HUE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
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NGUYEN VAN TUAN

TRANSLATION
PSYCHOLOGY

HUE - 2006
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Chapter 1: ISSUES RELATED TO TRANSLATION

Unit 1: The Business of Translating

I. The Inevitable Introduction

Translation is a service business, not an industry or commerce. The basic difference between
industry, commerce and services lies in inventories. Industrial establishments keep at least two
kinds of inventory: raw materials and finished goods. Commercial establishments keep only
finished goods inventories. Service establishments, however, keep no inventories.

An example will make this clear: a paint factory will keep inventories of raw materials (pigments,
thinners, binding agents) and finished goods (paint); a hardware store will keep only inventories
of finished goods (paint). A painter (service provider) will keep neither. Painters may keep
inventories (brushes, for instance) but those are not for sale. What a painter sells is painting
services, and services cannot be stacked in shelves because they are intangible.

Now, every product, tangible or intangible, can be compared with another product based on three
parameters: delivery time, quality and price. Buying decisions are based on tradeoffs among
those three parameters: Product A is very good, but too expensive. Product B is good and
reasonably priced, but unfortunately they don‘t carry that brand at your local store and you do not
have the time to look for it elsewhere. So you settle for Product C, which, in your opinion, offers
the best balance of the three parameters at the time. How does all that affect our business?

II. Time and Tension

Because we carry no inventories, clients who call us for a translation know they will find none.
They also know they will find no ―Product B‖ that will somehow meet their needs. Finally, they
know that calling another translator will not help much, because nobody will have their
translation ready for them.

So, they press for immediate service. Many translators complain that jobs go to the lowest bidder,
but my experience is that the majority goes to lowest bidder among those who offer the fastest
turnaround. This creates a certain amount of tension between client and translator. Tension that
is made worse by the fact that time devours itself: if a client needs a translation within 72 hours,
each minute spent finding a translator reduces the time available to do the job. Once I was asked
to translate five long annual reports within three days, a job I had to refuse. The desperate client
called every agency in town and three of them called me - each of them with a shorter turnaround
time: because deadlines are fixed, turnaround times must be flexible. The problem seems to affect
translators more strongly than other professionals. The other day I called my doctor for an
appointment, and the first date available was a month later. Tell one of our clients it will have to
wait a week and it will probably hang up on you. If I had an emergency, my doctor would tell me
to look for help in a hospital: they all have emergency rooms these days. We cannot do that: as
far as our clients are concerned, we are the emergency room.
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Faster means of communication have made the situation even worse. When Brazilian companies
airmailed information to their parent companies, they gave me a week to translate their annual
reports. Now they e-mail everything and want same-day translations.

Why is pressure for short turnarounds so heavy?

Pressure on translators is heavier than it is in other service businesses because the translator is
often one of the last links in a very complex chain of events. For instance, we are the people who
translate the specs required to bid for a government contract. We are the outsiders, called at the
end of the process, when delays have been accumulating for months and everybody is on edge.
Thus being, we cannot even fight for time: there isn‘t any time left to be fought for.

The people who prepare the specs do their best to prepare a great set of specs - but we must do
what it takes to meet the delivery deadline. Therein lies the difference. To make things worse, the
average translation is getting bigger and bigger. A few months ago, I was offered a 1.4-million-
word job. That is twice the size of the Bible. Turnaround 45 days, maximum. Of course, I
declined. Time pressures favor new entrants: sometimes the only person who can take the job is
someone who actually never did a professional translation before. Unfortunately, this also means
that someone‘s opera prima often is a rush job done without the benefit of appropriate
equipment.

III. Questions of Quality

The constant pressure for fast service created by the lack of inventories has a deplorable impact
on quality - we all know that. Often clients say time matters more than quality. The guy who
wanted five reports in three days said he did not care: he just wanted a heap of paper he could
show a government official in connection with a public bid. Nobody would read it, said he. Well,
perhaps. But, no matter what the client says, someone would have a look at the job sometime and
say ―Look at this mess! And we paid this guy a premium for the garbage.‖ So, I said no to the job
and goodbye to a very large fee. I do not regret it.

But the point I would like to make is different. Because we have no inventories, clients cannot
possibly test our product for quality. When they contact us, they find not a product, but a
potential. And potentials cannot be tested for quality.

Clients can ask for samples of past work or for tests - when there is time for that, which is not
often. In any case, many translators refuse to do tests and, since most of our work is confidential,
we often cannot provide samples. And, finally, tests and samples are so easily faked that some
clients do not even bother to ask.

Quality has to be evaluated indirectly, based on what we have done for that client or for someone
he knows. This procedure favors experienced translators and is thus hated by new entrants, who
would like to see clients giving a newcomer a deserved break. I deeply sympathize with
newcomers and their plight, but let us remember that this is exactly the method we use when, for
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instance, we need a doctor: we prefer the experienced doctor who helped aunt Jane out of her
illness to the young promising doctor just out of medical school.

IV. The Problem of Price

A surprisingly large number of people claims that for every product there is a fair price based on
its cost. In fact, prices result from the play between supply and demand and bear no relationship
to costs. The difference between price and cost is often called margin. If your margin is high and
your volume is also high, you make a good profit. Otherwise, you don‘t. No business bases its
prices on costs. Everybody - including us - charges as much as they can and cuts costs to the
absolute minimum in order to maximize margins. If they cannot make a profit, they will try some
other business. That is the way the law of supply and demand works.

All this may seem outrageous, but it is borne out by the fact that translators, especially new
entrants, are always eager to know how much to charge - not how much it costs. In addition, we
must keep in mind that because translation is a labor-intensive activity, most of our fees cover
labor and, because most of us are independent operators, labor means what we pay ourselves.
Now, what we pay ourselves is not a cost; a cost is what we pay to the other guy. Prices are based
on supply and demand, but buying decisions are based on a comparison between competing
products, which, in turn, is based on delivery times, quality and price considerations. Because
time is usually so pressing, it often weighs more than quality in translation purchase decisions. In
addition, many buyers see translation as a commodity - that is, as a standard product, such as 23-
carat gold, which should have a standard price. The notion is reinforced by the fact that most
translators will quote fees and delivery times on any job sight unseen. Many translators will even
quote prices on their home pages: so much per word, no matter what. If we treat translations as a
commodity, we can hardly condemn our clients for doing the same. Small wonder clients base
their purchasing decisions on the hallowed method of ―get three quotes and award contract to
lowest bidder.‖ Of course, this should be construed as ―lowest bidder among those offering short
turnarounds,‖ for if you cannot handle the job immediately, you are automatically excluded from
the process. No use trying to convince a client my translation offers better quality: all translators
claim that. That brings us back to the no-inventory problem, the main thread underlying this
article: quality only comes into consideration after the translation is received and examined. If
those who bargained for the lowest prices and shortest turnaround times, complain at this point
that the job was very poorly done, it is too late.

V. The Inevitable Internet

You cannot really write an article on the business of translation these days without mentioning
the Internet. How does the Big Net affect our business? Basically, the Net has made us
omnipresent. Five years ago, a company in Guatemala that wanted a translation from Hungarian
into Spanish might have a hard time finding a translator. Now, it can access the Internet and find
a translator in a matter of minutes or hours, although not necessarily a good one. In addition, this
translator may live in Argentina, if she prefers the pampas to the puszta. The other side of this
coin is that a translator can no longer hold sway over a number of clients just because she (most
translators are female) is the only one in the area who can cope a given language. This particular
coin seems to have three sides, not two. For the omnipresence allowed by the Internet will also
end with all dreams of restricting entry into the profession to a small number of ―legally
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qualified‖ persons. This is known as ―closed shop‖ and, although many of its advocates are
honest people who see it as a form of ―consumer protection,‖ it is often just a ploy to increase
prices by restraining competition, very much like the rules imposed by the medieval craft guilds.
Because translations can move so fast over the Internet, if a closed shop environment is
established in any country, translators who have been excluded could easily go on working
through agencies in some other country and continue living where they have always lived. Not
that I believe closed shops would benefit translators in any way, mind you, but that is another
long, long, story, which I may approach in a future article.

Unit 2: Thoughts for the Future

So what can we all do to improve our industry and make it a more comfortable place for
everyone to work in? If the preceding articles have been too vague or long, or if ferreting out such
ideas is too cumbersome, I present here a list of ideas that translators, translation vendors, and
others involved in the translation industry should consider. I hope that these ideas take root and
welcome suggestions from readers for additions or alterations to this list. I also know that I can
do little more than present this list. After all, you can lead a cat to water, but you can‘t make it
drink (or do anything else, for that matter).

I Hope That Translators Will...

1. Submit their work on time. This remains the number one complaint of agencies and clients,
and they have every right to be upset. Translation is not a "better late than never" profession. Get
the work in on time and your clients will love you for it.

2. Create translations which are free from errors and omissions. There shall be no missing words,
phrases, paragraphs or pages in translations this year. Terminology will either be correct or noted
as uncertain. Words and phrases which are difficult to explain will be noted in a "Translator‘s
Note" at the end of the document. Translators are rendering information from one language to
another and know that this process has pitfalls and hurdles. The translator should tell the agency
or client about these problems and let them decide what to do.

3. Take the time to educate clients about the issues involving translation, be they linguistic,
cultural, social, or philosophical. The client should not be surprised when reading the translated
text. The client should be informed, ahead of time, about what to expect and not to expect.

4. Service the client. Clients will be treated with respect and compassion. They shall be informed
of all problems and issues involving the translation, by phone or in writing. Translators should
express an interest in all parts of the process of translation, not just their own role.

5. Maintain a proper home office, complete with a real computer, current versions of word
processing software and other business applications, a fax and modem, and a proper printer which
produces clean, clear, crisp, quality text and graphics. Translators complain about the lack of
professional treatment in the industry; it‘s time they do their part and be professionals themselves.
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6. Learn how to use word processing software and the modern conventions in desktop publishing.
We all should be putting single spaces between words and sentences, using proper ASCII
characters for accents and other symbols, using tabs, tables, columns, and margins correctly, and
providing file formats our clients can read.

7. Learn the subtle art of telecommunications and modem transmissions. Agencies and clients
complain regularly about translators who can‘t deliver work properly to their email accounts or
FTP sites. Translators have to be able to deliver their work in a timely fashion. Having a good
ISP or corporate Internet and giving translators reasonable access will go a long way to
minimizing delivery delays.

8. Go on-line. Translators represent an integral facet of international communication and the

emerging global village. They have to be able to talk to each other about what they do and how
they do it. Letters are too slow, telephone calls and faxes too expensive. However, on-line,
messages and files can be sent and received almost instantly, plus information on virtually any
subject imaginable is available for the asking. Take advantage of the on-line universe.

9. Accept assignments for which they have the time and knowledge and turn down all others.
Translators should not take jobs if they don‘t really have the time to do the work properly or if
they lack the requisite background knowledge and experience and reference materials.
Translators should refer jobs which they cannot accept to other translators whom they know to be
competent and responsible professionals.

10. Abandon their individualistic and perhaps ivory-tower tendencies and recognize that they are
part of a complex process and that they have thousands of colleagues around the world.
Translators should talk to each other about clients, about technology, about terminology, in
essence, about their profession. They should not think of other translators as competition, but as
colleagues and brethren, as friends and co-workers, people to learn from and teach to, people to
give and receive work from, and as people who are in the same situation. Only when translators
start to think and act as a professional group with clearly defined goals and standards will the
profession itself be accorded the respect and understanding it so requires.

