BIOL 412: TUTORIAL 2

Blood Cells

Mustafa Soganci
mustafa.soganci@emu.edu.tr
Office: AS120
Blood

• Is a specialized connective tissue composed of:

1. Cells Composition of Blood:

2. Plasma

https://blood-cancer.com/basics/blood/
Blood Cells

1. Red Blood Cells

2. White Blood Cells

3. Platelets
Blood Cells
Red Blood Cells (Ertyhrocytes)

• Most abundant type of blood cells.

• Small cells (7 to 8 µm diameter)
• Biconcave disc
• Eosinophilic cytoplasm
• No nucleus for two reasons:

1. It simply allows the red blood cell to have

more hemoglobin

2. Gives the unique biconcave shape that

helps with diffusion
Platelets

• Platelets are much smaller than red blood

cells (2–3 µm in greatest)

• No nucleus

• Central region is basophilic structure

(granulomere)

• Typically found as clusters

• Contribute to hemostasis: forming clots

and stop or prevent bleeding
White blood cells (Leukocytes)
White blood cells (real blood smear)
White blood cells (another real blood smear)
Neutrophils
• Most abundant type of white blood cells (60-
70%)

• Segmented nucleus with 2 to 5 lobes

• Cytoplasm is pale blue-pink

• Specific granules are pink-salmon

• Few azurophilic granules that are loaded with a

wide variety of anti-microbial defensins that
fuse with phagocytic vacuoles

• No longer capable of mitosis

Neutrophil Functions
• First line of defense against invaders (bacteria, foreign objects).

• Spend a few hours within the bloodstream, then migrate quickly to site of infection where they
spend a few days.

• Neutrophils release substances that produce fibers in the surrounding tissue. These fibers may
trap bacteria, thus keeping them from spreading and making them easier to destroy.

• Kill bacteria by phagocytosis and by enzymatic destruction which released by the granules.
Neutrophils: Phagocytosis
Neutrophils

Normal neutrophils Immature neutrophil

Neutrophils

Neutrophil: azurophilic vs. neutrophilic granules

Neutrophils

Normal neutrophil Neutrophil from patient

(top left) with bacterial infection

Azurophilic granules become much more

prominent during bacterial infection.
Neutrophils

promyelocyte

Azurophilic granules first appear in less mature neutrophils

called promyelocytes. Promyelocytes divide, distributing their
azurophilic granules evenly (which means more mature
neutrophils have fewer azurophilic granules).
Lymphocytes: By far the most important in controlling the system!

• A type of white blood cell in the immune system of

jawed vertebrates.

• Make up between 18%- 42% of circulating

leukocytes.

• Deeply staining nucleus in an eccentric location

• Relatively small amount of cytoplasm.

• There are 3 types of Lymphocytes. These are:

• Natural Killer Cells, B Cells (humoral immunity) and

T Cells (cell mediated immunity).
Natural Killer Cells (NK Cells)

Natural Killer Cell

NK Cells Functions
• Natural killer cells are called “natural” killers because they are ready to kill as soon as they are
formed.

• Natural killer cells recognize and attach to infected cells or cancer cells, then release enzymes
and other substances that damage the outer membranes of these cells.

• Natural killer cells are important in the initial defense against viral infections.

• Also, natural killer cells produce cytokines that regulate some of the functions of other white
blood cells which are parts of the immune system.
B Cells (derived in Bone marrow in mammals and Bursa in birds)
• B cells are the centre of adaptive humoral immune system.

Humoral immunity: The aspect of immunity that is mediated by macromolecules that are found in
extracellular fluids such as the secreted antibodies, complement proteins and antimicrobial peptides.

• B cells fight bacteria and viruses by making Y-shaped proteins called antibodies, which are specific to
each pathogen and are able to lock onto the surface of an invading cell and mark it for destruction by
other leukocytes.
T Cells (thymus cells)
• T cells are involved in cell-mediated immune system.

Cell mediated immunity: Is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but involves the activation of
phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an
antigen.

• There are two types of T Cells.

1) Helper cells (CD4+)

2) Cytotoxic killer cells (CD8+)

*CD stands for clustral differentiation which is a protocol used for the identification and investigation of cell surface
proteins providing targets for immonophenotyping of cells.

• T cells play two dominant roles:

1) Kill virus infected cells directly (Cytotoxicity via CD8+ cells).

2) Control the whole immune response through chemical messengers called cytokines (CD4+ cells).
T Cells
• Killer T Cells (CD8+) are cytotoxic.

• This means that they can directly kill cells that have already been infected by a foreign invader
(such as viruses) including cancer cells.

• Killer T cells can be separated from other blood cells, grown in the laboratory, and then given
to a patient to kill cancer cells.

• T-cells also use cytokines as messenger molecules to send chemical instructions to the rest of
the immune system to ramp up its response.
T Cells
• Helper T Cells (CD4+) function by indirectly killing cells infected by a foreign invader.

