roanoke 40 14 20
WASHINGTON
All cities NA NA Table 7.2-5
WEST VIRGINIA
Beckley 20 20 30
Charleston 38 21 18
Elkins 32 22 18

9 
 
 Huntington 30 15 19
WISCONSIN
Green Bay 40 37 36
La Crosse 16 23 32
Madison 40 32 35
Milwaukee 40 34 29
WYOMING
Casper 40 9 10

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Cheyenne 40 18 18
Lander 39 26 24

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Sheridan 40 20 23

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a
1  It is not appropriate to use only the site-specific information in this table for design purposes.
2  Reasons are given in Section C7.2.

2 2 n
Note: To convert lb/ ft to kN / m , multiply by 0.0479.
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3 
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4  Concurrent records of the depth and load of snow on the ground at 204 NWS first-order stations
5  were used to estimate the ground snow load and the ground snow depth that has a 2% annual
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6  probability of being exceeded for each of these locations. The period of record for these 204
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7  locations, where both snow depth and snow load have been measured, averages 33 years up
8  through the winter of 1991–1992. A mathematical relationship was developed between the 2%
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9  depths and the 2% loads. The nonlinear best-fit relationship between these extreme values was
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10  used to estimate 2% (50-yr mean recurrence interval) ground snow loads at about 9,200 other
locations at which only snow depths were measured. These loads, as well as the extreme-value
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11 
12  loads developed directly from snow load measurements at 204 first-order locations, were used to
13  construct the maps.

14  In general, loads from these two sources were in agreement. In areas where there were differences,
15  loads from the 204 first-order locations were considered to be more valuable when the map was
16  constructed. This procedure ensures that the map is referenced to the NWS observed loads and
17  contains spatial detail provided by snow depth measurements at about 9,200 other locations.

10 
 
 1  The maps were generated from data current through the 1991–1992 winter. Where statistical
2  studies using more recent information are available, they may be used to produce improved design
3  guidance.

4  However, adding a big snow year to data developed from periods of record exceeding 20 years
5  will usually not change 50-yr values much. As examples, the databases for Boston and
6  Chattanooga, Tennessee, were updated to include the winters of 1992–1993 and 1993–1994
7  because record snows occurred there during that period. In Boston, 50-yr loads based on water
8  equivalent measurements only increased from 34 to 35 lb / ft 2 (1.63 to 1.68 kN / m2 ), and loads

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9  generated from snow depth measurements remained at 25 lb / ft 2 ( 1.20 kN / m 2 ). In Chattanooga,

loads generated from water equivalent measurements increased from 6 to 7 lb / ft 2 (0.29 to

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10 

0.34 kN / m 2 ), and loads generated from snow depth measurements remained at 6 lb / ft 2 (

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11 

12  0.29 kN / m 2 ).

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13  The following additional information was also considered when establishing the snow load zones
14  on the map of the United States (Fig. 7.2-1).
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15  1. The number of years of record available at each location;

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16  2. Additional meteorological information available from NWS, National Resources

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17  Conservation Service (NRCS) snow surveys (SNOTEL) and other sources. NRCS was
18  formerly known as Soil Conservation Service;
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19  3. Maximum snow loads observed;

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20  4. Regional topography; and

5. The elevation of each location.
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21 

22  The map was updated in the 1995 edition of this standard and was changed in the 2016 edition.

23  In much of the south, infrequent but severe snowstorms disrupted life in the area to the point that
24  meteorological observations were missed. In these and similar circumstances, more value was
25  given to the statistical values for stations with complete records. Year-by-year checks were made
26  to verify the significance of data gaps.

11 
 
 1  The mapped snow loads cannot be expected to represent all the local differences that may occur
2  within each zone. Because local differences exist, each zone has been positioned so as to
3  encompass essentially all the statistical values associated with normal sites in that zone. Although
4  the zones represent statistical values, not maximum observed values, the maximum observed
5  values were helpful in establishing the position of each zone.

6  For sites not covered in Fig. 7.2-1, design values should be established from meteorological
7  information, with consideration given to the orientation, elevation, and records available at each
8  location. The same method can also be used to improve upon the values presented in Fig. 7.2-1.

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9  Detailed study of a specific site may generate a design value lower than that indicated by the
10  generalized national map. It is appropriate in such a situation to use the lower value established by

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11  the detailed study. Occasionally a detailed study may indicate that a higher design value should be

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12  used than the national map indicates. Again, results of the detailed study should be followed.

Using the database used to establish the ground snow loads in Fig. 7.2-1, additional meteorological
13 
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14  data, and a methodology that meets the requirements of Section 7.2 (Tobiasson and Greatorex
15  1996), ground snow loads have been determined for every town in New Hampshire (Tobiasson et
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16  al. 2000, 2002).

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17  The area covered by a site-specific case study varies depending on local climate and topography.
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18  In some places, a single case study suffices for an entire community, but in others, varying local
19  conditions limit a “site” to a much smaller area. The area of applicability usually becomes clear as
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20  information in the vicinity is examined for the case study.

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21  As suggested by the footnote, it is not appropriate to use only the site-specific information in Table
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22  C7.2-1 for design purposes. It lacks an appreciation for surrounding station information and, in a
23  few cases, is based on rather short periods of record. The map or a site-specific case study provides
24  more valuable information.

25  The importance of conducting detailed studies for locations not covered in Fig. 7.2-1 is shown in
26  Table C7.2-2.

27  Table C7.2-2 Comparison of Some Site-Specific Values and Zoned Values in Fig. 7.2-1

12 
 
 2 2
Elevation ft Zoned Value lb/ ft ( Case Study Value lb/ ft
a

State Location (m) kN / m2 ) 2

( kN / m )

California Mount Hamilton 4,210 (1,283) 0 to 2,400 ft (732 m) 30 (1.44)

0 to 3,500 ft (1,067 m)

Arizona Palisade Ranger 7,950 (2,423) 5 to 4,600 ft (0.24 to 120 (5.75)

Station 1,402 m)

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10 to 5,000 ft (0.48 to

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1,524 m)

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Tennessee Monteagle 1,940 (591) 10 to 1,800 ft (0.48 to 15 (0.72)
549 m)
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Maine Sunday River Ski 900 (274) 90 to 700 ft (4.31 to 100 (4.79)
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Area 213 m)
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a
1  Based on a detailed study of information in the vicinity of each location.
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2  For some locations within the case study (CS) areas of the northeast (Fig. 7.2-1), ground snow
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3  loads exceed 100 lb / ft 2 ( 4.79 kN / m 2 ). Even in the southern portion of the Appalachian
2 2
Mountains, not far from sites where a 15-lb / ft ( 0.72-kN / m ) ground snow load is appropriate,
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4 

5  ground loads exceeding 50 lb / ft 2 ( 2.39 kN / m 2 ) may be required. Lake-effect storms create

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6  requirements for ground loads in excess of 75 lb / ft 2 ( 3.59 kN / m 2 ) along portions of the Great

7  Lakes. In some areas of the Rocky Mountains, ground snow loads exceed 200 lb / ft 2 (

8  9.58 kN / m 2 ).

9  Local records and experience should also be considered when establishing design values.

10  The values in Table 7.2-1 are for specific Alaskan locations only and generally do not represent
11  appropriate design values for other nearby locations. They are presented to illustrate the extreme

13 
 
 1  variability of snow loads within Alaska. This variability precludes statewide mapping of ground
2  snow loads there. Site-specific case studies were conducted to provide the Alaskan values in Table
3  7.2-1.

4  Valuable information on snow loads for the western states is contained in Structural Engineers
5  Association of Northern California (1981), MacKinlay and Willis (1965), Brown (1970), U.S.
6  Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (1970), Structural Engineers Association of
7  Colorado (2016), Structural Engineers Association of Oregon (2013), Structural Engineers
8  Association of Arizona (1981), Theisen et al. (2004), Structural Engineers Association of

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9  Washington (1995), Structural Engineers Association of Utah (1992), Placer County Building
10  Division (1985), Al Hatailah et al. (2015), Curtis and Grimes (2004), and Maji (1999).

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11  Most of these references for the western United States use annual probabilities of being exceeded

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12  of 2% (50-year mean recurrence interval). Reasonable, but not exact, factors for converting from
other annual probabilities of being exceeded to the value herein are presented in Table C7.2-3. For
13 
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14  example, a ground snow load based on a 3.3% annual probability of being exceeded (30-yr mean
15  recurrence interval) should be multiplied by 1.15 to generate a value of p g for use in Eq. (7.3-1).
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Table C7.2-3 Factors for Converting from Other Annual Probabilities of Being Exceeded
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16 
17  and Other Mean Recurrence Intervals to That Used in This Standard
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Annual Probability of Being Exceeded Mean Recurrence Interval Multiplication

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(%) (yr) Factor

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10 10 1.82
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4 25 1.20

3.3 30 1.15

1 100 0.82

18 

14 
 
 1  The design loads in Table 7.2-2 are based upon a reliability analysis, targeted at a reliability index

2  ß  3.0 , which is consistent with Table 1.3-1. Therefore, unlike the ground snow loads for other
3  states, the mean recurrence interval for the tabulated Colorado snow loads is not necessarily 50
4  years. However, like all snow loads in the standard, the Colorado snow loads are designed to be
5  used with the load factor of 1.6 for strength-based design per Chapter 2 of this standard. Refer to
6  the cited report from the Structural Engineers Association of Colorado (2016).

7  Regardless of the methodology used to obtain ground snow loads (e.g., Fig. 7.2-1, a case study or
8  a state study), the ASCE 7 snow load provisions should be used to obtain the ground-to-roof

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9  conversion, unbalanced loads, drift loads, and related items.

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10  The snow load provisions of several editions of the National Building Code of Canada served as a
guide in preparing the snow load provisions in this standard. However, there are some important

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11 
12  differences between the Canadian and the United States databases. They include the following:

13  n
1. The Canadian ground snow loads are based on a 3.3% annual probability of being exceeded
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14  (30-yr mean recurrence interval) generated by using the extreme-value, Type-I (Gumbel)
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15  distribution, while the normal-risk values in this standard are based on a 2% annual
probability of being exceeded (50-yr mean recurrence interval) generated by a lognormal
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16 
17  distribution.
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18  2. The Canadian loads are based on measured depths and regionalized densities based on four
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19  or fewer measurements per month. Because of the infrequency of density measurements,
20  an additional weight of rain is added (Newark 1984). In this standard, the weight of the
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21  snow is based on many years of frequently measured weights obtained at 204 locations
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22  across the United States. Those measurements contain many rain-on-snow events, and thus
23  a separate rain-on-snow surcharge load is not needed except for some roofs with a slope

24  less than W /50 as per Section 7.10.

25  The Importance Factor times the ground snow load is the required balanced snow load for snow
26  accumulation surfaces such as decks, balconies, and subterranean spaces located below the depth
27  of the ground snow. Such snow accumulation surfaces are not subject to the same level of wind
28  erosion or building thermal effect as typical “aboveground” roofs. As such, the flat roof snow load

15 
 
 1  in Eq. (7.3-1) would underestimate the snow load. Note that sliding snow loads and snow drift
2  loads on such surfaces are also possible.

3  In the 2016 version of the standard, ground snow load contours for selected western states were
4  eliminated from the ground load map in Fig. 7.2-1. They were replaced with tables listing the
5  ground snow load and elevation for select locations in each state. These new western state tables
6  (Tables 7.2-2 through 7.2-8) were developed from detailed state ground snow load studies that
7  satisfy the requirements of this section. Finally, one must also consider any statutory requirements
8  of the Authority Having Jurisdiction. Any such Authority Having Jurisdiction statutory

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9  requirements are not included in the state ground snow load tables.