I Hope That Translation Agencies and Vendors Will...

1. Pay translators within a reasonable amount of time. There is no reason why a translator should
have to wait sixty or ninety days for payment. There is no reason why a translator should have to
write letters and make phone calls in order to receive pay. Agencies should specify in their
independent contractor‘s agreements how long payment will take and then make payment within
that time.

2. Maintain a presence on the Web. This includes not only an email account or FTP site that
translators can use to send and receive translations, but also a virtual space where translators can
go to get information such as style sheets, company policies for translators, and other pertinent
information for translation projects, such as glossaries, translation memories, or sample
documents to use for reference.
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3. Have people in-house who understand the languages they deal with. I don‘t want to ask
someone at an agency about a text and then be told that they don‘t know because no one there
reads the language it‘s in. If an agency is going to do high volume work with a language, they
should have at least one person who can read, write, and speak that language. The problems this
will solve, the time it will save, and the frustration it will eliminate will more than justify the cost
of hiring such a person.

4. Use a standardized independent contractor‘s agreement. Every time I work for a new agency, I
have to sign a new agreement, after reading and studying it and then deciding if I think it‘s fair.
We‘re all dealing with the same problems and issues in the industry; let‘s use the same
agreement.

5. Use a standardized independent contractor‘s information sheet. Every time I submit material to
a new agency, I have to fill out pages of forms. Wouldn‘t it be nice if there were one form which
everyone used, and then you could just keep copies around your office and send it off as
necessary? I think it would be great. After all, the agencies are all after the same information, so
why not use the same information sheet? And we could even have this form in HTML format,
further streamlining the process of gathering and organizing information on translators.

6. Send detailed information to the translator about the job and how it should be done. Make a
style sheet which specifies how to handle such matters as charts, graphs, page numbers, fonts,
margins, and so on. This will not only make the translator‘s job easier, but will cut down on the
time the agency spends answering the phone and explaining such details to the translator.

7. Provide clean, legible, readable copies of the material to be translated along with all other
related material. A fax of a photocopy of a fax is not readable, no matter how good a translator
might be at decoding information. Moreover, translators are hired to render information and ideas
from one language to another, not to decode bad printing or writing.

8. Hire at least one person who is (or was) a professional translator. Working with an agency
which considers the translation industry to be just another business is frustrating. The agency
should understand the profession and the people in it. The only sure way to do this is have staff
who have been professional translators.

9. Define a schedule and then stick to it. No one appreciates being told that a project will start on
a particular day and then finding out it has been delayed by a week or two, or even a month. No
one appreciates starting a job and then getting told that the deadline has been moved up and the
job must be done in three days instead of four. Translators already work under extreme time
constraints; the agencies and clients should at least stick to the original terms for the job.

10. Recognize the valuable and vital service that translators provide. Agencies and clients should
not be concerned with what title to use for a translator or how to define their role in linguistic or
corporate terms. They should be concerned with providing the in-house translator with a proper
work environment, including computer hardware and software, dictionaries and reference
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materials, and understanding and cooperation. They should provide the free-lance translator with
fair market price for the work, clear instructions concerning the material, and readable copies of
all documents.

I Hope That Someone Will...

1. Start an organization which would not only inform and educate the general public about
translation, translators, and agencies, but would also provide information about the current state
of affairs in the profession, give advice and council to translators, agencies, and consumers of
translations, create just and proper policies, guidelines, and standards for the profession, and
develop a set of standards and a system for accrediting translators.

2. Create a solid, stable, and functional translation and glossary management software package
for Windows, UNIX, and Macintosh systems. The software would keep track of past documents
and identify what you‘ve translated before, help build glossaries and terminology lists, actively
assist in the translation of material like lists and tables, and exchange data with the same software
on other computers, be they on a network or completely separate, as well as with other software
on any of the current computer platforms. A Java-based application with support for file
translations for standard database formats (dbf, sylk, and so forth) as well as the proprietary
formats for Trados, TM2, and Catalyst, among others, would be ideal.

3. Develop a library of current and complete language reference materials. Translators, along
with everyone else working with languages rely on the existence of accurate and up-to-date
materials to do research and create quality materials. Translators themselves often have to
develop their own glossaries and terminology lists. Someone should tap into this vast pool of
language resources and create the materials which we all require.

4. Convince the federal government and state governments that while regulation and accreditation
of translators might not be a bad idea in theory, the likely result in practice of creating regulations
without proper understanding of the professions and input from professionals in all aspects of the
industry will be mere chaos and confusion, coupled with a lack of capable and competent
translators. Translators should police themselves, avoiding the problems of government-imposed
regulation.

5. Perform the academic research necessary to provide a strong theoretical base for the translation
profession. Few translators have any idea of what they are doing in terms of linguistics or
language. Moreover, few theoreticians (be they linguists, psychologists, or sociologists) can agree
on what translation is, how it is done, or what purpose it should serve. Such fundamental
definitions would help translators get the professional respect they desire, help agencies and
clients understand the process of translation and its value, and help government regulators create
reasonable guidelines and standards.

I Hope That Everyone Will...

1. Stop confusing translators and interpreters. Translators deal with the written language.
Interpreters deal with the spoken language. A translators cannot necessarily interpret and an
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interpreter cannot necessarily translate. Moreover, there is no such thing as ‗simultaneous

translation‘ or ‗written interpretation‘.

2. Stop complaining about translation and translators or using them as scape goats. Translation is
a multifaceted process involving many people, not just the translator. Moreover, many of the
problems people complain about in a translated text cannot be solved without giving the
translator permission to rewrite the material in its entirety. Translation is more than just swapping
words or converting a phrase from one language to another. And while I certainly don‘t want to
exonerate all translators for every error ever made, let‘s consider the big picture before dumping
on the translator.

3. See the value and relevance of translation. Translation is about communication. In the modern
world, often called the ‗global village‘ or ‗international community‘, communication of
information and ideas between different languages and cultures is critical for peace, for the
development of economies and technology, and for the growth of nations and regions. Translators
are a small, but vital part of this process. They facilitate communication between people who
want and often must communicate. Their role in this process must be better understood and more
greatly appreciated.
All that said, I hope that these suggestions resonate with other translators and motivate would-be
translators to consider carefully who they practice their profession and make what improvements
they can.

Unit 3: What Every Novice Translator Should Know

Introduction

The nature and importance of translation

Translation is ultimately a human activity which enables human beings to exchange ideas and
thoughts regardless of the different tongues used. Al Wassety (2001) views the phenomenon of
translation as a legitimate offspring of the phenomenon of language, since originally, when
humans spread over the earth, their languages differed and they needed a means through which
people speaking a certain language (tongue) would interact with others who spoke a different
language.

Translation is, in Enani's (1997) view, a modern science at the interface of philosophy,
linguistics, psychology, and sociology. Literary translation in particular is relevant to all these
sciences, audio-visual arts, as well as cultural and intellectual studies.
There are eight types of translation: word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful
translation, semantic translation, adaptive translation, free translation, idiomatic translation, and
communicative translation.
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Translation is, in Chabban's words (1984), "a finicky job," as it has not yet been reduced to strict
scientific rules, and it allows for the differences that are known to exist between different
personalities. Translation is a heavily subjective art, especially when it deals with matters outside
the realm of science where precisely defined concepts are more often expressed by certain
generally accepted terms.

In the final analysis, translation is a science, an art, and a skill. It is a science in the sense that it
necessitates complete knowledge of the structure and make-up of the two languages concerned. It
is an art since it requires artistic talent to reconstruct the original text in the form of a product that
is presentable to the reader who is not supposed to be familiar with the original. It is also a skill
because it entails the ability to smooth over any difficulty in the translation, and the ability to
provide the translation of something that has no equal in the target language.

In translation, the richness of vocabulary, depth of culture, and vision of the translator could
certainly have very conspicuous effects on his/her work. Another translator might produce a
reasonably acceptable version of the same text, which, however, may very well reflect a
completely different background, culture, sensitivity, and temperament. Such differences cannot,
in Chabban's view (1984), detract from the merit of either translator. This is simply because
translation is decidedly a more difficult job than creation.

Criteria for a good translation

A good translation is one that carries all the ideas of the original as well as its structural and
cultural features. Massoud (1988) sets criteria for a good translation as follows:
1. A good translation is easily understood.
2. A good translation is fluent and smooth.
3. A good translation is idiomatic.
4. A good translation conveys, to some extent, the literary subtleties of the original.
5. A good translation distinguishes between the metaphorical and the literal.
6. A good translation reconstructs the cultural/historical context of the original.
7. A good translation makes explicit what is implicit in abbreviations, and in allusions to
sayings, songs, and nursery rhymes.
8. A good translation will convey, as much as possible, the meaning of the original text.

El Shafey (1985) suggests other criteria for a good translation; these include three main
principles:
1. The knowledge of the grammar of the source language plus the knowledge of vocabulary,
as well as good understanding of the text to be translated.
2. The ability of the translator to reconstitute the given text (source-language text) into the
target language.
3. The translation should capture the style or atmosphere of the original text; it should have
all the ease of an original composition.
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From a different perspective, El Touny (2001) focused on differentiating between different types
of translation. He indicated that there are eight types of translation: word-for-word translation,
literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaptive translation, free translation,
idiomatic translation, and communicative translation. He advocated the last type as the one which
transmits the meaning from the context, respecting the form and structure of the original and
which is easily comprehensible by the readers of the target language.

El Zeini (1994) didn't seem satisfied with such criteria for assessing the quality of translation.
Hence she suggested a pragmatic and stylistic model for evaluating quality in translation. She
explains that the model "places equal emphasis on the pragmatic component as well on the
stylistic component in translation. This model covers a set of criteria, which are divided into two
main categories: content-related criteria and form-related criteria" and expected that by following
these criteria, "translators will be able to minimize the chance of producing errors or losses, as
well as eliminate problems of unacceptability" (p. xvii).

Translation problems
Translation problems can be divided into linguistic problems and cultural problems: the linguistic
problems include grammatical differences, lexical ambiguity and meaning ambiguity; the cultural
problems refer to different situational features. This classification coincides with that of El Zeini
when she identified six main problems in translating from Arabic to English and vice versa; these
are lexicon, morphology, syntax, textual differences, rhetorical differences, and pragmatic
factors.

Another level of difficulty in translation work is what As-sayyd (1995) found when she
conducted a study to compare and assess some problems in translating the fair names of Allah in
the Qu'ran. She pointed out that some of the major problems of translation are over-translation,
under-translation, and untranslatability.

Culture constitutes another major problem that faces translators. A bad model of translated pieces
of literature may give misconceptions about the original. That is why Fionty (2001) thought that
poorly translated texts distort the original in its tone and cultural references, while Zidan (1994)
wondered about the possible role of the target culture content as a motivating variable in
enhancing or hindering the attainment of linguistic, communicative and, more importantly,
cultural objectives of EFL (English as a Foreign Language) education. Hassan (1997) emphasized
this notion when he pointed out the importance of paying attention to the translation of irony in
the source language context. He clarified that this will not only transfer the features of the
language translated but also its cultural characteristics.