• They "help" the activity of other immune cells by releasing cytokines, small protein mediators
that alter the behavior of target cells that express receptors for those cytokines.

• Helper T cells also use cytokine signaling to influence regulatory B cells directly, and other cell
populations indirectly.

• There are also regulatory T cells that help the immune cells recognize which are invading and
which are body’s own cells. Therefore, preventing the immune system attacking ones’ own
cells. Due to that, regulatory T cells are also known as suppressor T cells.
T Cells and B Cells against COVID-19
• Also, both B cells and T cells can become memory cells. These can recognize an antigen
introduced into the body during a prior infection or vaccination. Memory lymphocytes mount
a rapid and strong immune response when exposed to an antigen for a second time.

• A recent study from the US showed that infected people are able to generate COVID-specific T
cells and B cells. This study also showed that even some uninfected people had T cells to
COVID-19, suggesting an overlap with the response to previous coronavirus infections – so-
called cross-reactivity. (Coronaviruses also cause Sars, Mers and some cases of the common
cold.)

• Also, recent research from the Karolinska Institute in Sweden showed that several COVID
patients with mild to no symptoms had generated T cells against the virus. This was even the
case in patients who had no detectable levels of antibodies against the virus. More
importantly, the researchers also found evidence of memory T cells in convalescent patients.
This suggests that COVID elicits a robust memory T cell response, which could prevent
recurrent episodes of severe COVID.
Eosinophil

• A small component of white blood cells

(2-4%).

• Nucleus is bilobed.

• Cytoplasm is pale blue-pink.

• Few azurophilic granules.

• No longer capable of mitosis.

Eosinophil in real life

Eosinophil Functions
• Eosinophils can ingest bacteria (phagocytosis), but they also target foreign cells that are too large to
ingest.

• Eosinophils contain granules that release enzymes and other toxic substances when foreign cells are
encountered. These substances make holes in the target cell’s membranes.

• Eosinophils circulate in the bloodstream. However, they are less active against bacteria than are
neutrophils and macrophages.

• They attach to and thus help immobilize and kill parasites.

• Eosinophils may help destroy cancer cells.

• They also produce substances involved in inflammation and allergic reactions. People with allergies,
parasitic infections, or asthma often have more eosinophils in the bloodstream than people without
these disorders.
Basophils
• Rare white bloods (<1%).

• Smaller cells (10 to 12 µm diameter)

• Nucleus bilobed or S-shaped

• Cytoplasm is pale blue-pink (more purple

than eosinophil).

• Specific granules - 1 to 1.5 µm diameter,

many very basophilic (blue to black)

• Few azurophilic granules

• Basophils mediate inflammatory responses.

• No longer capable of mitosis Basophil in real life

Basophil Functions
• Basophils do not ingest foreign cells. They contain granules filled with histamine, a substance
involved in allergic reactions.

• When basophils encounter allergens (antigens that cause allergic reactions), they release
histamine. Histamine increases blood flow to damaged tissues, resulting in swelling and
inflammation.

• Basophils also produce substances that attract neutrophils and eosinophils to a trouble spot.
Monocytes

• Largest type of white blood cell.

• Large cells (12 to 20 µm diameter)

• Large, kidney-shaped or indented nucleus

often with a "raked" chromatin pattern.

• Cytoplasm is pale blue

• Few azurophilic granules

Monocyte
Monocyte Functions
• Monocytes move to the tissues when infection occurs.

• There, over a period of about 8 hours, monocytes enlarge greatly and produce granules within
themselves, becoming macrophages.

• The granules are filled with enzymes and other substances that help kill and digest bacteria
and other foreign cells.

• Macrophages stay in the tissues. They ingest bacteria, foreign cells, and damaged and dead
cells.
 Lymphocyte
chromatin:
clumpy but
also smudgy
Neutrophil (no white
chromatin: space between
distinct clumps clumps)
(with white
space between
clumps) Monocyte
chromatin:
not really
clumpy
Chromatin is a substance within a chromosome consisting of
DNA and protein.
Granulocytes vs. Agranulocytes
• Granulocytes: Contain specific (secondary) granules and azurophilic (primary) granules.

• Agranulocytes: Contain only azurophilic granules.

• Even though the neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils are considered as granulocytes
and monocytes and natural killer cells are considered as agranulocytes;

• Both granulocytes and agranulocytes have cytoplasmic granules called azurophilic

granules.

• But granulocytes also have specific secondary granules that define them as neutrophilic,
eosinophilic and basophilic cells.
Granulocytes vs. agranulocytes
 Lymphocyte

Basophil
Normal
Neutrophils

Red Blood
Cells

NK Cells

Eosinophil Monocyte Immature Neutrophil

Summary
https://www.histologyguide.com/slideview/MH-033hr-blood-
smear/07-slide-2.html?x=0&y=0&z=-1&page=1

https://www.histologyguide.com/slideview/MH-033hr-
summary/07-slide-1.html?x=1734&y=741&z=31.1&page=1