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10  The Ground Snow Load, pg, values contained in the ASCE Design Ground Snow Load
11  Geodatabase, mapped in Figure 7.2-1A through Figure 7.2-1D and provided in the ASCE Hazard

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12  Tool are based upon a reliability analysis consistent with the targets in Table 1.3-1 for a “failure
that is not sudden and does not lead to widespread progression of damage.” As with other
13 
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14  reliability targets in this standard, it is left to the material design standards to address the higher
15  targets for limit states associated with either sudden or widespread progression of damage
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16  through adjustments in design provisions and resistance factors. For example, in ACI 318, the
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17  resistance factors for flexural failure of a beam or slab and failure of a tied column in
18  compression are quite different. Part of the reason for the difference is that the target reliabilities
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19  for those two limit states are set considering Table 1.3-1.
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20  The adoption of reliability-targeted design ground snow loads represents a significant change
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21  from ASCE/SEI 7-16 and prior editions, which previously used ground snow loads with a 50-
22  year mean recurrence interval (MRI). Reliability-targeted loads are adopted here to address the
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23  nonuniform reliability of roofs designed according to the 50-year snow load in different parts of
24  the country, due to climatic differences. In some parts of the country, designing for the 1.6 load
25  factor times the 50-year value does not meet the reliability targets of the standard (and, in some
26  of these places, failures due to an underestimated ground snow load have been observed); in
27  other places, designing for the 1.6 load factor times the 50-year value is unnecessarily
28  conservative. With the move to reliability-targeted values, the load factor on snow loads has also
29  been revised from 1.6 to 1.0 to appropriately represent the reliability basis of the values. Snow
30  importance factors have also been eliminated because values now are provided for each Risk

16 
 
 1  Category. The 0.7 factor is intended to provide roughly equivalent strength when design follows
2  ASD procedures. For some materials the ratio between design strength given by LRFD
3  procedures and design strength given by ASD procedure is 1.5. For some other materials the
4  ratio varies depending on the limit state being checked. The inverse of 1.5 was rounded to 0.7
5  for this purpose.

6  The new design ground snow loads are also based on nearly 30 years of additional snow load
7  data since the previous study and updated procedures for estimating snow loads from depth-only
8  measurements. The loads account for site-specific variability throughout the United States in

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9  both the magnitude and variation of the annual ground snow loads. Additionally, this approach
10  incorporates advanced spatial mapping that has reduced the number and size of case study

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11  regions in mountainous areas significantly and eliminates discontinuities in design values across

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12  state boundaries.

To arrive at the reliability-targeted loads, ground snow data was collected from stations
13 
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14  throughout the United States and in Canada, within 60 miles of the northern border of the United
15  States, via the global historical climatological network (GHCN). In most areas, only stations
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16  with at least 30 years of record were considered to ensure an adequate period of record for
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17  statistical analysis. However, exceptions were made for areas with few measurement stations,
18  where the minimum years of record was reduced to 15. Outliers were screened based on quality
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19  assurance flags provided by the GHCN, as well as through manual inspections of daily records in
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20  places with anomalously high or low annual maximums.

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21  Some of the measurements in the dataset are in terms of Snow Water Equivalent, and these
22  measurements provide load directly. However, often, measurements only include snow depth,
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23  from which load must be estimated. There are several existing methods for conversion of snow
24  depth-to-load, but these techniques tend to work best at the location and/or elevation from which
25  they were derived. A new nationally applicable and verified approach was developed by Bean et
26  al. (2021) using the random forest technique (Brieman, 2001; Liaw and Wiener, 2002) to
27  represent the depth-to-load relationship across the country. This depth-to-load relationship makes
28  use of a suite of 30-year climatic variables, such as winter precipitation, to account for climatic
29  variation across the country.

17 
 
 1  Snow loads exhibit two typical patterns of behavior, depending on the location. In mountainous
2  and northern locations, where snow accumulates from multiple storms throughout the snow
3  season, the annual maximum ground snow loads are relatively symmetric about their mean, with
4  relatively small coefficients of variation. However, in other locations, where the annual
5  maximum snow event is defined by one (or a handful) of storms, the distribution of annual
6  maxima tends to be right skewed with large coefficients of variation. The measured annual
7  maximum snow loads at all stations that receive snow regularly have been fitted with a
8  generalized extreme value (GEV) distribution that can appropriately represent both of these

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9  conditions (Jenkinson, 1955; Hosking et al. 1985). To handle scarcity of data at some locations,
10  the GEV shape parameter is also spatially smoothed across sites based on regional patterns in

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11  typical snow accumulation.

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12  The reliability-targeted loads are determined by probabilistically estimating the likelihood that
13  roof snow load demands exceed roof capacity, considering the underlying uncertainties in both
14  n
demand and resistance through statistical simulation. Roof snow load demands are estimated by
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15  combining a statistical model for the ground-to-roof conversion factor with the ground snow load
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16  statistical GEV model. The selected ground-to-roof model was constructed using historical
17  Canadian data for snow on roofs (e.g., Allen, 1956; Kennedy and Lutes, 1968). The capacity (or
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18  resistance) assumed in the reliability targeted loads was based on steel W-shapes in flexure,
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19  fabricated from A992 steel, for the ANSI/AISC 360-16 plastic moment limit state. Statistical
20  models for resistance were obtained from testing by Bartlett et al. (2003) on A992 steel,
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21  fabrication and professional factors obtained from Ellingwood et al. (1980). The target roof is a
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22  heated, flat roof (less than 30°) of a non-slippery material in normal sheltered conditions.
Fo

23  For each station for which ground snow load data are available, a reliability analysis was
24  performed for the different risk categories. The design load was incremented until the reliability
25  analysis produced the targeted reliability index for each risk category. After reliability targeted
26  loads were obtained at each measurement location in the United States, regional generalized
27  additive models with spatial smoothing were used to map values based on the available data.
28  This modeling approach was used to estimate loads between measurement stations in each EPA-
29  defined Ecoregion (CEC, 1997) and, thus, accounts for differences in climate and mapping
30  trends between different parts of the country. Buffer zones are used around the Ecoregions to

18 
 
 1  ensure smooth transitions between regions. The end result is a grid, approximately one-half-mile
2  by one-half-mile, of snow loads for the conterminous United States.

3  Northern and mountainous locations tend to have reliability targeted loads for Risk Category II
4  less than, or equal to, 1.6 times the 50-year MRI load used in ASCE/SEI 7-16. However,
5  locations with more year-to-year variability in the annual maximum ground snow loads tend to
6  have reliability targeted loads greater than 1.6 times the 50-year load. This is especially true of
7  mid-latitude locations that typically do not receive large accumulations of snow but have the
8  potential for extreme accumulations of snow (Maguire et al. 2021). This is a fundamental reason

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9  for moving to reliability targeted loads and away from a concept that one load factor is
10  satisfactory across the nation. The effect of the ground snow, ground-to-roof, and resistance

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11  probability distributions in the reliability calculation causes the MRI of the computed loads to

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12  vary significantly from location to location, but all satisfy the targeted reliability.

A very small fraction of the locations defined in the Geodatabase indicate that a case-study must
13 
n
io
14  be completed to determine the ground snow load. These case-study regions are now limited and
15  apply only to locations higher than any locally available snow measurement locations. Database
at

16  ground snow load values are still provided to the user, with a warning that the estimated value
m

17  lies outside the range of elevations of surrounding measurement locations. Information from
18  local experts, from the Bean et al. (2021) report, or from Buska et al. (2020) can be used to
or

19  determine values at these locations.

nf

20  The contour maps in Figure 7.2-1A through Figure 7.2-1D are aggregated to an 8-mile
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21  resolution. This aggregation obfuscates small scale changes in elevation and climate, which may
22  create discrepancies between the mapped values and the hazard tool. The dataset in the hazard
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23  tool is intended to be used in locations with rapidly changing snow loads over short geographical
24  distances. Consecutive contour increments are separated by a constant ratio of 1.18. These
25  contour increments were chosen to increase precision in areas with small loads/load variation
26  and reduce contour congestion in areas with high loads, to make the figure more readable.

27  When comparing snow loads to factored roof live loads, the engineer should also consider load
28  duration effects that apply to some materials. Locations with less than 10 psf design loads are
29  almost always associated with locations that have at least 80% of their winters with no snow.

19 
 
 1  This is why the snow load provisions need not be considered if the ground snow load, pg, is less
2  than the factored roof live load. Also, additional guidance is provided concerning roofs with
3  potential for drifting snow, which was generated by studying the total controlling gravity loads
4  on roof secondary structural members under low values of pg and varying values of lu. This study
5  did account for the reduction in the ASCE 7 roof live load based upon area supported by the
6  member.

7  The values in Table 7.2-1 are for specific Alaskan locations only and generally do not represent
8  appropriate design values for other nearby locations. They are presented to illustrate the extreme

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9  variability of snow loads within Alaska. This variability precludes statewide mapping of ground
10  snow loads there. Site-specific case studies were conducted to provide the Alaskan values in

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11  Table 7.2-1.

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12  The locations and snow loads for Alaska are based on a 50-year MRI values [see Structural
Engineers Association of Alaska (2019)] converted to strength-level loads based on a study of
13 
n
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14  reliability-targeted load data [see Structural Engineers Association of Alaska (2020)]. These
15  references also include recommendations for snow loads in locations other than those listed in
at

16  Table 7.2-1.

m

17  C7.3 FLAT ROOF SNOW LOADS, pf

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18  The live load reductions in Section 4.8 should not be applied to snow loads. The minimum
nf

19  allowable values of p f , presented in Section 7.3, acknowledge that in some areas, a single major
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20  storm can generate loads that exceed those developed from an analysis of weather records and
snow load case studies.
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21 

22  The factors in this standard that account for the thermal, aerodynamic, and geometric
23  characteristics of the structure in its particular setting were developed using the National Building
24  Code of Canada (National Research Council of Canada 1990) as a point of reference. The case
25  study reports in Peter et al. (1963), Schriever et al. (1967), Lorenzen (1970), Lutes and Schriever
26  (1971), Elliott (1975), Mitchell (1978), Meehan (1979), and Taylor (1979, 1980) were examined
27  in detail.

20 
 
 1  In addition to these published references, an extensive program of snow load case studies was
2  conducted by eight universities in the United States, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ Alaska
3  District, and the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL) for the
4  Corps of Engineers. The results of this program were used to modify the Canadian methodology
5  to better fit the conditions of the United States. Measurements obtained during the severe winters
6  of 1976–1977 and 1977–1978 are included. A statistical analysis of some of that information is
7  presented in O’Rourke et al. (1983). The experience and perspective of many design professionals,
8  including several with expertise in building failure analysis, have also been incorporated.

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9  C7.3.1 Exposure Factor, C e

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10  Except in areas of “aerodynamic shade,” where loads are often increased by snow drifting, less

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11  snow is present on most roofs than on the ground. Loads in unobstructed areas of conventional flat
12  roofs average less than 50% of ground loads in some parts of the country. The values in this
13  n
standard are above-average values, chosen to reduce the risk of snow load–induced failures to an
io
14  acceptably low level. Because of the variability of wind action, a conservative approach has been
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15  taken when considering load reductions by wind.
m

16  The effects of exposure are handled on two scales. First, Equation (7.3-1) contains a basic exposure
factor of 0.7. Second, the type of surface roughness and the exposure of the roof are handled by
or

17 
18  exposure factor, C e . This two-step procedure generates ground-to-roof load reductions as a
nf

19  function of exposure that range from 0.49 to 0.84.

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20  Table 7.3-1 has been changed, from what appeared in a prior version of this standard, to separate
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21  regional wind issues associated with surface roughness from local wind issues associated with roof
22  exposure. This change was made to better define categories without significantly changing the
23  values of C e .