The translator's work

These problems, and others, direct our attention to the work and the character of translators, how
they attack a text so as to translate, and the processes they follow to arrive at the final product of a
well-translated text in the target language.
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Enani (1994:5) defines the translator as "a writer who formulates ideas in words addressed to
readers. The only difference between him and the original writer is that these ideas are the
latter's". Another difference is that the work of the translator is even more difficult than that of
the artist. The artist is supposed to produce directly his/her ideas and emotions in his/her own
language however intricate and complicated his/her thoughts are. The translator's responsibility is
much greater, for s/he has to relive the experiences of a different person. Chabban (1984) believes
that, however accurately the translator may delve into the inner depths of the writer's mind, some
formidable linguistic and other difficulties may still prevent the two texts from being fully
equivalent. Therefore we do not only perceive the differences between a certain text and its
translation, but also between different translations of the same text

On the procedural level, El Shafey (1985:95) states: "A translator first analyzes the message,
breaking it down into its simplest and structurally clearest elements, transfers it at this level into
the target language in the form which is most appropriate for the intended audience. A translator
instinctively concludes that it is best to transfer the "kernel level" in one language to the
corresponding "kernel level" in the "receptor language."

Translation skills for novice translators

The present study suggests four main macro-skills for any translator who begins his/her work in
the field of translation. These are: reading comprehension, researching, analytical, and composing
skills. These macro-skills include many sub- or micro-skills that need to be mastered.

Reading comprehension
While we are translating, we do not think of our activity as being broken down into phases. After
doing our first translations, many automatic mechanisms come into play that allow us to translate
more quickly; at the same time, we are less and less conscious of our activity.

Osimo (2001) indicates that in order to think about the translation process and to describe it, our
essential task consists of analyzing its phases, even if we are aware of the fact that they do not
always coincide with perceptibly different or distinguishable moments. If we want to describe a
process that often is beyond the translator's own consciousness, we are forced to divide the
process into different phases which, in the everyday practice of translation, can reveal the inter-
twining, almost entangling, of these phases. The first phase of the translation process consists of
reading the text. The reading act, first, falls under the competence of psychology, because it
concerns our perceptive system. Reading, like translation, is, for the most part, an unconscious
process. If it were conscious, we would be forced to consume much more time in the act. Most
mental processes involved in the reading act are automatic and unconscious. Owing to such a
nature-common and little-known in the same time-in our opinion it is important to analyze the
reading process as precisely as possible. The works of some perception psychologists will be
helpful to widen our knowledge of this first phase of the translation process.

When a person reads, his brain deals with many tasks in such rapid sequences that everything
seems to be happening simultaneously. The eye examines (from left to right as far as many
Western languages are concerned, or from right to left or from top to bottom in some other
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languages) a series of graphic signs (graphemes) in succession, which give life to syllables,
words, sentences, paragraphs, sections, chapters, and texts.

Simply reading a text is, in itself, an act of translation. When we read, we do not store the words
we have read in our minds as happens with data entered using a keyboard or scanner into a
computer. After reading, we do not have the photographic or auditory recording in our minds of
the text read. We have a set of impressions instead. We remember a few words or sentences
precisely, while all the remaining text is translated from the verbal language into a language
belonging to another sign system, which is still mostly unknown: the mental language.

The mental processing of the read verbal material is of a syntactical nature when we try to
reconstruct the possible structure of the sentence, i.e. the relations among its elements. In
contrast, it is of a semantic nature when we identify the relevant areas within the semantic field of
any single word or sentence; and it is of a pragmatic nature when we deal with the logical match
of the possible meanings with the general context and the verbal co-text.

The difference between a reader and a critic is negligible: the reader trying to understand has the
same attitude as the critic, who is a systematic, methodical, and self-aware reader. While reading,
the individual reads, and perceives what he reads, drawing interpretations and inferences about
the possible intentions of the author of the message.

Holmes (1988) suggested that the translation process is actually a multi-level process; while we
are translating sentences, we have a map of the original text in our minds and, at the same time, a
map of the kind of text we want to produce in the target language. Even as we translate serially,
we have this structural concept so that each sentence in our translation is determined not only by
the original sentence, but also by the two maps—of the original text and of the translated text—
which we carry along as we translate.

The translation process should, therefore, be considered a complex system in which

understanding, processing, and projection of the translated text are interdependent portions of one
structure. We can therefore put forward, as does Hnig (1991), the existence of a sort of "central
processing unit" supervising the coordination of the different mental processes (those connected
to reading, interpretation, and writing) and at the same time projecting a map of the text to be.

Novice translators as well as student translators are advised to master the following basic reading
comprehension skills.
Read for gist and main ideas.
Read for details.
Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one or more components of the
structural analysis clause; prefixes, suffixes, roots, word order, punctuation, sentence pattern, etc.
Identify the meaning of new words and expressions using one ore more of the contextual
analysis; synonyms, antonyms, examples, etc.
 13

Identify the writer's style: literary, scientific, technical, informative, persuasive,

argumentative, etc.
Identify the language level used in the text: standard, slang, religious, etc.
Identify cultural references in the choice of words in the text.

Researching skills
Enani (2002b) notices that "the most commonly heard advice to translators is 'if you don't know
the meaning of a word, look it up in the dictionary.' It is the commonest and the vaguest insofar
as the definite article suggest that the dictionary is known to both speaker and listener." He
indicates that there are different kinds of dictionaries that a translator should refer to; a bilingual
dictionary, a dictionary on a historical basis, dictionaries of current English, dictionaries of
idioms, specialized dictionaries (dictionaries of common errors, dictionaries of idiomatic usage,
slang dictionaries, technical dictionaries) encyclopedic dictionaries, dictionaries of neologisms,
and monolingual dictionaries.

Despite this long list of different kinds of dictionaries, it is a single dictionary that the translator
is supposed to refer to each and every time s/he translates. The choice of the best, or the most
appropriate, dictionary depends on the style of the protext (original text, text before translation)
and on the different types of users of the translation.

Calderaro (1998) indicates two major users of the meta text (text after translation) who may use
the translated version; the specialist user and the lay user. Identifying the prospective users of the
metatext is very important in the process of researching, as this will determine which kind of
dictionaries the translator will refer to, which level of information should be presented and to
"detect the exact moments when it is necessary to establish a balance between the scientific level
of the author and the knowledge the user supposedly has."

Novice translators, as well as student translators are encouraged to use the following basic
researching tips;
Use bilingual dictionaries for looking up meanings of new words.
Use monolingual dictionaries to check the usage of the new words in the source language
and in the target language.
Use related encyclopedias and glossary lists for specialized terms;
Use software dictionaries if necessary and available.
Refer to specialized magazines and journals to help you familiarize yourself with the text,
particularly when it is a technical text.

Analytical skills
The translation process is characterized by an analysis stage and a synthesis stage. During
analysis, the translator refers to the prototext in order to understand it as fully as possible. The
synthesis stage is the one in which the prototext is projected onto the reader, or rather, onto the
idea that the translator forms of who will be the most likely reader of the metatext.
 14

The text, according to Bell (1998) is analyzed in two ways: micro- and macro-analysis of the
actual text: monitoring for cohesion and coherence, and checking for coherence between the
actual text and the potential text-type of which it is a token realization. Micro-analysis has the
purpose of verifying text cohesion and inner cohesion of the single units of text. Macro-analysis
is aimed at checking for coherence and cohesion between the created text and the model in the
category to which the text belongs. For example, if the text is an instruction booklet for a
household appliance, or a story for a newspaper, often there are models for such types of text to
which we frequently (consciously or unconsciously) adhere.

Such an analytic exam was necessary in order to identify the individual mental processes
involved in the above-mentioned activities; we know, however, that such activities are actually
carried out in very short time span. During this mental work, there is a constant shift of focus
between micro-analysis and macro-analysis, between micro-expression and macro-expression,
i.e. a constant comparison between the meaning of the single utterances and the meaning of the
text as a whole, or, on a larger scale, a constant comparison between the sense of the specific text
and the comprehensive sense of the corpus which forms the "intertext," whether or not the
translator is aware of this fact. In this context, "intertext" should be understood as the intertextual
universe in which a text is located.

Translators are advised to use the following strategies in the analysis stage:
Identify beginnings and endings of ideas in the text and the relationships between these
ideas.
Identify the "best" meaning that fits into the context;
Identify the structure in the Target Language that "best" represents the original;
Identify transitions between ideas and the "best" connectors in the target language that
represent the original.

Composing skills
At this point, the mental construction resulting from interpretation seeks an outer expression.
Osimo (2002) suggests that, in this expression stage, there are two substages. One is aimed at
expression, the other at cohesion. The translator, having finished his/her interpretative work, has
two needs: first, to externalize the set of impressions caused by the text and translate into speech
elements the impressions the mind produced by contact with the prototext; and second, to make
this product coherent within itself, i.e., transform the set of speech elements into a text (the
metatext).
He describes the passage from mental content to written text in these terms:
pinpointing elements useful for discrimination of the content to be expressed from similar
contents;
pinpointing redundant elements;
choice of words (lexicalization) and attention to their cohesion (inner links);
choice of grammatical structure(s);
linear order of words;
parts of speech;
 15

sentence complexity;
prepositions and other function words, and
final form.
As a novice translator, or a student translator, you are invited to make use of the following basic
strategies:
Use correct word order as used in the target language.
Use correct sentence structures as used in the target language.
transmit the ideas of the text in clear sentences in the target language.
Rephrase certain sentences to convey the overall meaning translated;
Make changes to the text as a whole to give it a sense of the original without distorting the
original ideas.
Try one or more of the following strategies when facing problems of untranslateability.
a. Syntactic strategies:
o Shift word order.
o Change clause/sentence structure.
o Add or change cohesion.
b. Semantic strategies:
o Use superordinates.
o Alter the level of abstraction.
o Redistribute the information over more or fewer elements.
c. Pragmatic strategies:
o Naturalize or exoticize.
o Alter the level of explicitness.
o Add or omit information.

Conclusion
This study described the basic skills and strategies that novice translators as well as student
translators need to master in their daily experiences with translation tasks. The main skills
proposed are: reading comprehension, researching, analytical, and composing skills. The study
suggested other sub-skills and strategies for planting one's feet firmly in the land of translation.
The skills and strategies presented in this study represent just the basic level for beginners and
students. However, advanced and professional translators may find them relevant as well.
 16

Unit 4: What Makes a Translator?

The "prison of language is only temporary…someday a merciful guard the perfect translator will
come along with his keys and let us out," Wendy Lesser wrote in an article, "The Mysteries of
Translation," in the Chronicle of Higher Education in 2002. The following questions remain,
however: Who is this translator? What does he do? And what skills should he possess?

Simply put, a translator is a person who recreates a text in another language, attempting to keep a
delicate balance between being so literal that the text sounds awkward and unnatural in the new
language or being so free that the text has become virtually unrecognizable. A translator has to
not only translate the words, but also the concepts. In other words, a translator unlocks the prison
of language, as Ms. Lesser said, and helps a text break free of its limited original language,
culture, and audience. This service is an unfortunately under-appreciated art and craft.