24  Although there is a single “regional” surface roughness category for a specific site, different roofs
25  of a structure may have different exposure factors caused by obstruction provided by higher
26  portions of the structure or by objects on the roof. For example, in surface roughness category C,
27  an upper level roof could be fully exposed ( Ce  0.9 ) while a lower level roof would be partially

21 
 
 1  exposed ( Ce  1.0 ), because of the presence of the upper level roof, as shown in Example 3 in this

2  chapter.

3  The adjective “windswept” is used in the “mountainous areas” surface roughness category to
4  preclude use of this category in those high mountain valleys that receive little wind.

5  The normal, combined exposure reduction in this standard is 0.70 as compared with a normal value
6  of 0.80 for the ground-to-roof conversion factor in the 1990 National Building Code of Canada.
7  The decrease from 0.80 to 0.70 does not represent decreased safety but arises because of increased

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8  choices of exposure and thermal classification of roofs (i.e., five surface roughness categories,
9  three roof exposure categories, and four thermal categories in this standard vs. three exposure

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10  categories and no thermal distinctions in the Canadian code).

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11  It is virtually impossible to establish exposure definitions that clearly encompass all possible
12  exposures that exist across the country. Because individuals may interpret exposure categories
13  n
somewhat differently, the range in exposure has been divided into several categories rather than
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14  just two or three. A difference of opinion of one category results in about a 10% “error” using
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15  these several categories and an “error” of 25% or more if only three categories are used.
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16  C7.3.2 Thermal Factor, C t

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17  Usually, more snow will be present on cold roofs than on warm roofs. An exception to this is
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18  discussed in the following text. The thermal condition selected from Table 7.3-2 should represent
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19  that which is likely to exist during the life of the structure. In Table 7.3-2, the term ‘structure kept
20  just above freezing’ represents a structure in which the internal ambient temperature is kept at
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21  approximately 40-50°F (4-10°C) to keep contents from freezing but is usually not intended for
22  continuous human occupancy. Such a structure is referred to by the ASHRAE 90.1 standard as
23  ‘semi-heated’. Also, in Table 7.3-2, the term ‘cold, ventilated roof’ represents a roof where an
24  airspace is provided between the building envelope and the roof surface through which air is
25  intended to flow in order to relieve heat buildup under the roof. The term ‘cold’ is not intended to
26  indicate that the location of the structure is in a cold climate region but simply references the fact
27  that the attic airspace is located outside of the insulation envelope and will not be heated or cooled.
28  Also, please note that if the thermal envelope of an existing structure is modified via alterations or

22 
 
 1  additions, the implications on the thermal factor and the resulting design snow loads should be
2  reviewed by the design professional responsible for those alterations or additions.

3  Although it is possible that a brief power interruption will cause temporary cooling of a heated
4  structure, the joint probability of this event and a simultaneous peak snow load event is very small.
5  Brief power interruptions and loss of heat are acknowledged in the Ct  1.0 category. Although it

6  is possible that a heated structure will subsequently be used as an unheated structure, the
7  probability of this is rather low. Consequently, heated structures need not be designed for this
8  unlikely event.

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9  The values of Ct found in Table 7.3-3 are determined using the approach outlined in O’Rourke

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10  and Russell (2019), based on the study of eave ice dam formation and heat loss through an
insulated roof surface found in O’Rourke, Ganguly, and Thompson (2007).

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11 

12  Ct is larger for buildings in warmer climates with lower pg values and smaller for buildings in
13  n
colder climates with higher pg values. In warmer climates, the 32°F (0°C) freezing point is
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14  within the roof insulation layer. Thus, there is no melting of roof snow due to heat flow up
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15  through the roof and the thermal condition is nominally the same as an unheated building with Ct
= 1.2. On the other hand, Ct is smaller for buildings with low Rroof values and larger for
m

16 
17  buildings with high Rroof values. For Rroof above a particular value, the 32°F (0°C) freezing point
or

18  is within the roof insulation layer and again Ct = 1.2.

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19  Some dwellings are not used during the winter. Although their thermal factor may increase to 1.2
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20  at that time, they are unoccupied, so their Importance Factor reduces to 0.8. The net effect is to
21  require the same design load as for a heated, occupied dwelling.
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22  Discontinuous heating of structures may cause thawing of snow on the roof and subsequent
23  refreezing in lower areas. Drainage systems of such roofs have become clogged with ice, and extra
24  loads associated with layers of ice several inches thick have built up in these undrained lower
25  areas. The possibility of similar occurrences should be investigated for any intermittently heated
26  structure.

27  Similar icings may build up on cold roofs subjected to meltwater from warmer roofs above.
28  Exhaust fans and other mechanical equipment on roofs may also generate meltwater and icings.

23 
 
 1  Icicles and ice dams are a common occurrence on cold eaves of sloped roofs. They introduce
2  problems related to leakage and to loads. Large ice dams that can prevent snow from sliding off
3  roofs are generally produced by heat losses from within buildings. Icings associated with solar
4  melting of snow during the day and refreezing along eaves at night are often small and transient.
5  Although icings can occur on cold or warm roofs, roofs that are well insulated and ventilated are
6  not commonly subjected to serious icings at their eaves. Methods of minimizing eave icings are
7  discussed in Grange and Hendricks (1976), Klinge (1978), de Marne (1988), Mackinlay (1988),
8  Tobiasson (1988), and Tobiasson and Buska (1993). Ventilation guidelines to prevent problematic

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9  icings at eaves have been developed for attics (Tobiasson et al. 1998) and for cathedral ceilings
10  (Tobiasson et al. 1999).

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11  Because ice dams can prevent load reductions by sliding on some warm ( Ct  1.0 ) roofs, the

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12  “unobstructed slippery surface” curve in Figure 7.4-1a now only applies to unventilated roofs with
13  a thermal resistance equal to, or greater than, 30 ft2 h F / Btu ( 5.3C m2 / W ) and to ventilated
n
roofs with a thermal resistance equal to, or greater than, 20 ft2 h F / Btu ( 3.5C m2 / W ). For roofs
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14 

15  that are well insulated and ventilated, see Ct  1.1 in Table 7.3-2.
at
m

16  Glass, plastic, and fabric roofs of continuously heated structures are seldom subjected to much
17  snow load because their high heat losses cause snowmelt and sliding. For such specialty roofs,
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18  knowledgeable manufacturers and designers should be consulted. The National Greenhouse
nf

19  Manufacturers Association (1988) recommends the use of Ct  0.83 for continuously heated

greenhouses and Ct  1.00 for unheated or intermittently heated greenhouses. They suggest a
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20 

21  value of I s  1.0 for retail greenhouses and I s  0.8 for all other greenhouses. To qualify as a
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22  continuously heated greenhouse, a production or retail greenhouse must have a constantly
23  maintained temperature of 50°F (10°C) or higher during winter months. In addition, it must also
24  have a maintenance attendant on duty at all times or an adequate temperature alarm system to
25  provide warning in the event of a heating system failure. Finally, the greenhouse roof material
26  must have a thermal resistance, R-value, less than 2 ft 2  h  F / Btu ( 0.4C m2 / W ). In this
27  standard, the C t factor for such continuously heated greenhouses is set at 0.85. An unheated or

28  intermittently heated greenhouse is any greenhouse that does not meet the requirements of a

24 
 
 1  continuously heated single- or double-glazed greenhouse. Greenhouses should be designed so that
2  the structural supporting members are stronger than the glazing. If this approach is used, any failure
3  caused by heavy snow loads will be localized and in the glazing. This should avert progressive
4  collapse of the structural frame. Higher design values should be used where drifting or sliding
5  snow is expected.

6  Little snow accumulates on warm air-supported fabric roofs because of their geometry and slippery
7  surface. However, the snow that does accumulate is a significant load for such structures and
8  should be considered.

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9  The combined consideration of exposure and thermal conditions generates ground-to-roof factors

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10  that range from a low of 0.49 to a high of 1.01. The equivalent ground-to-roof factors in the 1990
11  National Building Code of Canada (National Research of Canada) are 0.8 for sheltered roofs, 0.6

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12  for exposed roofs, and 0.4 for exposed roofs in exposed areas north of the tree line, all regardless
of their thermal condition.
13 
n
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14  Sack (1988) and case history experience indicate that the roof snow load on open-air structures
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15  (e.g., parking structures and roofs over loading docks) and on buildings intentionally kept below
16  freezing (e.g., freezer buildings) can be larger than the nearby ground snow load. It is thought that
m

17  this effect is caused by the lack of heat flow up from the “warm” earth for these select groups of
or

18  structures. Open-air structures are explicitly included with unheated structures. For freezer
19  buildings, the thermal factor is specified to be 1.3 to account for this effect. This value is intended
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20  specifically for structures constructed to act as freezer buildings and not those that contain freezer
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21  enclosures inside.

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22  C7.3.3 Importance Factor, I s .

23  The Importance Factor, I s , has been included to account for the need to relate design loads to the

24  consequences of failure. Roofs of most structures that have normal occupancies and functions are
25  designed with an Importance Factor of 1.0, which corresponds to unmodified use of the statistically
26  determined ground snow load for a 2% annual probability of being exceeded (50-yr mean
27  recurrence interval).

25 
 
 1  A study of the locations in Table C7.2-1 showed that the ratio of the values for 4% and 2% annual
2  probabilities of being exceeded (the ratio of the 25-yr to 50-yr mean recurrence interval values)
3  averaged 0.80 and had a standard deviation of 0.06. The ratio of the values for 1% and 2% annual
4  probabilities of being exceeded (the ratio of the 100-yr to 50-yr mean recurrence interval values)
5  averaged 1.22 and had a standard deviation of 0.08. On the basis of the nationwide consistency of
6  these values, it was decided that only one snow load map need be prepared for design purposes
7  and that values for lower and higher risk situations could be generated using that map and constant
8  factors.

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9  Lower and higher risk situations are established using the Importance Factors for snow loads in
10  Table 1.5-2. These factors range from 0.8 to 1.2. The factor 0.8 bases the average design value for

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11  that situation on an annual probability of being exceeded of about 4% (about a 25-year mean

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12  recurrence interval). The factor 1.2 is nearly that for a 1% annual probability of being exceeded
13  (about a 100-year mean recurrence interval). In the 2016 version of the standard, the Importance
14  n
Factor is now appropriately applied to the drift height in Fig. 7.6-1. As a result of the functional
io
15  form, the drift surcharge in pounds per unit cross-wind width ( hd (4hd )γ / 2 ) is proportional to the
at
16  Importance Factor.
m

17  C7.3.3 Minimum Snow Load for Low-Slope Roofs, pm

or

18  These minimums account for a number of situations that develop on low-slope roofs. They are
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19  particularly important considerations for regions where where pg is 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2) or less
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20  than pm,max from Table 7.3-3. In such areas, single storm events can result in loading for which the
21  basic ground-to-roof conversion factor of 0.7, as well as the C e and Ct factors, are not applicable.
Fo

22  The unbalanced load for hip and gable roofs, with an eave to ridge distance W of 20 ft (6.1 m) or
23  less that have simply supported prismatic members spanning from ridge to eave, is greater than or
24  equal to the minimum roof snow load, p m . Hence, if such a hip and gable roof has a slope that

25  requires unbalanced loading, the minimum snow load would not control and need not be checked
26  for the roof.

27  C7.4 SLOPED ROOF SNOW LOADS, ps

26 
 
 1  Snow loads decrease as the slopes of roofs increase. Generally, less snow accumulates on a sloped
2  roof because of wind action. Also, such roofs may shed some of the snow that accumulates on
3  them by sliding and improved drainage of meltwater. The ability of a sloped roof to shed snow
4  load by sliding is related to the absence of obstructions not only on the roof but also below it, the
5  temperature of the roof, and the slipperiness of its surface. It is difficult to define “slippery” in
6  quantitative terms. For that reason, a list of roof surfaces that qualify as slippery and others that do
7  not is presented in the standard. Most common roof surfaces are on that list. The slipperiness of
8  other surfaces is best determined by comparisons with those surfaces. Some tile roofs contain built-

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9  in protrusions or have a rough surface that prevents snow from sliding. However, snow does slide
10  off other smooth-surfaced tile roofs. When a surface may or may not be slippery, the implications

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11  of treating it either as a slippery or nonslippery surface should be determined. Because valleys
12  obstruct sliding on slippery surfaced roofs, the dashed lines in Figures 7.4-1a, b, and c should not

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13  be used in such roof areas.

14  n
Discontinuous heating of a building may reduce the ability of a sloped roof to shed snow by sliding
io
15  because meltwater created during heated periods may refreeze on the roof’s surface during periods
at
16  when the building is not heated, thereby “locking” the snow to the roof.
m

17  All of these factorssituations are considered in the slope reduction factors presented in Figure 7.4-
18  1 and are supported by Taylor (1983, 1985), Sack et al. (1987), and Sack (1988). The thermal
or

19  resistance requirements have been added to the “unobstructed slippery surfaces” curve in Fig. 7.4-
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20  1a to prevent its use for roofs on which ice dams often form because ice dams prevent snow from
sliding. Mathematically, the information in Figure 7.4-1 can be represented as follows:
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21 

1. Warm roofs ( Ct  1.0 or less) Ct < 1.1:

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22 

0 – 30 slope Cs  1.0

23  (a) All other surfaces: 30 – 70 slope Cs  1.0  (slope  30) / 40
 70 slope Cs  0

24  2. Cold roofs with Ct  1.1 1.1 ≤ Ct < 1.2

0 –10 slope Cs  1.0

25  (a) Unobstructed slippery surfaces: 10 – 70 slope Cs  1.0  (slope  10) / 60
 70 slope Cs  0

27 
 
 0 – 37.5 slope Cs  1.0
1  (b) All other surfaces: 37.5 – 70 slope Cs  1.0  (slope  37.5) / 32.5
 70 slope Cs  0

2  3. Cold roofs ( Ct  1.2 )Ct ≥ 1.2:

0 –15 slope Cs  1.0

3  (a) Unobstructed slippery surfaces: 15 – 70 slope Cs  1.0  (slope  15) / 55
 70 slope Cs  0

0 – 45 slope Cs  1.0

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4  (b) All other surfaces: 45 – 70 slope Cs  1.0  (slope  45) / 25
 70 slope Cs  0

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5  If Ct ≤ 1.1 (Figure 7.4-1a), it is expected that the 32°F (0°C) freezing line will be outside of the

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6  building envelope and thus, roof snow melting will create an ice dam at the eave. The ice dam at
7  the eave will create an obstruction which will resist snow from sliding off the roof. Therefore,
8  n
Figure 7.4-1a does not include a line for an unobstructed, slippery surface.
io
9  If the ground (or another roof of less slope) exists near the eave of a sloped roof, snow may not be
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10  able to slide completely off the sloped roof. This may result in the elimination of snow loads on
m

11  upper portions of the roof and their concentration on lower portions. Steep A-frame roofs that
nearly reach the ground are subject to such conditions. Lateral and vertical loads induced by such
or

12 
13  snow should be considered for such roofs.
nf

14  If the roof has snow retention devices (installed to prevent snow and ice from sliding off the roof),
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15  it should be considered an obstructed roof and the slope factor C s should be based on the “All
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16  Other Surfaces” curves in Figure 7.4-1.

17  C7.4.3 Roof Slope Factor for Curved Roofs

18  These provisions were changed from those in the 1993 edition of this standard to cause the load to
19  diminish along the roof as the slope increases.

20  C7.4.4 Roof Slope Factor for Multiple Folded Plate, Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs

28 
 
 1  Because these types of roofs collect extra snow in their valleys by wind drifting and snow creep
2  and sliding, no reduction in snow load should be applied because of slope.

3  C7.4.5 Ice Dams and Icicles along Eaves

4  The intent is to consider heavy loads from ice that forms along eaves only for structures where
5  such loads are likely to form. It is also not considered necessary to analyze the entire structure for
6  such loads, just the eaves themselves. Eave ice dam loads with various return periods on roofs with
7  overhangs of 4 ft (1.2 m) or less are presented in O’Rourke et al. (2007).

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8  This provision is intended for short roof overhangs and projections, with a horizontal extent less
than 5 ft (1.5 m). In instances where the horizontal extent is greater than 5 ft (1.5 m), the surcharge

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9 
10  that accounts for eave ice damming need only extend for a maximum of 5 ft (1.5 m) from the eave

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11  of the heated structure (Figure C7.4-1).

n
io
at
m
or
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12 

13  Figure C7.4-1. Eave ice dam loading.

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C7.5 PARTIAL LOADING

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14 

15  In many situations, a reduction in snow load on a portion of a roof by wind scour, melting, or
16  snow-removal operations simply reduces the stresses in the supporting members. However, in
17  some cases, a reduction in snow load from an area induces higher stresses in the roof structure than
18  occur when the entire roof is loaded. Cantilevered roof joists are a good example; removing half
19  the snow load from the cantilevered portion increases the bending stress and deflection of the
20  adjacent continuous span. In continuous beam roof systems, problems can occur during snow-
21  removal operations. The nonuniform loading imposed by the removal of snow load in an

29 
 
 1  indiscriminate manner can significantly alter the load distribution throughout the roof system and
2  can result in marked increases in stresses and deflections over those experienced during uniform
3  loading. In other situations, adverse stress reversals may result.

4  The simplified provisions offered for continuous beam roof systems have been adopted to mimic
5  real loadings experienced by this common structural system. The Case 1 load scenario simulates a
6  critical condition encountered when, for example, the process of removing a portion of the snow
7  in each span starts at one building end and proceeds toward the other end. The Case 2 load scenario
8  is intended to model loading nonuniformity caused by wind scour or local heat loss and snowmelt

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9  at the building edges. The Case 3 load group is intended to encompass conditions that might be
10  encountered, for example, when removal operations must be discontinued and are restarted in a

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11  different location, or when multiple snow removal crews start at different roof locations.

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12  The intent is not to require consideration of multiple “checkerboard” loadings.

13  n
Members that span perpendicular to the ridge in gable roofs with slopes between 2.38 degrees
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14  (&half; on 12) and 30.3 degrees (7 on 12) are exempt from partial load provisions because the
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15  unbalanced load provisions of Section 7.6.1 provide for this situation.
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16  C7.6 UNBALANCED ROOF SNOW LOADS

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17  Unbalanced snow loads may develop on sloped roofs because of sunlight and wind. Winds tend to
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18  reduce snow loads on windward portions and increase snow loads on leeward portions. Because it
19  is not possible to define wind direction with assurance, winds from all directions should generally
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20  be considered when establishing unbalanced roof loads.

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21  C7.6.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable Roofs

22  The expected shape of a gable roof drift is nominally a triangle located close to the ridgeline.
23  Recent research suggests that the size of this nominally triangular gable roof drift is comparable
24  to a leeward roof step drift with the same fetch. For certain simple structural systems, for example,
25  wood or light-gauge roof rafter systems with either a ridge board or a supporting ridge beam, with
26  small eave to ridge distances, the drift is represented by a uniform load of 𝐼 𝑝  from eave to
27  ridge. For all other gable roofs, the drift is represented by a rectangular distribution located

30 
 
 1  adjacent to the ridge. The location of the centroid for the rectangular distribution is identical to
2  that for the expected triangular distribution. The intensity is the average of that for the expected
3  triangular distribution.

4  Prior to ASCE 7-22, the drift height, ℎ , was a function of the ground snow load, 𝑝 , and the
5  upwind fetch distance, 𝑙 . In the 2022 version, the drift height is now also a function of a winter
6  wind parameter, 𝑊 . The paper by O’Rourke and Cocca (2019) demonstrates that the winter
7  wind parameter (the percent time from October through April when the wind speed is above the
8  10 mph snow transport threshold) has as much influence on drift height as either the ground

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9  snow load or the upwind fetch distance. O’Rourke and Cocca (2019) present the development of
10  Equation 7.6-1. A companion paper, O’Rourke, Sinh, Cocca and Williams (2020), describes the

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11  development of the 𝑊 map in Figure 7.6-1.

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12  Note that the winter wind parameter map was based upon the 𝑊 parameter as evaluated at 272
13 
n
airport weather stations. As such, the stations were not within special wind regions nor above the
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14  tree line. At these unusual wind locations (i.e, sites above the treeline or within special wind
at
15  regions), it is suggested that the 𝑊 parameter be based upon any available local records.
m

16  The design snow load on the windward side for the unbalanced case, 0.3 ps , is based upon case

histories presented in Taylor (1979) and O’Rourke and Auren (1997) and discussed in Tobiasson
or

17 
18  (1999). The lower limit of θ  2.38  is intended to exclude low-slope roofs, such as membrane
nf

19  roofs, on which significant unbalanced loads have not been observed. The upper bound of θ  7
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20  on 12 (30.2 degrees) is intended to exclude high-slope roofs on which significant unbalanced loads
21  have not been observed. That is, although an upper bound for the angle of repose for fresh-fallen
Fo

22  snow is about 70 degrees, as given in Figure 7.4-1, the upper bound for the angle of repose of
23  drifted snow is about 30 degrees.

24  As noted, observed gable roof drifts are nominally triangular in shape. The surcharge is essentially
25  zero at the ridge, and the top surface of the surcharge is nominally horizontal. As such, an upper
26  bound for an actual surcharge atop the sloped roof snow load, ps , would be a triangular

27  distribution: zero at the ridge and a height at the eave equal to the elevation difference between the
28  eave and the ridge.

31 
 
 1  For intersecting gable roofs and similar roof geometries, some codes and standards have required
2  a valley drift load. Such valley drift loads are not required in ASCE 7. However, valley locations
3  are subject to unbalanced or gable roof drifts, as described in Section 7.6.1. An example of
4  unbalanced loading on an L-shaped gable roof is presented in O’Rourke (2007).

5  For intersecting monoslope roofs and intersecting gable roofs with slopes greater than 7 on 12,
6  unbalanced loads are not required in ASCE 7. However, at such valleys, snow on each side of the
7  valley is prevented from sliding by the presence of roof snow on the other side of the valley. As
8  such, the valley portion of the roof (drainage area upslope of the reentrant corner) is obstructed

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9  and the slope factor, C s , should be based on the “All Other Surfaces” lines in Figure 7.4-1.

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10  C7.6.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs

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11  The method of determining roof slope is the same as in the 1995 edition of this standard. C s is

12 
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based on the actual slope, not an equivalent slope. These provisions do not apply to roofs that are
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13  concave upward. For such roofs, see Section C7.13.
at

14  C7.6.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Folded Plate, Sawtooth, and Barrel Vault Roofs
m

15  A minimum slope of 3/ 8 in./ ft (1.79 degrees) has been established to preclude the need to
or

16  determine unbalanced loads for most internally drained membrane roofs that slope to internal
nf

17  drains. Case studies indicate that significant unbalanced loads can occur when the slope of multiple
18  gable roofs is as low as 1/ 2 in./ ft (2.38 degrees).
rI

The unbalanced snow load in the valley is 2 p f / Ce , to create a total unbalanced load that does not
Fo

19 

20  exceed a uniformly distributed ground snow load in most situations.