To do all the above, a translator must have the following things: a native or near-native level of
proficiency in both the source language (the language to be translated from) and the target
language (the language to be translated to); the ability to thoroughly understand all that a text
says and implies; and excellent writing and editing skills. Ideally, the translator would also have a
lot of knowledge about both the source and target language cultures, as this affects word usage
and meaning, as well as about the author of the original document and his style of writing.

It all sounds rather formidable, certainly, but not impossible. There are, in fact, many excellent
practitioners out there who fulfill these hefty requirements, but the tiny number of translated
books published in the United States each year reveals the sad fact that few people take up this
challenging and stimulating work. If only more people would join the ranks of translators and
help unlock the prison of language.

I. How to become a translator

If you are serious about becoming a translator, you must be able to fulfill the following criteria, at
the very least.

Translator Prerequisites
Your standard of education must be very high; with very few exceptions, a degree is essential,
though not necessarily in languages - it is a positive advantage to have qualifications or
experience in another subject. Postgraduate training in translation is useful. You must be able to
write your own mother tongue impeccably in a style and register appropriate to the subject and
have a flair for research on technical subjects.

It goes without saying, that you should have a thorough grasp of the languages in your language
combination, you must also be familiar with the culture and customs of the country. The only
way to do this is by surrounding yourself with the language, i.e: by living/studying in the country
where the language is spoken. German is spoken in 5 countries: Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. There is no substitute for first-hand experience of living in a
 17

foreign culture, and as an Irishman living in Berlin, Germany, I can only recommend this course
of action.

It is best to have a specific field that you specialise in, be it literature, technical, medical, legal.

Have invested in a minimum of equipment and software - At a minimum you should have a
computer and appropriate word-processing software; fax machine and internet connection;
suitable dictionaries, preferably online dictionaries like LEO, which return results at the touch of
button, saving you an enormous amount of time searching through printed dictionaries. A
telephone; answering machine (and, optionally, a dictating machine); increasingly, today's
translators are also using translation memory software and other translation tools. In an office
translation environment, the use of the Computer-Aided Translation (CAT)-tool Trados has
become the standard. CAT-tools like Trados or Deja vu can cost quite a handful. If funds do not
allow, seriously think about taking out a loan to cover start-up expenses. The investment will pay
off.

While it is not the industry standard, Wordfast also offers a very resourceful alternative as it has
the functionality of Trados and Deja vu, but doesn't cost you a penny. Donations, however, are
welcome.

Produce a well-typed, well-presented curriculum vitae, briefly describing your education,

qualifications and the languages from which you translate (source language/s). For Germany, you
should usually include a picture of yourself beside your name and address and choose a tabular
layout.

A translator translates from a source language into a target language. You should translate only
into your mother tongue (target language). Make sure you mention any other degrees you may
have or relevant work experience. Say how you produce your work (word-processing software)
and whether you can communicate by email or fax.

Never shy away from asking a friend who works in business or in the language world to take a
critical look at your CV before sending it out. It is, after all, your career we're talking about! In
fact, if they can help you even more, all the better.
If sitting at home all the time does not appeal to you, then you should not rule out the possibility
of working as a freelance translator with a 9-5 office job. I myself worked in an office where the
majority of translators were freelancers.

An online translation forum is a great way of getting your foot in the door. Sign up for e-zines
and newsletters.

You should send your CV and a short covering letter to possible places of employment: Not just
translation companies though, try local exporting/importing firms of whose products/business
 18

you have special subject knowledge. If you are a student, there are plenty of companies out there
looking to take on apprentices with a view to later full-time employment.

A-Z Checklist for Translating

Business-like is a word you should not forget! As long as you have an answer to my a-z of
questions, and tick them off when you've an answer for each one, then you should be ok.

Pre-Translation - You should know...

a) Who is the translation for - this can be helpful when determining the register of your
translation.
b) Is there a contact for queries? Make sure you have records of the contact person's details:
name, email, telephone & remember business-like as always. Always keep records.
c) Find out if the language has to be translated into a particular variant. UK English or US
English?
d) Are there particular terms that the translation should include for consistency?
e) If working under contract for a translation company, do they have a style guide that you should
follow: i.e.: Rules for translating dates etc.
f) Are text areas, embedded in tables and images, to be translated as well? If so, knowledge of
graphic editing programs is of an advantage.
g) Are you required to use a specific word processing software for the translation?
h) Are you required to use a specific Computer-Aided Translation (CAT)-tool for the translation
e.g. Trados
i) Is there a translation memory available for the translation?

Double-Checking
j) Before delivering: has the translation been double-checked for accuracy, consistency, spelling,
font styles the same?
k) Does the text sound as if it was translated? If in doubt get someone who doesn't speak the
source language to have a quick read through your translation.

Delivery
l) Where is the translation to be delivered? To the customer's address, Internet address?
m) When is the translation deadline?
n) How is the translation to be delivered? By fax, email, post?
o) Do copies of material sent have to be returned?

Charging and Extra Charges

p) How will the translation be charged? Time, per word, per sentence?
q) Will there be an additional charge for irregular difficulties?
r) Will there be an additional charge for research? Specialist terminology?
s) Must the translated text be proofread?
t) Will VAT be applicable?
 19

Payment
u) How and when is payment to be made?
v) When is payment to be made?
w) What method of payment is to be used? Bank transfer, cheque?

Liability and Compensation

x) Is the translation to remain confidential?
y) Does your indemnity insurance, and you will need indemnity insurance, cover all possibilities?
z) Is the early termination of a job subject to compensation?
And that's it! If you can answer these questions then you're one step closer to becoming a
professional.

II. How to be a real translator

When people hear the word translator it is common to hear the sentence ―AH! That is a very easy
professional you just get a dictionary and translates the words.‖ What probably the person, or
better yet the people, that makes this sort of comment doesn‘t know what really lies behind a real
translation and a meaningful one.

The real translation is that one that cares for the roots of the text that was written. It is that one
that cares for the cultural aspect of what it is being said and above all it is that one that cares to
spread the real idea, the original idea of the text.
In order to reach a good translation with good results the translator has to follow some basic
steps: first interpret the main idea and the concepts which the writer cared for, second the
translator has to have a semantic understanding to obtain a good level of his/her work and third
try to get the main idea of the original to be able to pass it to the translation.

If the translator is able to compare the original with the translation and obtain the same idea that
means that the work was well accomplished and that the respect to the original was kept. If the
translator lacks the perfect term to relate to the original it is best to keep searching in order to
maintain the initial idea of the writer, that‘s why translation is a constant research and also a
constant study of terms as well as a study of language itself. Keeping the right idea and the right
track isn‘t easy, but it is a duty of a reliable translator.

The results of a translation should be addressed to culture and ideas not only to the literal
translation of words. For this the translators have to be determined to be close to the original and
to reproduce accurately what is being said in the original. Switching words to give the right idea
is a very good way of keeping track of the original; versatility is part of the skills of a good
translator. Sometimes it is necessary to use the original word in a first attempt until the best word
is found to replace the original one without losing the idea neither the sense.
 20

The direct connection between the two versions is the key for a good translation, and also a good
manner not to lose the sense of the main idea It is also important to bare in mind that the language
is a source of communication used to transmit the ideas, so we as translators have to make the
best use of it in order to keep the sense of the original. A good use of the language brings a good
translated work.

A constant study is requested in order to keep the possibilities and the diversities of a translation.
Being a good translator is admitting the limitations and fighting to surpass them in a way that the
results are well reached.

Unit 5: Polishing Your Translation Style

If you do not already have one, start by developing a translation methodology. A methodology,
especially one that suits your work style, will enable you to translate more efficiently and
accurately. For illustration purposes, I have included below the translation methodology that I use
for Japanese to English translations.
Read the original carefully
Research the subject
Translate the work
Ask the questions
Compare with the original
Edit (proof) the translation
Sleep on the product

Read the Original

Wrap yourself around the translation. Read the original text thoroughly paying attention to the
style of writing employed by the author. Is the author‘s style light-hearted, heavy, positive,
forceful, truthful, or sincere etcetera? To rephrase, determine where the author is ―coming from.‖
Once you have successfully put yourself in the authors mind, emulate the author‘s style in the
translation.

This simple act will make your product an extension of the author’s works-you will be
lending your linguistic skill to the author‘s style. This, indeed, is professional translation. It is
smooth, seamless and natural-it does not have that "This have been translated" hue.

Research the Subject

Not enough can be said about research-good research. Less than 60 minutes of research on the
translation subject really does make all the difference to the finished product.
Use the internet extensively. You can quite literally find anything on the Internet, and it does not
require a great amount of skill, either. Research free dictionaries, encyclopedias, informational
 21

sites, case studies and white papers. Look for recent articles on the translation subject you will be
translating. Another great resource that should not be over looked is academic resources.

The added bonus of doing your home work at this crucial stage is that you will have the
opportunity to resolve any issues you discovered in the source text while doing your research.

Of course, I would be remiss in my duties as a professional if I did not provide the obligatory
warning. The Internet is the greatest resource since the invention of the library the world has ever
know-with one flaw. Anyone can publish anything without the due process (authentication) that
goes into publishing books. You need to use the internet wisely! Corroborate your research
with multiple, trusted sources.

Do the research and you will be a good translator. But, you want to be in a class by yourself,
right?

a) Research the author

Researching the translation subject will definitely go a long way to improving your style-
researching the author will provide luster to your style. Get an insight to the author's life. Search
for the author by name, research biographies or autobiographies, and research other work that has
already been published by the author. Knowing your author will provide in-depth knowledge
about his or her own private and personal feelings, reflections and experiences.

Sound like a lot of work? Yes, but trust me, it is well worth it. And, there may be a silver lining
in all this for you. Many authors build on previous works, which, if you were to find a translated
copy of, could make for easy going. Researching the author of a super computer translation
project turned up 17 pages (total of 49 pages) of translated material that only required minor
modifications. Easiest Japanese to English translation any body ever did! Moral of the story:
Research the author.

b) Authoritative knowledge
Authoritative knowledge is the technical, or subject matter, expertise one possesses in a specific
field. Specializing in specific fields in which you are genuinely an expert on terminology, in both
languages, adds weight to your style.

Think for a moment. Have you ever tried to write about a topic that you had little or no
knowledge of in your native language? Although you had no problem with the language, it was
not easy, right? And the finished product probably lacked natural flow and conviction that comes
with knowledge and experience. This is the power of authoritative knowledge.

Establish an authoritative translation style-limit yourself to your natural area of technical, or

subject matter, expertise, and beef up on those fields where you want to be an expert.
 22

Translate the Work

Finally, an easy task! Really, if you have followed step 1 and step 2, then translating is not only
easy, it is enjoyable. Take your translating style to the next level by keeping these simple pieces
of advice in the back of your mind when doing translation projects.

a) Translate into your Native language

Translating into a non-native language will generally suffer from deficiencies in style, and you
will make more spelling and grammatical errors. Professional translators know this, and will
never translate from their native language into a learned language. For example, I am bilingual
having graduated from a Japanese university (economics), and have lived and worked in Japan
for the last 15 years. I only do Japanese to English translations (never English to Japanese
translation). That is, I only work into English.