21  Sawtooth roofs and other “up-and-down” roofs with significant slopes tend to be vulnerable in
22  areas of heavy snowfall for the following reasons:

23  1. They accumulate heavy snow loads and are therefore expensive to build.
24  2. Windows and ventilation features on the steeply sloped faces of such roofs may become
25  blocked with drifting snow and be rendered useless.

32 
 
 1  3. Meltwater infiltration is likely through gaps in the steeply sloped faces if they are built as
2  walls because slush may accumulate in the valley during warm weather. This accumulation
3  can promote progressive deterioration of the structure.
4  4. Lateral pressure from snow drifted against clerestory windows may break the glass.
5  5. The requirement that snow above the valley not be at an elevation higher than the snow
6  above the ridge may limit the unbalanced load to less than 2 p f / Ce .

7  C7.6.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome Roofs

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8  This provision is based on a similar provision in the 1990 National Building Code of Canada.

N
9  C7.7 DRIFTS ON LOWER ROOFS (AERODYNAMIC SHADE)

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10  When a rash of snow load failures occurs during a particularly severe winter, there is a natural
tendency for concerned parties to initiate across-the-board increases in design snow loads. This is
11 
n
generally a technically ineffective and expensive way of attempting to solve such problems
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12 
13  because most failures associated with snow loads on roofs are caused not by moderate overloads
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14  on every square foot (square meter) of the roof, but rather by localized significant overloads caused
m

15  by drifted snow.

or

16  Drifts accumulate on roofs (even on sloped roofs) in the wind shadow of higher roofs or terrain
17  features. Parapets have the same effect. The affected roof may be influenced by a higher portion
nf

18  of the same structure or by another structure or terrain feature nearby if the separation is 20 ft (6.1
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19  m) or less. When a new structure is built within 20 ft (6.1 m) of an existing structure, drifting
20  possibilities should also be investigated for the existing structure (see Sections C7.7.2 and C7.12).
Fo

21  The snow that forms drifts may come from the roof on which the drift forms, from higher or lower
22  roofs, or, on occasion, from the ground.

23  Prior to ASCE 7-22, tThe leeward drift load provisions arewere based on studies of snow drifts on
24  roofs (Speck 1984; Taylor 1984; and O’Rourke et al. 1985, 1986). Drift size iswas related to the
25  amount of driftable snow, as quantified by the upwind roof length and the ground snow load. As
26  discussed in Section C7.6.1, the drift load is now also a function of the winter wind parameter 𝑊 .
27  Drift loads are considered for ground snow loads as low as 5 lb / ft 2 ( 0.24 kN / m 2 ). Case studies

33 
 
 1  show that, in regions with low ground snow loads, drifts 3 to 4 ft (0.9 to 1.2 m) high can be caused
2  by a single storm accompanied by high winds. The leeward drift height limit of 60% of the lower
3  roof length applies to canopies and other lower level roofs with small horizontal projection from
4  the building wall. It is based upon a 30 degree angle of repose for drifted snow (tan (30 degrees)
5  = drift height/drift length = 0 .5 7 7  0 .6 ) and is consistent with provisions in Section 7.6.1, which
6  exclude roofs steeper than 7 on 12 from the gable roof drift (unbalanced load) provisions.

7  A change from a prior (1988) edition of this standard involves the width, w , when the drift height,
8  hd , from Fig. 7.6-1 exceeds the clear height, hc . In this situation, the width of the drift is taken as

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9  4hd2 / hc , with a maximum value of 8hc . This drift width relation is based upon equating the cross-

sectional area of this drift (i.e., 1/ 2hc  w ) with the cross-sectional area of a triangular drift, where

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10 

the drift height is not limited by hc (i.e., 1 / 2hd  4 hd ), as suggested by Zallen (1988). The upper

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11 

12  limit of drift width is based on studies by Finney (1939) and Tabler (1975) that suggest that a “full”
13 
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drift has a rise-to-run of about 1 ∶6 .5 , and case studies (Zallen 1988) that show observed drifts
io
14  with a rise-to-run greater than 1 ∶10 .
at

15  The drift height relationship in Equation 7.6-1 Fig. 7.6-1 is based on snow blowing off a high roof
m

16  upwind of a lower roof. The change in elevation where the drift forms is called a “leeward step.”
17  Drifts can also form at “windward steps.” An example is the drift that forms at the downwind end
or

18  of a roof that abuts a higher structure there. Figure 7.7-1 shows “windward step” and “leeward
nf

19  step” drifts.

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20  For situations that have the same amount of available snow (i.e., upper and lower roofs of the same
21  length), the drifts that form in leeward steps are larger than those that form in windward steps. In
Fo

22  previous versions of the standard, the windward drift height was given as 1/ 2hd from Fig. 7.6-1

23  using the length of the lower roof for lu . Based upon an analysis of case histories in O’Rourke and

24  De Angelis (2002), a value of 3 / 4 is now prescribed.

25  As described by O’Rourke et al (2018), leeward roof step drift formation is fairly straight
26  forward. Wind causes upper level roof snow to be transported (i.e. blown) to the edge of the
27  upper level roof. A percentage of that transported snow (typically taken to be 50%) remains in
28  the region of aerodynamic shade until the wind stops, the upwind source area is depleted of

34 
 
 1  snow, or the leeward drift becomes full. The situation for windward drifts is more complex. The
2  initial trapping efficiency of a wall is nominally 100%. That is, all the transported snow initially
3  stays upwind of the wall. If the windward drift grows large enough (i.e., wind streamlines along
4  the snow drift surface (snow ramp) move high enough up the wall), some of the windblown
5  snow is carried over the wall and the windward trapping efficiency drops to less than 20%. The
6  slope of a windward drift (rise to run of 1 to 8) is different than that for a non-full leeward drift
7  (rise-to-run of 1:4). For the same upwind fetch and ground snow loads, there are comparatively
8  small differences between leeward and windward drift height, while there are comparatively

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9  large differences between leeward and windward drift width with windward drifts having the
10  larger widths.

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11  The ratio of windward to leeward drift height, β, is a function of whether the windward drift is in

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12  its initial phase (trapping efficiency = 100%, or in the later phase (trapping efficiency = 20%).
13  The upwind fetch at which the transition from initial to later phase occurs, 𝑙 ∗ , is given by:
n
io
14 
at
.
.
15  𝑙∗ . . C7.7-1
m

16 
or

17  For a building where the lower roof upwind fetch lu ≤ 𝑙∗ the height of the windward drift is equal
nf

18  to that of the leeward drift with an equal upwind fetch for the upper roof, that is β = 1.0. For lu >
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19  𝑙 ∗ , the ratio β is given by

Fo

. .
20  β = 0.2 . C7.7-2

21  where α is lu/𝑙∗ . That is, for α ≤ 1.0 β = 1.0 as noted above while for α = 4.05, β = 0.707. For α
22  > 4.05, β is less than 0.707. For simplicity, the Snow and Rain Load Subcommittee decided that
23  the windward drift height for all values of lu should be taken as ¾ the height of the corresponding
24  leeward drift (i.e., beta = 0.75). This maintains consistency with previous editions of ASCE 7,
25  which used a value of ¾ based upon analysis of case histories in O’Rourke and De Angelis
26  (2002).

35 
 
 1  Depending on wind direction, any change in elevation between roofs can be either a windward or
2  leeward step. Thus, the height of a drift is determined for each wind direction, as shown in
3  Example 3 in this chapter, and the larger of the two heights is used as the design drift. Prior to
4  ASCE 7-22, the The drift height relation in Fig. 7.6-1 was based upon a data set of leeward roof
5  step drifts for which the average upwind fetch distance was about 170 ft (52 m). Unfortunately,
6  the functional form of the empirical relation provides provided unrealistic results for very short
7  upwind fetch distances and very low ground snow loads. For example, one would calculate a
8  negative drift height for 𝑙 5𝑓𝑡 1.5𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 5 𝑝𝑠𝑓 0,96 𝑘𝑃𝑎 . In prior verions of this

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9  load standard, this shortcoming was handled by specifying a minimum 𝑙 of 20 ft (6.1m). In the
10  2016 edition, this requirement was modified or by noting that ℎ need not be taken as greater

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11  than . This new limiting relation was determined by assuming that all the upwind snow

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12  is transported by wind and the trapping efficiency (percentage of transported snow that remains
in the drift is) is 50%. Given the functional form of new Equation 7.6-1, these limits are no
13 
longer needed. n
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14 
at
15  The drift load provisions cover most, but not all, situations. Finney (1939) and O’Rourke (1989)
16  document a larger drift than would have been expected based on the length of the upper roof. The
m

17  larger drift was caused when snow on a somewhat lower roof, upwind of the upper roof, formed a
or

18  drift between those two roofs, allowing snow from the upwind lower roof to be carried up onto the
19  upper roof then into the drift on its downwind side. It was suggested that the sum of the lengths of
nf

20  both roofs could be used to calculate the size of the leeward drift. The situation of two roof steps
rI

21  in series was studied by O’Rourke and Kuskowski (2005)Conlin (2020a). For the roof geometry
sketched in Figure C7.7-1, the effective upwind fetch for the leeward drift atop roof C caused by
Fo

22 
23  wind from left to right was shown to be LB  0.75 LA .

∗
24  for 0.707

25  L 0.5 L C7.7-3

∗
26  for 0.707

36 
 
 ∗
1  L 1 L C7.7-4

2  where ℎ∗ is the elevation difference between roofs A and B minus the balanced snow depth
3  atop roof B, and ℎ is the expected leeward drift height for an upwind fetch of LA.

4  That is, some of the snow originally on roof A ends up in the leeward drift atop roof B, thereby
5  reducing the amount of snow available for drift formation atop roof C. For the windward snowdrift
6  atop roof B caused by wind from right to left, the effective upwind fetch was shown to be
7  LB  0.85LC .

LY
∗
8  for 1.86

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O
9  L C7.7-5

∗
10  for 1.86 ≥ ≥ 0.51
n
io
∗
L + 0.8 – 0.23 L C7.7-6
at
11 
m

∗
12  for < 0.51
or

∗
13  L + 1 L C7.7-7
nf

where ℎ∗ is the elevation difference between roofs B and C minus the balanced snow depth atop
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14 
15  roof C, and ℎ is the expected leeward drift height for an upwind fetch of LC.
Fo

16  The analysis for windward drifts assumed that the elevation difference between roofs B and C was
17  small enough to allow snow initially atop roof C to be blown up onto roof B.

18 

37 
 
 LY
N
1 

O
2  Figure C7.7-1. Roof steps in series.

3  n
To reduce or eliminate leeward snow drifts on an adjacent or adjoining lower roof, a snow
io
4  capture wall can be added to the upper roof. Generally, the addition of a parapet wall on a high
at
5  roof cannot be relied upon to completely reduce the leeward snowdrift loading on an adjacent or
6  adjoining lower roof. This is particularly true for the case of a single parapet wall of typical
m

7  height located at the roof step. As developed in O’Rourke, and Conlin (2020b), Equation C7.7-8
or

8  presents the wall height, h0, in feet, above the upper level roof balanced snow, as shown in
9  Figure C7.7-2, required to fully capture the upper level roof snow. Furthermore, the expected
nf

10  leeward drift height ℎ∗ atop the lower level roof for a capture wall smaller than that in Equation
rI

11  C7.7-8 is provided in Equations C7.7-9 and C7.7-10. Also, the addition of a parapet wall at a
12  roof step would increase the space available for windward drift formation on the lower roof. The
Fo

13  issue of potential reduction in leeward drift size at a roof step caused by a parapet wall is
14  discussed in more detail in O’Rourke (2007)

15  ho > 1.86 hd C7.7-8

16  for 0.51 < < 1.86

17  hd* = 0.80 h 0.23 h C7.7-9

38 
 
 1  for < 0.51

2  hd* = h h C7.7-10

3  where hd is the expected leeward drift height atop the lower level roof, using the upper level roof
4  length in Equations 7.6-1.

5 

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N
O
n
io
at
m
or
nf

6 
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7 
Fo

8  Figure C7.7-2. Capture wall to prevent or reduce leeward drift accumulation atop lower
9  level roof.

10  Source:

11  In another situation (Kennedy et al. 1992), a long “spike” drift was created at the end of a long
12  skylight with the wind about 30 degrees off the long axis of the skylight. The skylight acted as a
13  guide or deflector that concentrated drifting snow. This action caused a large drift to accumulate
14  in the lee of the skylight. This drift was replicated in a wind tunnel.

39 
 
 1  As shown in Figure 7.7-2, the clear height, hc , is determined based on the assumption that the

2  upper roof is blown clear of snow in the vicinity of the drift. This assumption is reasonable for
3  windward drifting but does not necessarily hold for leeward drifting. For leeward drifting, the last
4  portion of the upper level roof that would become blown clear of snow is the portion adjacent to
5  the roof step. That is, there may still be snow on the upper level roof when the roof step drift has
6  stopped growing. Nevertheless, for simplicity, the same assumption regarding clear height is used
7  for both leeward and windward drifts.

8  Tests in wind tunnels (Irwin et al. 1992; Isyumov and Mikitiuk 1992) and flumes (O’Rourke and

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9  Weitman 1992) have proven quite valuable in determining patterns of snow drifting and drift loads.
10  For roofs of unusual shape or configuration, wind tunnel or water-flume tests may be needed to

N
11  help define drift loads. An ASCE standard for wind tunnel testing including procedures to assist

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12  in the determination of snow loads on roofs is currently under development.

13  C7.7.2 Adjacent Structures n

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14  One expects a leeward drift to form on an adjacent lower roof only if the lower roof is low enough
at

15  and close enough to be in the wind shadow (aerodynamic shade) region of the upper roof as
m

16  sketched in Figure C7.7-3. The provisions in Section 7.7.2 are based upon a wind shadow region
that trails from the upper roof at a 1 downward to 6 horizontal slope.
or

17 
nf
rI
Fo

18 

19  FIGURE C7.7-3. Leeward snow drift on adjacent roof, separation S  20 ft (top) elevation
20  view, S  6 H ; lower roof above wind shadow (aerodynamic shade) region, no leeward

40 
 
 1  drift on lower roof. (bottom) Elevation view, S  6 H ; lower roof within wind shadow
2  (aerodynamic shade) region, leeward drift on lower roof; drift length is the smaller of (
3  6 H  S ) and 6H D .

4  For windward drifts, the requirements of Section 7.7.1 are to be used. However, the resulting drift
5  may be truncated by eliminating the drift in the horizontal separation region as sketched in Figure
6  C7.7-4.

LY
N
O
n
io
7 
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8  FIGURE C7.7-4. Windward snow drift on adjacent roof, separation S  20 ft .

m

9  C7.7.3 Intersecting Drifts at Low Roofs

or
nf

10  The accumulation of drifting snow from perpendicular wind directions can occur concurrently
11  from single or multiple wind and snow events to create an intersecting snowdrift load at reentrant
rI

12  corners and similar conditions. Intersecting drifts can also occur at a roof step where the lower
Fo

13  level roof is a gable with a ridgeline that runs into the vertical sidewall of the roof step. A leeward
14  roof step is expected for wind blowing from the direction of the higher level roof, while a gable
15  roof drift is expected for wind blowing over the ridgeline of the lower gable roof. For example, if
16  the gable roof is to the east of the upper level roof, a leeward roof step drift is expected for wind
17  out of the west, while gable roof drift on the north side of the ridge is expected for wind out of the
18  south. The procedures for analyzing such interesting drifts are as follows: 1) first consider each
19  2-D drift separately, 2) then assume each 2-D drift has a shape determined in accordance with this
20  standard and 3) within the intersecting foot-prints of the two 2-D drifts, use the larger of the two
21  2-D snow drift heights. Finally, the intersecting drift provisions in Section 7.7.3 do not apply to a
41 
 
 1  simple gable roof subject to the gable roof drifts in Section 7.6.1. For a simple gable roof, the two
2  unbalanced loads (actually two drift loads one each side of the ridgeline) do not have overlapping
3  footprints.

4 

5  Note that the approach for intersecting drifts in Section 7.7.3 is consistent with that for windward
6  and leeward roof step drifts in Section 7.7.1, where the larger of these two heights shall be used in
7  design. For the reentrant corner geometry, the. The two resulting drifts are combined, as shown

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8  in Figure 7.7-3, where the snowdrift load at the drift intersection is based on the larger drift, not
9  the additive effect of the two drifts (i.e., design hd at the intersection is hd 1 or hd 2 , but not hd 1

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10  added to hd 2 ). Wind direction at a specific site can change during a single snow event. Examples

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11  of the determination of intersecting drift loads are provided in the FEMA design guide for three-
12  dimensional roof snow drifts (FEMA, 2019).

n
io
13  C7.8 ROOF PROJECTIONS AND PARAPETS
at

14  Drifts around penthouses, roof obstructions, and parapet walls are also of the “windward step”
m

15  type because the length of the upper roof is small or no upper roof exists. Solar panels,
16  mechanical equipment, parapet walls, and penthouses are examples of roof projections that may
or

17  cause “windward” drifts on the roof around them. The drift load provisions in Sections 7.7 and
nf

18  7.8 cover most of these situations adequately, but flat-plate solar panels collectors may warrant
19  some additional attention. Roofs equipped with several rows of them are subjected to additional
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20  snow loads. Before the collectors were installed, these roofs may have sustained minimal snow
Fo

21  loads, especially if they were windswept. First, because a roof with collectors is apt to be
22  somewhat “sheltered” by the collectors, it seems appropriate to assume that the roof is partially
23  exposed and calculate a uniform snow load for the entire area as though the collectors did not
24  exist. Second, the extra snow that might fall on the collectors and then slide onto the roof should
25  be computed using the “All Other Surfaces” curve in Fig. 7.4-1b. This value should be applied as
26  a uniform load on the roof at the base of each collector over an area about 2 ft (0.6 m) wide along
27  the length of the collector. The uniform load combined with the load at the base of each collector
28  probably represents a reasonable design load for such situations, except in very windy areas,

42 
 
 1  where extensive snow drifting is to be expected among the collectors. By elevating collectors at
2  least 2 ft (0.61 m) above the height of the balanced snow on an open system of structural
3  supports, the potential for drifting will be diminished significantly. Finally, the collectors should
4  be designed to sustain a load calculated by using the “Unobstructed Slippery Surfaces” curve in
5  Fig. 7.4-1a. This last load should not be used in the design of the roof because the heavier load of
6  sliding snow from the collectors has already been considered. The influence of solar collectors
7  on snow accumulation is discussed in Corotis et al. (1979) and O’Rourke (1979). O’Rourke and
8  Isyumov (2016) and Section 2.9 of FM Global (2016) provide guidance for the snow load

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9  conditions that result from the presence of solar panels on a roof.

10  Refer to Section C7.7 for more description of the effects that a parapet wall at a high roof can have

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11  on the snowdrift loading at an adjacent or adjoining lower roof.

O
12  The accumulation of drifting snow from perpendicular wind directions can occur concurrently
from single or multiple wind and snow events to create an intersecting snowdrift load at parapet
13 
n
io
14  wall corners and intersecting roof projections. Where the two drifts intersect, the drift loads need
15  not be superimposed to create a combined (additive) drift height at the drift intersection. The
at

16  individual drift loads are based on windward or leeward drifting, as indicated in Section 7.8, and
m

17  the only difference with intersecting drifts is the determination of the governing drift load where
18  the two drifts come together.
or
nf

19  C7.9 SLIDING SNOW

rI

20  Situations that permit snow to slide onto lower roofs should be avoided (Paine 1988). Where this
21  is not possible, the extra load of the sliding snow should be considered. Roofs with little slope
Fo

22  have been observed to shed snow loads by sliding.

23  The final resting place of any snow that slides off a higher roof onto a lower roof depends on the
24  size, position, and orientation of each roof (Taylor 1983). Distribution of sliding loads might vary
25  from a uniform 5 ft (1.5 m) wide load, if a significant vertical offset exists between the two roofs,
26  to a 20 ft (6.1 m) wide uniform load, where a low-slope upper roof slides its load onto a second
27  roof that is only a few feet (about a meter) lower or where snowdrifts on the lower roof create a
28  sloped surface that promotes lateral movement of the sliding snow.

43 
 
 1  In some instances, a portion of the sliding snow may be expected to slide clear of the lower roof.
2  Nevertheless, it is prudent to design the lower roof for a substantial portion of the sliding load to
3  account for any dynamic effects that might be associated with sliding snow.

4  Snow retention devices are needed on some roofs to prevent roof damage and eliminate hazards
5  associated with sliding snow (Tobiasson et al. 1996). When snow retention devices are added to a
6  sloping roof, snow loads on the roof can be expected to increase. Thus, it may be necessary to
7  strengthen a roof before adding snow retention devices. When designing a roof that will likely
8  need snow retention devices in the future, it may be appropriate to use the “All Other Surfaces”

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9  curves in Figure 7.4-1, not the “Unobstructed Slippery Surfaces” curves. The design of snow
10  retention devices, their anchorages, and their supporting elements should consider the total

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11  maximum design roof snow load upslope of the snow retention device (including sloped roof snow

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12  load, drift surcharge, unbalanced loads, and sliding snow loads) and the resultant force caused by
13  the roof slope. See Tobiasson et al. (1996) for further information on the effects of roof slope on
14  n
the snow retention device force. Snow retention devices, their anchorages, and their supporting
io
15  structural elements should consider the tributary snow loads from a trapezoidal-shaped area with
at
16  a boundary at the edge of the snow retention device extending upslope at 45 degrees from the
17  vertical to the ridge (Figure C7.9-1) or to where the tributary area meets an adjacent tributary area.
m

18  Friction between the snow and the roof surface is typically taken as zero when calculating the
or

19  resultant load on the snow retention device.

nf
rI
Fo

20 

21  FIGURE C7.9-1. Plan view of tributary snow loads for snow retention device.

22  Sliding snow should also be considered at changes in roof slope where a higher and steeper roof
23  meets a lower, less steep roof (where the difference in slope is greater than 2 on 12). Where this

44 
 
 1  condition occurs, the low roof prevents the high roof from completely unloading because the low
2  roof slides more gradually, or not at all. In this case, the accumulated snow at the change in roof
3  slope exceeds p f of either roof.

4  When designing the structural elements of the building at the change in roof slope, a rational
5  approach would be to take the sliding snow ( 0.4 p f W ) and distribute it a distance of W / 4 each

6  side of the change in roof slope, accumulating it with the distributed design snow p f .