Should you translate into your learned language, and have an educated native speaker of that
language check your work? Two people doing one job-do the native thing!

b) Let Stalk Strine

Okay, where are we going with this, you ask? And what is this ―Strine,‖ anyway? Strine was first
documented by Afferbeck Lauder back in the 1960's. His groundbreaking work - Let Stalk Strine
- highlighted the fact that Australians had not only developed their own idioms in English but
had, in fact, developed a whole different language.

Regional variations within the same language need to be reflected in your translation work.
American English is not the same as British English is not the same as Australian English, or
South African English for that matter. Many other languages have regional variations: Spanish,
Portuguese and Chinese. The difference is significant (from a translation point of view), but
obviously not that great as to warrant a unique language classification. Professional translators
make the effort to be aware of regional language differences.

c) Culture does factor into translation

A client who is a professor at a Japanese university in Tokyo commissioned me to translate a
letter of recommendation to an American graduate school for one of his students. The source text
was laden with cultural innuendos of modesty and self deprecation. An example line in the
original text read "although this student has a limited breadth and depth of general knowledge,
and is not the top student in the class, she is very hard working and makes friend easily." Well
now, as a graduate assistant in the admissions department at an American graduate school, it was
my job to screen such recommendation letters. I do not need to tell you that such a
recommendation would not even make it through to the admissions review board.

Yes, culture definitely does matter. And if you need to alter a text significantly in translation, do
it! Then explain to the client why you did what you did. Remember, language is defined by
culture.
 23

d) Know your limits

What does this mean? In step 2, I referred to authoritative knowledge. I mention it here again at
the risk of being repetitive, but it really does merit repetition. Translation encompasses a huge
field of subjects. If you think of all the material that requires translation you will soon realize that
this encompasses the collective body of human knowledge. Some people are just incredibly gifted
and seem to soak up whatever subject they are exposed to. This is not the case for the rest of us-
so, play to your strengths.

e) Context is important
Disregard for translating ―in context‖ has given rise to the expression "lost in translation." In your
native language, most words have multiple meanings, so imagine what all the possibilities are
when you have finished translating! Translating with an eye to "in context" is even more
important when translating from a language that has relatively few words, such as English, to a
language that has a large number of words such as Japanese. For example, the term "translation,"
which can mean moving information between languages or can mean rendering (data), is
definitely a candidate for ―lost in translation‖ translation (work).

f) Simple is best
Never has an adage been more applicable to the profession of translation-a simple translating
style, like writing and just about everything else, is powerful and convincing.

Always use succinct, easily understood language that complements the author‘s style of writing.
Short, well formed sentences that adhere to the rules of grammar and are devoid of complex
terms are better. Much better.

Slang and clichés do not translate well between most languages. And, you run the risk of being
offensive.

Adopting a vague translation style definitely does not make for simple translation. A ―great
show‖ may not mean "wonderful movie" when translated. Likewise, terms ending in an "ing"
suffix can be ambiguous-is it a noun or an adjective? Maybe it is a gerund. I am sure you get the
picture-use an alternative where possible.

g) What is not written is as important as what is written

That is right-read between the lines! Interestingly, this expression in Japanese translates as "read
diagonally." Knowledge of the author and authoritative knowledge will provide you with the
background information to see past the physical, or written, text. Admittedly, this is difficult, and
being able to convey the hidden meaning without putting it in print is, well, the mark of an
accomplished translator. To employ an analogy, it is akin to understanding a subtle joke in your
learned language.
 24

h) Give it natural flair

This is the most difficult part of writing style. If you have researched the author and acquired
authoritative knowledge from step 2 above, you are well on your way to producing a convincing
translation product that reads and sounds natural. Now, write the same text in your own
words.

Ask the Questions

Knowing when to ask the right question contributes as much to your translation style as does
your ability to do good research, or the strength of your writing style.

Clients know that professional translators literally analyze text from every conceivable angle;
sentences are de-constructed and re-constructed countless times. If something in the original text
does not sound right, seek clarification with a timely question. Questions at this phase of the
translation process will be knowledgeable since you have already done the research and rough
translation. Your client will appreciate your professionalism. Further, your question may
facilitate an improvement in the original document-guess where your client will go for the next
translation project?

Compare with the original

I know. At this stage of the translation process, you are quite ready to zip all your files and be
done with it. Accuracy of your translation style happens in this phase.

When you have finished the translation, place the source text on the left and the target text on the
right, side by side. Then, slowly and methodically, one line at a time, read over the source text
and then the corresponding target text. By employing this methodology, you will easily be able to
catch mistranslations and omissions. A variation to this is getting an assistant to read the original
text while you following in the translated works.

Correct any discrepancy in the translation right away. You always miss required corrections
when you revisit later.

Edit (proof) the translation

In the previous step you compared with the original for accuracy-mistranslations and omissions.
In this step your focus should be on technical (grammatical) errors. The object of separating these
steps is to create a methodical approach to polishing the product by process of elimination.
Eliminate one group of errors at a time.

Professional language translators will have someone that is not too close to the project (i.e.
someone that has not worked on the project at all) do the proofreading. If you do not have the
luxury of an assistant, then distance yourself from the project for a while. Sleep on it!
 25

Sleep on the product

Margaret Thatcher, while in office, once said that before making a big decision, she took a shot
of Scottish whiskey, and slept on it. Choose your poison, but definitely sleep on it-you will be
amazed at the clarity of mind with which you round off your translation project!

Now, put your thesaurus to work. Identify words in the translated text that can be replaced with
alternative, better words. This is where you get to be bold (without going off into space, of
course). Do not be afraid to use words and phrases that make the translated text sound human (i.e.
moreover, further, incidentally etc). Where permitting, adopt a conversational style-it reads
better.

This is also a good place to be creative. For example, when doing Japanese to English
translations, I have often noticed that Japanese authors tend to stick with a limited repertoire of
conjunctive adverbs (furthermore, therefore, however, moreover). This does not read well in
translation-be creative!

Conclusion
Use the advice here to polish your translation style. Most of the advice is simply about making
minor changes to your existing style, but, given consideration, will lead to improved results as
seen from repeat requests for you translation skills.

Unit 6: Myths about Translation and Translators

Translators often face an uphill battle from misinformed clients who have misconceptions about
translators and the translation profession. Many times translators have to educate the clients about
the industry in order to debunk the myths that seem to keep on circulating year after year.

I've put together a list of 10 of the various myths I've encountered in my work as a translator. I
hope you enjoy them. Maybe you can use them as educational tools for helping your clients
understand what you do as a translator.

1. Translators are just people who can speak two or more languages. This is one of the most
prolific myths circulating outside the translation industry. Merely knowing two languages does
not mean that a person can translate with those languages. Translation is so much more and non-
translators are often perplexed by this fact.

2. Translators can translate any subject matter as long as the material is in a language they know.
Good translators will specialize in only a few different (but oftentimes) but related areas. This
allows them to keep up-to-date on changes in their industry and keeps them abreast of current
trends. Inexperienced (or bad translators) will often say they can translate anything thrown at
them.
 26

3. Translating from one language to another (i.e. Spanish to English) is the same as translating in
the reverse direction (i.e. English to Spanish).
There are translators that can do a good job translating in both directions; however, the number of
translators that can do this is not very high. Clients often think that translating is the same no
matter which direction the translator is going. Translators have dominant languages and it is
usually in the best interest of the translator and client for the translator to translate into his/her
dominant language.

4. Translators can produce any translation with little or no turn-around time.

Once again, clients often believe that translation is a simple task that can be accomplished
quickly. A good translator will educate the client and let them know that translators need
sufficient time to produce a quality product.

5. A native speaker is always a better translator than a non-native one.This is a myth equal in
error to that of #1. Merely being a native speaker of a language does not ensure or guarantee that
that person will be able to translate adequately. Translation requires discipline, study, and
continual practice. A native speaker of a language does not inherently possess all (or even any) of
these qualities. Clients for some reason don't seem to understand this.

6. Translators like it when the client changes their translation after it has been delivered.
After a translator has edited, revised, retranslated, and perfected a translation, do you think he/she
wants it to be changed after it's delivered it to the client? Many times, a well-meaning person on
the client end will think that the translator has incorrectly translated something in the translation.
Nearly 99% of the time, however, their good intentions are ill founded. Not only does the
translation quality decrease, but the translator's reputation can also be called into questioned.

7. Only translators who are members of a professional translation organization can translate well.
There are many translators that do an excellent job without ever being members of any
organization. These so-called professional organizations are not governing bodies over the
worldwide translation industry. They might have a single measure for evaluating translators, but
it is what it is: a single evaluation metric. I'd say that a list of satisfied clients from a translator is
a far better indication of a translator's competency.

8. Translators can also interpret.

Translation is not interpretation and interpretation is not translation. They are not synonymous.
Translation is written material; interpretation is speaking. These are two very different skill sets.

9. Translators like to do free translation work.

Most translators are willing to do pro bono work every once in a while. However, translators are
professionals who need to make a living doing their profession. Translation is not a hobby for
most translators and it is not right for people to ask translators to freely translate something for
them.
 27

10. A good translator will take whatever payment the client is willing to give.
Good translators will have a set price and will not very often deviate from this price. Clients will
often try to have translators bid against each other for the lowest price; however, when the price
gets too low, a good translator will choose not to take the translation because it will not be worth
his/her time. An inexperienced translator (and one that might not be that good) will take whatever
the client is willing to pay. In that case, clients get what they pay for.

Translation Checklist

Prior to approaching a translation agency or translator to undertake some translation work, go

through the following ‗translation checklist‘ to ensure both parties are fully aware of what the
translation will entail:

What languages will be used in the translation? What are the source and target languages?
Are there any variants in the target language? If so, specify which one is required. e.g.
Mandarin or Cantonese Chinese.
What is the purpose of the translation? e.g. information only, publication, use in court case...
What is the target readership of the translation? e.g. literacy, specialist….
What is the intended quality level for the translation? e.g. final product, draft, revision….
Do the style and/or terminology in the translation have to conform to any requirements?
e.g. in-house style, youth, pharmacopoeia…
Is there any reference material that can be provided to support the translation piece? e.g.
prior correspondence, reports, specifications…
Are there any requirements for the layout of the translation? e.g. page for page likeness,
columns…
In what format will the source material be provided? e.g. disk, CD, attachment…
Prior to delivery of the source material has it been proof-read and checked for mistakes?
Is any non-standard form of delivery for the return of the translation needed? e.g. courier,
express delivery, recorded post, insurance…
Is the source material also to be returned?
Is there any urgency for the translation?
Does the source material pose any potential difficulties? e.g. poor legible text, complex
terminology, use of dead words…
Is there any research needed for the translation? e.g. pertinent legislation, terminology, prior
documentation, use of archives…
Will services other than the translation be required? e.g. post-editing, proof-reading,
alterations…
Is there any source of possible consequential liability of which the translator should be
aware?
If you have any questions regarding your translation, please contact us to discuss your ideas or
requirements further.
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Chapter 2: ISSUES RELATED TO INTERPRETATION

Unit 7: Interpreting

Interpreting the differences

There is a tendency for people who aren't involved in the language industry to use the terms
"interpreting" and "translating" as if the two were one and the same thing, and yet there is a very
fundamental difference which divides these two linguistic disciplines. Granted both are processes
whereby one language is transferred into another, and both require a high degree of understanding
in the two languages in question. However, interpreting involves the spoken word and is thus a
faster and more immediate transfer process whilst translation describes the written process of
transferring one language into another, usually entailing a slower and more considered approach.

Horses for courses

Interpreters can provide a valuable service in a wide variety of different situations, such as:
• international conferences and meetings;
• visits by foreign delegations involved in trade and industry;
• court cases where the defendant or a witness doesn't speak the language of the court;
• hospital appointments where patient and doctor speak different languages
• tours for business and/or pleasure
Each interpreter will have areas in which he or she feels particularly at home, and when a new
subject area is being tackled, considerable amounts of prior research are often required on the
interpreter's part.

Simultaneous or conference interpreting: the voices in your headset

Perhaps the best known form of interpreting is "conference" or "simultaneous" interpreting. Often
cameras covering a political summit for television pan round the conference hall and catch a
glimpse of the earnest interpreters in their cell-like booths, or focus on delegates adjusting their
headset so that they can listen to their own language version of the speech being given.
Conference interpreting is a highly demanding activity, requiring intense concentration, almost
bilingual fluency in the source and target language, plus an articulate speaking voice. Sometimes
interpreters are fortunate enough to be given a copy of the speaker's speech in advance, so that
precious minutes can be spent identifying any particularly problematic sentences, phrases or
terminology before the speech begins. In other cases, the interpreter doesn't know precisely what
the speaker is about to say, which obviously makes the job somewhat more challenging.

So what is it like to be a simultaneous interpreter? Well, next time you're listening to the news on
the TV or radio, wait until the announcer has said five or six words and then start repeating every
word he says, whilst still continuing to listen to what he's saying i.e. you should be repeating the
speech word for word, but several seconds behind the original speaker. Then imagine that you're
not simply repeating what the speaker on TV or radio is saying, but that somewhere in between a
 29

lightning-fast cerebral operation has to take place in order to convert the source language into the
target language (often the interpreter's mother tongue). With German, this can be particularly
challenging in that you often don't discover until the end of the sentence which verb the speaker
has used ' and, even worse, whether the verb is in the affirmative or the negative! In such cases,
the interpreter is often obliged to make an "educated guess" at what the verb is likely to be and
whether it's likely to be prefaced with "not". As you might imagine, this leaves a certain margin
for error, since if the interpreter has not followed the speaker's train of thought correctly,
sometimes he or she might have to add in a quick "aside" to rectify what they've just said.
Ad hoc or liaison interpreting: telling both sides of the story
Liaison interpreting, as the name suggests, involves passing information to and fro between two
or more delegates. This format is used for smaller meetings and discussion groups, with perhaps a
dozen or so people around a table and the ad hoc interpreter acting as a linguistic go-between.
The segments of speech being interpreted are not generally too long ' often just a few sentences at
a time, and the ad hoc interpreter ' unlike the simultaneous interpreter ' does have the option of
asking the speaker to repeat or elaborate upon what he or she has just said. So, for example, at a
meeting between representatives of British and French sister companies, the Chairman might
open the meeting in English and make a few introductory remarks. The ad hoc interpreter would
then repeat these remarks in French for the benefit of the French attendees. Then one of the
French delegates might respond, thanking the British counterparts for their hospitality etc. and
emphasizing the most important aspect of the impending discussions from their perspective. The
ad hoc interpreter would then render these French remarks into English for the benefit of the
English native speakers present, and so the process would continue, to and fro for the duration of
the meeting.
Whisper interpreting: not just for the Chinese!
At smaller meetings where there may be delegates present from two or more countries, "whisper"
interpreting is sometimes used in order to avoid a meeting becoming protracted (thanks to each
remark made being interpreted into several languages in turn!). This involves a multi-lingual
interpreter sitting between two (or three) delegates round the table and literally whispering to
them what each speaker is saying as the meeting proceeds.
Consecutive interpreting: how fast is your shorthand?
Good note-taking is the key to good consecutive interpreting, as here the interpreter often has to
note down the contents of an entire speech, then stand up and deliver the same speech
"consecutively" (hence the name) in the target language. This system can be used where booths
and simultaneous facilities are not available and avoids a speech being interrupted every few
sentences as would be necessary if the speech were interpreted bit by bit. Note-taking systems
used by consecutive interpreters are many and varied ' some use short-hand, some rely on
symbols and others use a combination of both. For example, the symbol for a country is a small
square, the symbol for world is a small square in a circle etc. Obviously it's not possible to have a
symbol for every single word or concept, so abbreviated words are also used. The advantage of
using as many symbols as possible, apart from the fact that they're quicker to write down, is that
it avoids the interpreter being "tied" mentally to a particular word in the source language and thus
removes one of the mental processes which has to take place when one language is being
interpreting into another.
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Unit 8: The Interpreter

Interpreters are in great demand in the current global climate. With people from all over the
world participating in business meetings, conferences and events, overcoming the language
barrier naturally becomes the key to ensuring all attendees contribute and benefit from such
occasions. The interpreter is an integral cog in the wheel of cross cultural communication.
Knowing how to hire and work with an interpreter is a must for international business personnel.

Hiring an interpreter is the easy part. Most agencies that provide interpreters will only work with
qualified and experienced interpreters. In addition, they will ensure an interpreter is familiar with
the subject matter, i.e. an interpreter specialising in medicine will not be used in an agricultural
conference.

Working with an interpreter offers challenges. Interpreters on the whole have a stressful job.
Unlike translators they do not have the luxury of breaks and time to think. Interpreters have to
perform ‗live‘ and in front of an audience. In order to ensure you get the best out of an interpreter,
good communication is necessary.

By way of offering some tips on working with interpreters the following guidelines may be of
some use:

1 Establish and agree ground rules with an interpreter. For example, try and communicate how
you want a meeting run, the number of sentences to be translated at a time, the confirmation of
jargon or idioms before they are translated, when breaks will be taken and seemingly trivial
matters like seating arrangements.

2 Try and brief an interpreter prior to any face to face meetings. Familiarise them with the whos,
whats and whys. If there is any specific terminology to be used ask them if they understand it. If
you foresee any tricky issues or tense topics, prepare them for it.

3 If you plan to give a speech or read from a script, give the interpreter a copy. The more familiar
they are with the subject matter, the better a job they will do.

4 While speaking through an interpreter always engage with your counterpart directly. Even
though you cannot understand what is being said, show interest, keep eye contact and remain
focused. If you start to converse through an interpreter you lose any chance of building trust,
rapport or confidence.
5 Try and avoid humour. Most interpreters will agree that jokes do not translate well. If you are
giving a speech and plan to start it off with a joke, it is advisable to consult the interpreter first to
see if they think it will work.
6. Plan your time carefully. Conversing through an interpreter makes conversations twice as long.
For example, if you are making a presentation remember that anything you say will first be
 31

translated, so the likelihood is that a one hour presentation will take two. Compensate for this by
either cutting down your presentation or speaking in shorter, sharper sentences.
7. Do not rush. Interpreting is a taxing job and is mentally exhausting. To alleviate the pressure
as much as possible, speak slowly and clearly. If you rush the interpreter is more likely to become
stressed and the quality of the translation may drop.
8. Interpersonal communication, by its nature, involves emotion. An interpreter should never
translate emotions. If the speaker is annoyed this will be obvious in their body language and tone.
Never involve the interpreter at a personal level in any discussions and if you see an interpreter
translating your emotions, ask them to stop. The interpreter is there to purely translate what is
being said.

9. Make sure the interpreter is clear that they are never to answer questions on your behalf. Even
if the answer is simple, the interpreter should still convey this to you. If an interpreter starts to
speak on your behalf, this can have numerous negative consequences such as undermining your
position or even losing face.

10. Ask interpreters not to change or alter what you say even if they think it may cause offense. If
you plan to talk about a controversial issue let the interpreter know. Before discussing it with an
audience announce that what will be said is not the opinion of the interpreter but your own. This
then frees the interpreter of feeling uncomfortable and nervous.

These guidelines should enable you to get the best out of your interpreter and consequently your
business meeting, presentation, conference or event.

Unit 9: What Does an Interpreter Do?

Many people get confused as to the difference between an interpreter and a translator. There is a
common tendency to think translators interpreter, or that interpreters translate. In fact, the two are
very separate jobs requiring different skills. To explain who and/or what an interpreter as opposed
to a translator we set out the main differences between interpreting and translation.

Interpreting vs. Translation

On a basic level it would appear that there is little difference between an interpreter and a
translator. One translates spoken words and the other written words. However, the differences in
how the job is carried out, the pressures, requirements, skills and talents are many.

A translator must be able to write well and be able to express words, phrases, innuendos and
other linguistic nuances between languages on paper. A translator has the luxury of time,
resources (dictionaries, etc), reference material and the freedom to take a break when needed.
Their pressures are relatively limited.
 32

Translators only work into their native languages to assure accuracy in both linguistic and
cultural senses. Translators therefore, it could be argued, are not completely bilingual. They may
be able to deal effectively with written sources but when it comes to orally translating, it is a
different skill.

A translator therefore has a one dimensional aspect to their work. They deal with written words
and language that come from paper and return to paper.
An interpreter, on the other hand, has to be able to translate spoken words in two directions. They
do this using no resources or reference material bar their knowledge and expertise. An interpreter
is required to find linguistic solutions to problems on the spot. The pressure therefore can be quite
intense.

In addition to interpreting, the interpreter must also act as a bridge between people, relaying tone,
intentions and emotions. Where an interpreter is caught between cross fire they need to
demonstrate great professionalism and diplomacy. Their roles are therefore much more complex
as they have to deal with both language and people.

What does an Interpreter do?

There are two ways of interpreting known as consecutive and simultaneous.

Simultaneous interpreting involves interpreting in ‗real time‘. Many would have seen an
interpreter sitting in a booth wearing a pair of headphones and speaking into a microphone at a
conference or large diplomatic meeting such as the EU or UN. A simultaneous interpreter has the
unenviable task of quickly digesting what one person is saying before immediately translating it
to others. One of the key skills simultaneous interpreters must demonstrate is decisiveness. They
must think quickly and on their feet.

Consecutive interpreting is carried out in face to face meetings, speeches or court cases. A
speaker will usually stop at regular junctures, say every few sentences, and have the interpreter
translate, before proceeding. A key skill involved in consecutive interpreting is the ability to
remember what has been said.

What do you need?

In short, if you need someone to translate something that is written you need the services of a
translator. If you need someone to translate the spoken word, you need an interpreter.
 33

Unit 10: Working with Simultaneous Interpreters

In order to help you get your message across, there are two important facts about your listeners
that you should consider:
· If you are speaking at an international conference, most will in reality be listening to you in
what is for them a second or third language. Perhaps only a very few members of the audience
will share your native language capability.
· At any conference, to reach the majority of the participants, you will in fact be speaking to
simultaneous interpreters, who in turn will deliver your message.
To ensure your message reaches those participants listening to you in their second or third
language, please:
· Always speak clearly.
· Try not to read your presentation, but rather speak from your notes. This helps to get the
message across and to keep the audience focused on what you have to say. Keep statements
simple and clear.
· Avoid professional jargon, metaphors unique to your professional culture, and uncommon
acronyms. The abbreviations you use on a daily basis may be unknown to the layperson. There
may be no standard equivalent for your acronyms in the target language, so each time you use
such acronyms, your interpreter will have to explain your meaning. This generates an additional
time lag and increases the possibility of errors.