C7.10 RAIN-ON-SNOW SURCHARGE LOAD

LY
7 

8  The ground snow load measurements on which this standard is based contain the load effects of

N
9  light rain on snow. However, because heavy rains percolate down through snow packs and may

O
10  drain away, they might not be included in measured values. Where 𝑝 is greater than the value of
11  pm,max given in Table 7.3-3 20lb/ft (0.96kN/𝑚 ), it is assumed that the full rain-on-snow effect
12  n
has been measured and a separate rain-on-snow surcharge is not needed. The temporary roof load
io
13  contributed by a heavy rain may be significant. Its magnitude depends on the duration and intensity
at
14  of the design rainstorm, the drainage characteristics of the snow on the roof, the geometry of the
roof, and the type of drainage provided. Loads associated with rain on snow are discussed in
m

15 
16  Colbeck (1977a, b) and O’Rourke and Downey (2001).
or

17  O’Rourke and Downey (2001) show that the surcharge from rain-on-snow loading is an increasing
nf

18  function of eave to ridge distance and a decreasing function of roof slope. That is, rain-on-snow
rI

19  surcharges are largest for wide, low-sloped roofs. The minimum slope reflects that functional
20  relationship.
Fo

21  The following example illustrates the evaluation of the rain-on-snow surcharge. Consider a
22  monoslope roof with slope of 1/4 on 12 and a width of 100 ft (30.5 m) with 𝐶 1.0, 𝐶 1.1,
23  𝐼 1.2, and pg = 32 15 psf (1.54 0.72 kN/𝑚 ) for a Risk Category IV structure. Because 𝐶
24  1.0 for a slope of 1/4 on 12, 𝑝 0.7 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.2 32  = 24.6 14 psf (1.18 0.67kN/
25  𝑚 ). Because the roof slope 1.19 degrees is less than 100/50 2.0, the 8 5 psf
26  (0.38 0.24kN/𝑚 ) surcharge is added to 𝑝 , resulting in a design load of 32.6 19 psf
27  (1.56 0.91kN/𝑚 ). Because the slope is less than 15 degrees, the minimum load, pm, from

45 
 
 1  Section 7.3.3 is the minimum of pm = 32 psf (1.54 kN/𝑚 ) and pm,max = 40 psf (1.73 kN/𝑚 ),
2  which is 32 psf (1.54 kN/𝑚 ). 𝐼 𝑝 1.2 15  = 18 psf (0.86kN/𝑚 ). Hence, the rain on
3  snow modified load controls.

4  C7.11 PONDING INSTABILITY

5  Where adequate slope to drain does not exist, or where drains are blocked by ice, snow meltwater
6  and rain may pond in low areas. Intermittently heated structures in very cold regions are
7  particularly susceptible to blockages of drains by ice. A roof designed without slope or one sloped

LY
8  with only 1/ 8 in. / ft (0.6 degrees) to internal drains probably contains low spots away from drains
9  by the time it is constructed. When a heavy snow load is added to such a roof, it is even more likely

N
10  that undrained low spots exist. As rainwater or snow meltwater flows to such low areas, these areas

O
11  tend to deflect increasingly, allowing a deeper pond to form. If the structure does not possess
12  enough stiffness to resist this progression, failure by localized overloading can result. This
13  n
mechanism has been responsible for several roof failures under combined rain and snow loads.
io
It is very important to consider roof deflections caused by snow loads when determining the
at
14 
15  likelihood of ponding instability from rain-on-snow or snow meltwater.
m

16  Internally drained roofs should have a slope of at least 1/ 4 in./ ft (1.19 degrees) to provide
or

17  positive drainage and to minimize the chance of ponding. Slopes of 1/ 4 in./ ft (1.19 degrees) or
nf

18  more are also effective in reducing peak loads generated by heavy spring rain on snow. Further
incentive to build positive drainage into roofs is provided by significant improvements in the
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19 
20  performance of waterproofing membranes when they are sloped to drain.
Fo

21  Rain loads and ponding instability are discussed in detail in Chapter 8.

22  C7.12 EXISTING ROOFS

23  Numerous existing roofs have failed when additions or new buildings nearby caused snow loads
24  to increase on the existing roof. A prior (1988) edition of this standard mentioned this issue only
25  in its commentary where it was not a mandatory provision. The 1995 edition moved this issue to
26  the standard.

46 
 
 1  The addition of a gable roof alongside an existing gable roof, as shown in Figure C7.12-1, most
2  likely explains why some such metal buildings failed in the south during the winter of 1992–1993.
3  The change from a simple gable roof to a multiple folded plate roof increased loads on the original
4  roof, as would be expected from Section 7.6.3. Unfortunately, the original roofs were not
5  strengthened to account for these extra loads, and they collapsed.

LY
6 

7  FIGURE C7.12-1. Valley, in which snow will drift, is created when a new gable roof is

N
8  added alongside an existing gable roof.

O
9  If the eaves of the new roof in Figure C7.12-1 had been somewhat higher than the eaves of the
10  existing roof, the exposure factor, C e , for the original roof may have increased, thereby increasing
n
snow loads on it. In addition, drift loads and loads from sliding snow would also have to be
io
11 
12  considered.
at

13  C7.13 SNOW ON OPEN-FRAME EQUIPMENT STRUCTURES

m
or

14  Snow loads should be considered on all levels of the open-frame structures that can retain snow.
15  The snow accumulations on the flooring, equipment, cable trays, and pipes should be considered.
nf

16  Snow cornicing effects impacting the accumulation of snow on surfaces such as grating, pipes,
rI

17  cable trays, and equipment should also be considered. Grating is considered to retain snow because
18  of the cornicing effect of the snow between the grates.
Fo

19  C7.13.2 Snow at Levels below the Top Level

20  In the absence of site-specific information, the length of the loaded zone is approximated for
21  convenience as the vertical distance to the covering level above.

22  The drift snow at levels below the top levels caused by wind walls may be ignored because of the
23  limited snow accumulation on such levels.

47 
 
 1  C.7.13.3 Snow Loads on Pipes and Cable Trays

2  The snow loading on any pipe rack or pipe bridge occurs because of the snow loading on the pipes
3  and cable trays at each level. For pipe racks and pipe bridges wider than 12 ft (4 m), where the
4  spaces between individual pipes are less than the pipe diameter (including insulation), Section
5  7.13.1 and 7.13.2 should be applied.

6  C7.13.4 Snow Loads on Equipment and Equipment Platforms

LY
7  Extended out of service conditions for equipment shall be considered for the loading criteria,
8  particularly equipment that is often out of service for the whole winter.

N
9  C7.14 OTHER ROOFS AND SITES

O
10  Wind tunnel model studies, similar tests using fluids other than air, for example, water flumes, and
11  n
other special experimental and computational methods, have been used with success to establish
io
12  design snow loads for other roof geometries and complicated sites (Irwin et al. 1992; Isyumov and
at
13  Mikitiuk 1992; O’Rourke and Weitman 1992). To be considered reliable, such methods must
14  reproduce the mean and turbulent characteristics of the wind and the manner in which snow
m

15  particles are deposited on roofs and then redistributed by wind action. Reliability should be
or

16  demonstrated through comparisons with situations for which full-scale experience is available.
nf

17  Examples. The following three examples illustrate the method used to establish design snow loads
18  for some of the situations discussed in this standard. Additional examples are found in O’Rourke
rI

19  and Wrenn (2004).

Fo

20  Example 1: Determine balanced and unbalanced design snow loads for an apartment complex
21  (Risk Category II) with a ground snow load Pg = 30 lb/ft2 and a winter wind parameter, W2 = 0.55.
22  in a suburb of Hartford, Connecticut. Each unit has a 8-on-126-on-12 slope unventilated gable roof
23  insulated to an Rroof = 30 h∙ft2∙°F /Btu (5.3 m2∙K/W). The building length is 100 ft (30.5 m), and
24  the eave to ridge distance, W , is 30 ft (9.1 m). Composition shingles clad the roofs. Trees will be
25  planted among the buildings.

26  Flat Roof Snow Load:

48 
 
 1  Pf = 0.7 Ce Ct Is Pg

2  where

3  Pg = 30 lb/ft2 (1.44 kN/M2)

4  C e = 1.0 (from Table 7.3-1 for Surface Roughness Category B and a partially exposed roof), and

5  Ct = 1.4 (from Table 7.3-27.3-3 for unventilated roofs, Rroof = 30 h∙ft2∙°F /Btu, and pg = 30 lb/ft2),

6  and.

LY
7  I s = 1.0 (from Table 1.5-2).

N
8  Thus, pf = (0.7)(1.0)(1.4)(30) = 23.9 lb/ft2. In SI, pf = (0.7)(1.0)(1.14)(1.44) = 1.15 kN/m2.

O
9  Because the roof slope is greater than 15 degrees, the minimum roof snow load, p m , does not

10  apply (see Section 7.3.4).

n
io
11  Sloped-Roof Snow Load:
at

12  ps  Cs p f where C s  1.0

m

13  (using the “All Other Surfaces” [or solid] line, Figure 7.4-1b for 1.1 <= Ct <1.2).
or

14  Thus, ps = 1.00(23.9) = 23.9 lb/ft2

nf

15  (in SI, ps = 1.0(1.15) = 1.15 kN / m2).

rI

16  Unbalanced Snow Load: Because the roof slope is greater than ½ on 12 (2.38 °), unbalanced
Fo

17  loads must be considered. For From the problem statement 𝑊 0.55. Hence, for 𝑝

18  30 𝑝𝑠𝑓 1.44 and W=𝑙 =30ft (9.14m), and 𝛾 17.9 𝑝𝑐𝑓 (2.80 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 from Equation (7.7-

19  1) ℎ 1.86 𝑓𝑡 0.56𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 7.6 1 and Is = 1.0 (from Table 1.5-2) ℎ
20  2.46𝑓𝑡 (0.75m) from Equation 7.6-1. For a 6 on 12 roof, S=2.0 and hence the intensity of the drift
21  surcharge ℎ 𝛾/√𝑆 is 23.5 psf 31.1 psf (1.31 1.74 kN/m , and its horizontal extent 8√𝑆ℎ /3 is
22  7.0 9.3 ft (2.14 2.8 m).

49 
 
 1  Rain-on-Snow Surcharge: A rain-on-snow surcharge load need not be considered because pg > 20
2  psf ( 0.96 kN / m 2 ) W/50 = 0.6° < 26.6° = 6 on 12 roof slope (see Section 7.10). See Figure C7.14-
3  1 for both loading conditions.

23.9 lb/ft2
(1.15 kN/m2)
21 lb/ft2
(1.01 kN/m2)

LY
4 

N
5   

O
9.3 ft (2.8 m)
7.0 ft (2.11 m)
n
io
31.1 lb/ft2 (1.74 kN/m2) 23.5 lb/ft2
7.2 lb/ft2 (0.35 kN/m2)
(1.13 kN/m2)
at
6.3 lb/ft2 (0.3 kN/m2)
23.9 lb/ft2 (1.15 kN/m2)
m

21 lb/ft2 (1.01 kN/m2)

or
nf
rI

6   
Fo

7 

8  FIGURE C7.14-1. Design snow loads for example 1.

9  Example 2: Determine the roof snow load for a vaulted theater that can seat 450 people, planned
10  for a suburb of Chicago, Illinois in a location where the ground snow load for Risk Category III in
11  Figure 7.2-1C is 27.5 psf (1.32 kN/m2). The building is the tallest structure in a recreation-shopping
12  complex surrounded by a parking lot. Two large deciduous trees are located in an area near the
13  entrance. The building has an 80 ft (24.4 m) span and 15 ft (4.6 m) rise circular arc structural

50 
 
 1  concrete roof covered with insulation and aggregate surfaced built-up roofing. The unventilated
2  roofing system has a thermal resistance of 20 ft 2 hr F / Btu ( 3.5 Km 2 / W ). It is expected that
3  the structure will be exposed to winds during its useful life.