Professional interpreters strive to deliver your message accurately and completely. Simultaneous
interpretation is a most challenging and complex task. A well-prepared interpreter can serve you
better by fully understanding your message. Conference interpreters would be most appreciative
if you would assist in this process:

· Create your presentation in PowerPoint and give a copy to the interpreters in advance, several
days before the presentation. Interpreters need time to find the best equivalents, especially if your
presentation contains special terminology.
· Provide interpreters with copies of charts, tables, or maps, if you plan to use them.
· Provide interpreters with names, dates, and the most important numbers to be used in your
presentation.
· If you plan to use quotations, let the interpreters know in advance. Many sources have official
translations and your interpreters need time to find those texts.
· Do not overuse jokes. Jokes don‘t lend themselves very well to interpretation because many are
culture-specific or language-specific. Puns do not normally translate. For guaranteed success,
please provide your jokes to the interpreters in advance.

In summary, the more you consider the needs of those who are trying to listen to you and those
who are interpreting for you, the higher the probability your message will be received just as you
intended.
 34

Unit 11: Strategies for New Interpreters

1. Introduction
Interpreting work is truly challenging to a newcomer in this field; however, it becomes an
enjoyable game when you know how to play it. As a long-time freelance interpreter, I feel like I
am worth nothing if I keep my experience for my own sake. Therefore, I think all experienced
interpreters have the responsibility to share their experience with their juniors to encourage them
to enter the world of interpreting as a new promising career. Having such a feeling of
responsibility I would like to share my current handful of strategies that are preferably used in the
Indonesian environment as I learned during my part-time interpreting with BP LNG Tangguh
Project (British-based natural gas company) in Papua, the eastern part of Indonesia. However, I
believe interpreting work is universal, so some strategies presented in this article might be
beneficial for other new interpreters and in different environments throughout the globe.
Basically, 'strategy' is a carefully devised plan of action to achieve a goal (Thesaurus: US-
English) so, I prefer categorizing this as a part of the 'code of conduct' for new interpreters.

2. Strategies for new interpreters before, while, and after performing interpreting
work on stage

2.1 Before
Before an interpreter steps up on stage he should equip himself with some adequate linguistic and
non-linguistic knowledge and skills as a part of strategies he has to take into account.

2.1.1. Language and its usage.

a. The interpreter should keep on improving his linguistic knowledge of both the source
language and the receptor language through reading and/or listening to discourse genres available
from different sources of information, like books, the Internet, television, radio, etc. (either
English or Indonesian can be a source language or a receptor language).

b. The interpreter should search for an appropriate, accurate, and natural way of using both
the source language and the receptor language by asking and observing how native speakers
using their language in real-life situations.

c. The interpreter should agree with the speaker on how to interpret on stage: statement by
statement or giving a summary after the talk. If the interpreter is to interpret statement by
statement, he must use the first-person personal pronoun "I" to refer to the speaker; when giving a
summary after a talk, particularly in a debate or a discussion, the interpreter must use the third-
person personal pronoun "he" or "she" or "speaker's name."
 35

2.1.2. Psychological Readiness

a. The interpreter must have an I-can-do-it feeling. He must trust his own linguistic and non-
linguistic abilities by saying to himself: "Go and Just Do It! No one is perfect at first" This inner
force will strongly encourage him to walk up on stage with full self-confidence.

b. The interpreter should assume that nobody else in the audience knows English and/or
Indonesian. This is to avoid a feeling that somebody on the floor will identify the mistakes he
may make. This is also to increase self-confidence and to decrease anxiety.

2.1.3. Cross Cultural Understanding

a. The interpreter must make an effort to understand the differences and similarities between
English and Indonesian. This will guide an interpreter on the right track of a culture. For example
(only mentioning three out of many aspects):

Eye contact
Each interpreter should know that most Indonesians do not always keep their eye contact with the
audience or listeners when speaking, which is not the case of English-speaking people. So, the
interpreter should keep eye contact with the audience or listeners when interpreting from
Indonesian into English

Directness versus indirectness

Each interpreter should know that most Indonesians avoid straightforward statements, because it
is culturally impolite to say something right in the face of the audience, while English-speaking
people prefer straightforward talk. So, the interpreter must listen carefully in order to digest and
convey the intended meaning hiding behind long Indonesian utterances.

Terms of addressing
Culturally, the way of addressing a person or a group of people depends very much on some
aspects like the relationship between the speaker and the addressee, where the communication
takes place, the age, sex, and social status of the speaker and the hearer, and the cultural
backgrounds of the speaker and of the hearer. For example, in Indonesia the use of pronoun 'you'
(kamu) in a particular statement varies from one interpreting to another such as in English
statement like "I am very pleased to be with you here"

2.1.4. Cross-Field Understanding

a. The common assumption of people is that if a person speaks English, he has the capability
of understanding every detail of all fields of knowledge, which is of course untrue. Accordingly,
the interpreter must make an effort to familiarize himself with different fields of knowledge in
order to enrich and prepare himself becoming a well-prepared interpreter to counterbalance such
an assumption.
 36

2.1.5. Logistical Preparation

a. The interpreter should to carry his own small tape-recorder or cell phone/recorder with
him at all times to record his actual interpreting work for his own performance assessment.
Remember, interpreting work is not always in a very well-organized formal situation. It may take
place anywhere and anytime. This small extra work may improve his performance and bring the
interpreter up to a more professional level. Make sure to let the speaker or the organizer know of
this recording by asking their permission to do it for personal improvement, rather than for
commercial or political purposes.

b. The interpreter should have a pen and a small notebook on him to put down certain points
during a session of discussion if the audience is given a chance to comment and raise questions
(in a discussion situation).

c. The interpreter should ask the speaker if he has a hard copy of the talk and review it
before going on stage. This will help the interpreter to find out new terms that he needs to clarify
with the speaker or a friend to avoid misinterpreting. If the speaker is invited to deliver a speech
without written notes, the interpreter should ask the speaker to brief him on the main points.

2.1.6. Negotiating and Promotion

a. The interpreter should negotiate the price when the other parties need his interpreting
service for the benefit of their businesses. Ask experienced colleagues how much they charge for
an hour or a day service and under what conditions.

b. The interpreter should have some spare business cards on him in case someone is
impressed by his performance and may need his expertise one day. The interpreter can also
promote himself to potential clients during a break.

2.2. While on Stage

Every interpreter should know that interpreting work may occur anywhere, anytime, in a formal
way or in an informal way, between individuals or between an individual and a group, through a
face-to-face communication or through an electronic device (telephone, skype, SSB radio, walky-
talky radio). Below are only a few different occasions, taken from my experience with the
Tangguh Project, with different stakeholders followed by some strategies used in the interpreting
work.
a. Face-to-face meeting between the Project and individuals (village leaders, religious
leaders, tribal leaders, local government leaders, contractors, sub-contractors)

b. Teleconference / telephone between the Project and individuals (government leaders and
contractors)

c. Formal meeting between the Project, government authorities, and agents of private
institutions (district leaders, domestic and foreign NGO leaders, universities, etc)
 37

d. Opening and/or closing ceremony of a new project outdoors (in the

field) between the Project, the contractors, the government leaders, and the communities.

e. Contentious meeting on labor issues between the Project and the demonstrators

f. Formal meeting between the Project and the villagers in the Village Hall

g. Formal interview for new recruitments at LNG Tangguh

h. Working procedure meeting (safety/toolbox meeting at the LNG Tangguh Project)

2.2.2. Some Strategies

a. The interpreter should keep eye contact with the audience or with an individual when
sitting or standing in front of them.

b. The interpreter should speak up to ensure that the message is clearly heard and understood
by the audience.

c. The interpreter should ask the speaker to raise the volume of his voice when he speaks too
softly. This is to avoid asking for repetition of unclear words or missing the point when the
environment is polluted by external noises.

d. The interpreter should listen to the speaker with full concentration while performing the
job. He must not bring any psychological burden with him that might interfere with his work. He
must refuse to do the job if he has a psychological problem or a bad mood on that day.

e. The interpreter should ask the speaker to repeat an important point if the interpreter has
missed it. He does not have to feel that the speaker or the audience may think he is stupid if he
asks for clarification or repetition.

f. The interpreter should sit or stand close to the speaker so as to interpret what the first
speakers say if it's an event (e.g. opening ceremony of a new project) where several speakers are
invited to deliver their speeches, or comments may be made or questions asked by individuals
from the audience.

g. The interpreter should not look at the written version of the speech if the speaker provides
him with one, because this will interfere with his concentration. He has to put it aside right away
and concentrate on the verbal message, because the process of listening to and interpreting
incoming messages in the Short Term Memory is faster than reading. In addition, some good
speakers usually do some improvisation and adaptations while delivering their speeches because
 38

of new information received from previous speakers or new ideas occurring to them
spontaneously.

h. The interpreter should put down some particular points during a discussion, especially if
the speaker is flooded with comments and questions from different people attending the meeting.

i. The interpreter should select the appropriate language and acceptable forms of addressing
when talking to the audience or a particular individual.

j. Apart from a hand phone on a teleconference or a telephone meeting, the speaker-phone

button on an office telephone must be pressed when interpreting so both the speaker and the
interpreter can clearly hear the comments, questions, and answers from the speaker at the other
end. The interpreter should stop the speaker at the other end when he speaks too fast. This usually
happens when the speaker at the other end does not realize that interpreting is in progress The
interpreter should remind the remote speaker to adapt to the pace of the speaker on his side.

k. When interpreting a speech outdoors, e.g. at the project site, the interpreter should raise
his voice to reach the audience standing far from the speaker if there is no a battery-operated
loudspeaker available (in the Indonesian tradition, several speeches are usually delivered prior to
cutting a ribbon or laying the first brick to signal the beginning of a new project in an opening
ceremony)

l. At a contentious demonstration event the interpreter should make quick decisions on

omitting a particular offensive statement or taboo expression or irrelevant message and/or
paraphrasing them using acceptable equivalent words (emotional demonstrators often yell and
speak using foul language or make statements that are irrelevant to the purpose of the
demonstration). In such a situation the interpreter only interprets the louder and repeated
statements because they are the main reasons for the demonstration. The interpreter should speak
in a louder voice because some demonstrators will not stop at the time of the speaker begins to
respond. With a louder voice he can attract their attention and make them stop speaking and listen
carefully to the speaker and the interpreting.

2.3. After
This is a critical phase for the interpreter to make a self-assessment of what he just experienced
while on stage for the purpose of performing better in a future interpreting assignment. The
following strategies are taken into account for self-preparation.

a. The interpreter should be proud of and satisfied with the mission he has just completed
successfully, although he might have some regrets about missing some important points due to
lack of knowledge and unforeseen interference. Such a feeling strongly motivates the interpreter
to perform better in the future
 39

b. The interpreter should play back the recording to assess what happened on stage in order
to ensure a poor performance can be improved in future.

c. The interpreter should recall and put down some particular statements, terms, cultural
aspects that he omitted, missed, or misunderstood during interpreting (This is only applicable if
no recording and no note-taking are available). This small extra work is a useful strategy to learn
new things that might appear during the next assignment.