4  Flat Roof Snow Load:

5  Pf = 0.7 Ce Ct Is Pg

6  where

LY
7  Pg = 25 27.5 lb/ft2 (1.2 1.32 kN/M2) (from Figure 7.2-1 Problem Statement)

8  C e = 0.9 (from Table 7.3-1 for Surface Roughness Category B and a fully exposed roof), and

N
O
9  Ct = 1.07 (from Table 7.3-3), and. interpolating for unventilated roof, Rroof = 20 h ft2 F/BTU and

10  Pg = 27.5 lb/ft2

n
io
11  I s = 1.1 (from Table 1.5-2).
at
12  Thus, Pf = 0.7 (0.9) (1.07) (1.1) (25) (27.5) = 18.5 lb/ft2
m

13  In SI, Pf = (0.7) (0.9)(1.07)(1.1)(1.19)(1.2) = 0.81 kN/m2(SI)

or

14  Tangent of vertical angle from eaves to crown 15/ 40  0.375 .

nf

15  Angle  21

rI

16  Because the vertical angle exceeds 10 degrees, the minimum roof snow load, p m , does not apply.
Fo

17  See Section 7.3.4.

18  Sloped-Roof Snow Load:

19  ps  C s p f

20  From Figure 7.4-1a (for Ct < 1.1), Cs  1.0 until slope exceeds 30 degrees, which (by geometry)

21  is 30 ft (9.1 m) from the centerline. In this area, ps = 1.0(18.5) = 18.5 lb/ft2 (in SI ps = 0.81(1) =
22  0.81 kN/m2). At the eaves, where the slope is (by geometry) 41 degrees, Cs  0.72 and

51 
 
 1  ps=18.5(0.72)=13.3 lb/ft2 (in SI ps=0.81(0.72)=0.58 kN/m2). Because slope at the eaves is 41
2  degrees, Case 2 loading applies.

3  Unbalanced Snow Load: Because the vertical angle from the eaves to the crown is greater than
4  10 degrees and less than 60 degrees, unbalanced snow loads must be considered.

5  Unbalanced load at crown  0.5 p f   = 0.5(18.5) = 9.3 lb/ft2  

6  (in SI, = 0.5(0.81) = 0.41 kN/m2 ).

LY
7  Unbalanced load at 30 degree point = 2 pf Cs/Ce = 2(18.5)(1.0)/0.9 = 41.1 lb/ft2 

8  (in SI, = 2(0.81)(1.0)/0.9 = 1.8 kN/m2).

N
Unbalanced load at eaves  = 2(18.5)(0.72)/0.9=29.6 lb/ft2

O
9 

10  (in SI,  = 2(0.81)(0.72)/0.9=1.30 kN/m2).

n
io
11  Rain-on-Snow Surcharge: A rain-on-snow surcharge load need not be considered because Pg >
12  20 psf (0.96 kN/m2) W/50 = 80/50 = 1.6 < average slope = (0° + 41°)/2 = 20.5°. See Figure C7.14-
at

13  2 for both loading conditions.

m
or

Figure edits:
nf

(a) Balanced Condition

1718.5 lb/ft2 (0.830.89 kN/m2)

rI

1213.3 lb/ft2 (0.600.64 kN/m2)

Fo

(b) Unbalanced Condition

99.3 lb/ft2 (0.410.45 kN/m2)

3841.1lb/ft2 (1.84 1.96 kN/m2)

2729.6 lb/ft2 (1.331.42 kN/m2)

52 
 
 1 

2  FIGURE C7.14-2. Design snow loads for example 2.

LY
3  Example 3: Determine design snow loads for the upper and lower flat roofs of a building located
4  where Pg = 40 lb/ft2 (1.92 kN/m2) for Risk Category II from Figure 7.2-1B and 32 lb/ft2 (1.54

N
5  kN/m2) for Risk Category I from Figure 7.2-1A and W2 = 0.5. The elevation difference between

O
6  the roofs is 10 ft (3 m). The 100 ft 100 ft ( 30.5 m30.5 m) unventilated high portion is heated,
7  and the roof is insulated to an Rroof = 30 h ft2 F/BTU (5.3 K m2/w) and the 240 ft (73 m) wide, 100
8  n
ft (30.5 m) long low portion is an unheated storage area. The building is in an industrial park in
io
9  flat open country with no trees or other structures offering shelter.
at

10  High Roof:

m

11  Pf = 0.7 Ce Ct Is Pg
or

12  where
nf

13  Pg = 40 lb / ft 2 ( 1.92 kN / m 2 ) (given),

rI

14  C e =0.9 (from Table 7.3-1), and

Fo

15  Ct =1.13 (from Table 7.3-3 for unventilated, Rroof = 30 h ft2 F/BTU, and Pg = 40 lb/ft2), and.

16  I s =1.0 (from Table 1.5-2).

17  thus, Pf = 0.7 (0.9) (1.13) (1.0) (40) = 28.5 lb/ft2

18  Pf = (0.7) (0.9)(1.13)(1.0)(1.92) = 1.37 kN/m2 (SI)

53 
 
 1  Because Pg = 40 lb/ft2 (1.92 kN/m2) and Is = 1.0, the minimum roof snow load value of Pm = 20
2  (1.0) = 20 psf (0.96 kN/m2) and hence does not control (see section 7.3-4) with Risk Category II,
3  the minimum roof snow load case with uniform load = 30 lb/ft2 (1.44 kN/m2) needs to be
4  considered. However, as such, it does not combine with drift loading and is unlikely the
5  controlling snow load for the most highly loaded structural components.

6  Low Roof:

7  Pf = 0.7 Ce Ct Is Pg

LY
8  where

Pg= 32 lb/ft2 (1.54 kN/m2) (given),

N
9 

O
10  C e = 1.0 (from Table 7.3-1) partially exposed because of the presence of a high roof, and

11  Ct = 1.2 (from Table 7.3-2), and.

n
io
12  I s = 0.8 (from Table 1.5-2).
at

13  Thus, Pf = 0.7 (1.0) (1.2) (0.8) (40)(32) = 27 lb/ft2

m

14  In SI. Pf = (0.7) (1.0)(1.2)(0.8)(40)(1.54) = 1.29 kN/m2

or

15  Because Pg = 40 lb/ft2 (1.92 kN/m2) and Is = 0.8, 32 lb/ft2 (1.54 kN/m2) the minimum roof snow
nf

16  load value of Pm = 20 (0.8) = 16 lb/ft2 (0.77 kN/m2) Pm, max = 25 lb/ft2 (1.20 kN/m2) and hence
rI

17  does not control (see Section 7.3.4).

Fo

18  Drift Load Calculation:

19  γ  0.13(40)  14  19 lb / ft 3

20  In SI, γ  0.426(1.92)  2.2  3.02 kN / m3 .

21  hb  p f / 19  27 / 19  1.4 ft

22  In SI, hb  1.29 / 3.02  0.43 m .

54 
 
 1  hc  10  1.4  8.6 ft

2  In SI, hc  3.05  0.43  2.62 m .

3  hc / hb  8.6 / 1.4  6.1

4  In SI, hc / hb  2.62 / 0.43  6.1 ).

5  Because hc / hb  0.2 , drift loads must be considered (see Section 7.7.1).

LY
6  ℎ (leeward step) = 3.8 ft (1.16 m)

N
7  (Fig. 7.6-1 with 𝑝 = 40 lb/ft2 (1.92 kN/m2)

O
8  and 𝑙 = 100 ft (30.5 m)

9  n
For W2=0.5, pg=32 lb/ft2 (1.54 kN/m2) (unheated storage), lu = 100 ft (30.5 m), gamma = 19 pcf,
io
10  and Is=0.8 (unheated storage), hd = 3.4 ft (1.04 m) from Equation 7.6-1.
at

11  hd (windward step) = 3/ 4  4.8 ft (1.5 m)

m

12  = 3.6 ft (1.1 m) (4.8 ft [1.5 m]

or

13  from Fig. 7.6-1 with   p  40 lb / ft 2 [ 1.92 kN / m 2 ]

nf

14  and lu  length of lower roof = 170 ft [52 m])

rI

Leeward drift governs, use hd = 3.8 ft (1.16 m)

Fo

15 

16  Because hd  hc ,

17  hd = 3.8 ft (1.16 m)

18  w  4 hd  = 15.2 ft (4.64 m), say, 15 ft (4.6 m)

19  p d  hd γ  3.8(19)  72 lb / ft 2

55 
 
 1  In SI, pd  1.16(3.02)  3.50 kN / m 2 )

2  For the windward drift, Pg=32 lb/ft2 (1.54 kN/m2), lu=length of lower roof= 240 ft (73 m), and
3  W2=0.5. Hence, from Equation 7.6-1, with Is=0.8 (Unheated Storage ) hd= 4.55 ft (1.38 m). The
4  windward drift height is then 0.75hd = 3.41ft (1.04 m) and its drift width is 8 (3.41) = 27.3 ft (8.3
5  m).

6  As such, the windward drift controls and the peak load at the step is the balanced load of 27 lb/ft2
7  (1.29kN/m2) plus the drift surcharge of 3.41(19) = 64.8 lb/ft2 (3.1 kN/m2) or a total of 92 lb/ft2

LY
8  (4.4 kN/m2).

9  Rain-on-Snow Surcharge: A rain-on-snow surcharge load need not be considered because Pg for

N
10  both roofs are is greater than 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2) Pm, max in Table 7.3-3 for both roofs. See Figure

O
11  C7.14-3 for snow loads on both roofs.

n
io
at
m
or

12 
nf
rI
Fo

56 
 
 28.5 lb/ft2
(1.37 kN/m2)

92 lb/ft2
(4.4 kN/m2)

LY
N
240 ft

O
(73 m)
27.3 ft (8.3 m)

n
io
1 
2  FIGURE C7.14-3. Design snow loads for example 3.
at

3 
m

4  REFERENCES
or

AISC (2016). Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. ANSI/AISC 360-16.

nf

5 

Al Hatailah, H., Godfrey, B. L., Nielsen, R. J., and Sack, R. L. (2015). “Ground snow loads for
rI

6 
7  Idaho.” Univ. Idaho Civil Engineering Department Report, Moscow, ID.
Fo

8  http://www.lib.uidaho.edu/digital/idahosnow.

9  Allen, D. E. (1956). “Snow loads on roofs. the present requirements and a proposal for a survey
10  of snow loads on roofs.” National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research.

11  Bean, B., Maguire, M., Sun, Y., Wagstaff, J., Al-Rubaye, S., Wheeler, J., Jarman, S., and
12  Rogers, M. (2021). "The 2020 National Snow Load Study." Utah State University, Mathematics
13  and Statistics Faculty Publications. Paper 276. https://doi.org/10.26077/200k-pr86

14  Breiman, L. (2001). “Random forests.” Machine learning, 45(1), 5-32.

57 
 
 1  Brown, J. (1970). “An approach to snow load evaluation.” Proc., 38th Western Snow Conf.,
2  Western Snow Conference, Brush Prairie, WA.
3  http://www.westernsnowconference.org/node/984.

4  Buska, J., Greatorex, A., and Tobiasson, W. (2020). “Site-specific Case Studies for Determining
5  Ground Snow Loads in the United States”. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Engineer Research
6  and Development Center. ERDC/CRREL SR-20-1.

7  CEC (Commission for Environmental Cooperation). (1997). “Ecological regions of North

LY
8  America: toward a common perspective.” Montreal: CEC.

9  Colbeck, S. C. (1977a). “Roof loads resulting from rain-on-snow: Results of a physical model.”

N
10  Can. J. Civil Eng., 4, 482–490.

O
11  Colbeck, S. C. (1977b). “Snow loads resulting from rain-on-snow.” U.S. Army, CRREL Report
77-12, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, NH.
12 
n
io
13  Corotis, R. B., Dowding, C. H., and Rossow, E. C. (1979). “Snow and ice accumulation at solar
at
14  collector installations in the Chicago metropolitan area.” NBS-GCR-79 181, U.S. Dept. of
15  Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC.
m

16  Curtis, J., and Grimes, G. (2004). Wyoming climate atlas, Dept. of Civil and Arch. Eng., Univ. of
or

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nf

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