3. Conclusion
Each new interpreter must make an effort to improve his interpreting skill and knowledge in
different fields of science and technology. Such skills and knowledge can only be acquired by
learning before stepping up on stage, experiencing while on stage, and learning from the
experience after performing on stage so as to perform much better in future assignments.
 40

Chapter 3: FURTHER READING

Selection 1: Quick Answers to General Questions

General Business Questions

Q: How many hours per week do you work? How much vacation can you take?
A: I work roughly 30 hours per week, though that includes not just translation but also all the
other business matters I have to attend to, plus study of my languages and the subjects I work in. I
take about three weeks of vacation per year, including national holidays. Typically I take a week
or so off in the summer and a week around New Year's, plus various days here and there that I
use to create long weekends.

Q: I hear stories of translators making $125,000 or more per year. What's the deal?
A: First, people tend to lie about two things in life: money and sex. They usually claim to have or
get more of it than they really do. That said, I suggest you adjust any claims you hear downward
by 10% or so, then consider the difference between gross and net income. For a technical
translator working from English to languages like German, Chinese, or Japanese for direct
clients, providing editing, proofreading, and printing services, the gross income for a given year
could well exceed $125,000. After expenses though, particularly associated with hiring people to
do the editing, proofreading, etc., chances are this person would be making around $80,000. To
put this another way, I have only heard one credible claim of a person making over $100,000 per
year, and that translator made clear the fact that he did nothing but translate for 365 days straight,
in technical areas of defense technology from English to Russian. So yes, in principle, such
income is possible, but in practice, you shouldn't expect it.

Q: What can I do if I want to earn more?

A: Translate more words or charge more per word. The former depends on your translation speed
and skill, whereas the latter depends on your clients and your business.

Preparation for the Field

Q: How do I know when my language skills are good enough to translate?
A: The short answer is: your skills are good enough to translate when you can actually translate.
In other words, try to translate something, for instance a copy of a financial report, a software
guide, a research article in a scientific publication, a legal brief. If you can work through the
material at a rate of a couple thousand words of translated text within one day and without
making any significant errors, you are probably ready to translate. Of course you may need to
have a professional check your work to make certain that your success is real.
 41

Q: Are there any textbooks on translation?

A: The question really is: Are there any textbooks on translation for your language combination
and subject areas? The answer thus depends on which languages you know and what subjects you
want to translate in. The short answer is no, if only because there are so few textbooks available,
and most are of limited value, that you should assume none exist unless you hear otherwise.
Posting a message on sci.lang.translation on Usenet should get you an answer particular to your
needs.

Q: What about books to learn more about my subject areas?

A: Textbooks are appropriate. Buy recent editions of college- and even graduate-level textbooks
for the subjects you plan on translating. If you plan to do financial translation, get books on
accounting, managerial finance, tax law, and so forth. Then study the books as though you had to
prepare to understand questions and even answer some, if not all, of them, and evaluate the
language in the books with an eye toward translation. In other words, find and learn words you do
not already know, terminology you are unacquainted with, and particular phrases or idioms
unique to that subject area. It will be easier to do this study in your native language of course,
though there is considerable value to working through such books in all of your languages.

Q: What about software to study or practice my languages?

A: There are any number of good software packages for studying and learning languages, though
most of them will not take you much beyond the level of an advanced college student. A
translator needs to be far, far beyond that level, so the software might be a good way to review
basics, keep up aural comprehension skills, and maybe study terminology (if the package in
question includes a vocabulary module that you can add words to), it will not provide much in the
way of practice for professional translation.

Q: How do I find good dictionaries?

A: I wish I knew. Most translators, particularly those working in technical fields, struggle with
this problem. Years can pass before new terms in computers, finance, or what have you appear in
print, so translators often rely on parallel reading to find good translations for new terms (parallel
reading is the processing of reading two versions of one text), sharing their own term lists via the
Web, and checking with clients and experts in the subject fields they work in. Good dictionaries
do come along though, and they cause enough of a stir among translators that posting a message
on Usenet in sci.lang.translation should provide plenty of ideas.

Business Practice
Q: I am going to be late with a translation–
A: Stop right there. You should never submit any translation late. If you know you can't finish an
assignment on time, tell the client as soon as possible, preferably when you first receive the
document. Service your client either by suggesting a new delivery schedule, perhaps with
incremental deliveries, or by finding another translator to team up with to finish the assignment
on time. Clients that receive work on time are happy clients, and happy clients give you more
work.
 42

Q: How many clients should I have?

A: As many as afford you a good living, is the short answer. I suggest you follow the 80-20 rule,
that is 80% of your work should come from 20% of your clients. This means you should have a
few principle clients, three or four translation agencies and vendors, who keep you busy with a
regular supply of work, and then another ten to twenty clients who come to you from time to time
with smaller jobs. Also, keep track of your clients; no business relationship lasts forever, and you
never know when one of your major clients may suddenly have little need for you. Always be on
the lookout for a new major client, in other words, and for signs that a current major client is
providing less work.

Q: How can I get rid of a bad client?

A: There are two approaches. One: Charge the client enough Two: Tell the client you are too
busy to accept work.

Q: How long should I wait for payment?

A: When you accept a job, you should confirm with the client how long their pay cycle is. Add a
few days to whatever you are told to allow for weekends, holidays, slow mail, and if payment
doesn't arrive by that time, then politely inquire about your payment.

Q: My client is deducting 10% from my invoiced amount, claiming I did a bad job. What do I
do?
A: Did you do a good job? Did you request specifics about their claims? Did they back up the
claim with an independent review? If you really did a bad job, accept the deduction gracefully,
offer to make any changes or improvements for free, and hope you didn't just lose a client. If
however you feel the client is being unreasonable in their assessment of your work, or worse
even, perhaps trying to squeeze you to increase their profit margin, then you must prepare to
fight. Demand firmly but politely to see detailed documentation of their claim, preferably
reviewed by a third party. If they do not respond immediately, treat the situation like any other
invoice in default. Issue the threats and see what happens. By the way, for newcomers to the
profession, this happens very, very rarely. For reasons explained in the article on ethics,
translation agencies and vendors cannot afford to play these kinds of games.

Legal Issues
Q: Are translators ever sued?
A: I have heard about translators being threatened to be sued, but I personally know of no
instance of a company actually suing a translator. Readers who know otherwise might do me the
favor of filling me in on the details. Based on what I have heard from attorneys, employment
experts, and translation agencies, suing a translator just isn't worth the time and money.
 43

Equipment
Q: What software should I own?
A: A current version of Microsoft Office, including Word, PowerPoint, and Excel, is absolutely
required. You should also have Internet software, including software to handle FTP and point-to-
point file transfers, compression and decompression of archived software, and file format
conversions. In addition, an HTML editor is quite useful for working on Web translations, and
some kind of terminology or glossary management software, perhaps a general database
application, or perhaps a dedicated system, is useful. Finally, depending on your languages, MAT
software like Trados or Translation Manager 2, among others, is useful if not vital.

Q: My child stuffed a peanut butter sandwich into my floppy disk drive, and now I can't finish
my translation…
A: Children and business computers do not mix. I have seen 12-year-olds take down fault-
tolerant Cray Supercomputers, and I myself as a small child have managed to crash more than
one mini-computer. If at all possible, keep your business system away from younger family
members and household pets. If not possible, purchase and use a utility that lets you lock out
people and effectively shut down the computer when you are not using it. And, of course, keep
backups of all your work so that you lose the absolute minimum possible should anything go
wrong.

Selection 2: Constructing a Model for Shift Analysis in Translation

Abstract

The occurrence of shifts in any translational activity is an unavoidable phenomenon.

Unfortunately, the bulk of research carried out in this regard has not perceived the urgent need for
a model to analyze or shown interest in identifying these shifts.
In this paper, the researchers attempt to construct a workable eclectic model for shift analysis
whose major aim is to provide a sound machinery to analyze various types of shifts in translation
at various levels of linguistic and paralinguistic description. The construction of such a model
benefits from a large number of grammatical, textual, pragmatic, and stylistic theories and
approaches that are neatly interwoven and simultaneously operated in search for a comprehensive
and objective machinery of shift analysis which translation studies and practice are still lacking.

1.1. Introduction
In his attempt to transfer meaning from one language (SL) to another (TL) by means of the
universally known practice of translation, the translator faces a plethora of linguistic, stylistic and
even cultural problems. In this regard, Popovic (1970: 79) confirms that "this transfer is not
performed directly and is not without its difficulties." This means that the act of translation can be
analyzed along a range of possibilities, which brings about a number of shifts in the linguistic,
aesthetic and intellectual values of the source text (ST).
 44

In this paper, we will attempt to construct a workable model for shift analysis in translation. We
assume a straightforward application of this model regardless of the type of text involved in the
analysis process. Moreover, we hold the view that translation is a highly complex phenomenon,
which involves a large number of variables other than the linguistic ones. In this regard, we
define shifts as follows:

Shifts are all the mandatory actions of the translator (those dictated by the structural
discrepancies between the two language systems involved in this process) and the optional ones
(those dictated by the his personal and stylistic preferences) to which he resorts consciously for
the purpose of natural and communicative rendition of an SL text into another language.

This process of rendition should be carried out in accordance with the norms and principles of
translation science in addition to those inherent to the language systems involved in this process.

In accordance with the above statement, the model incorporates various linguistic approaches and
methodologies that may have some bearing on the process of translation.

1.2. The Model Constructed

The proposed model of shift analysis is illustrated by Diagram 1 to be followed by a full
description of its components:

1.2.1. A Horizontal Description Generally speaking, the model is product-oriented in the sense
that it applies to two texts involved in the translation. It is also obvious that the model comprises
two levels of analysis, i.e., micro and macro levels with two basic dimensions: the semantic
dimension, represented by the message shared by source (ST) and target (TT) texts, which are
supposed to convey—roughly speaking—the same message, and the syntactic dimension, where
each of the two texts is assigned a different syntactic description, since these texts represent two
different embodiments of the same message. This message constitutes the core of the translation
task as a whole.

Furthermore, the existence of this message, which is shared between the two texts, provides us
with a criterion to formulate the tertium comparationis required compare the two texts (cf. James,
1980).

Another important point to raise here is the fact that this central position of the 'Message' serves a
dual purpose. On the one hand, it provides the model with a good means to form a qualitative
balance between the ST and the TT. On the other hand, this position represents the maximum
balance between form and content of the message, a case which rarely happens. Based on the
above discussion, and to account for the interrelationship between form and content as two
essential extremes in any translation act, the position of the 'Message' can be slightly changed in
four different ways. The first two are motivated by the orientation of translation whereas the other
two are motivated by the relationship between form and content in both texts. The adoption of
any of these four versions on the part of the translator will result in certain types of shift which
 45

can only be explained by referring to the translator's priorities, his style, purpose, the type of the
text to be translated, and some other communicative and stylistic norms. The operation of each
level of the model is given below.

1.2.2. Micro-Level Analysis

At this level, the analysis is carried out within the morpho-syntactic component of the model
based on Systemic Grammar (SG) and Transformational Grammar (TG). A description of the
operation of this level is given below.

1.2.2.1 The Morpho-Syntactic Component: An Overview

This major component is considered a potential area of microstructural shifts, the analysis of
which is one of the main objectives of this model. This component comprises two parts. The first
represents some sort of a 'categorical grammar,' and builds on Halliday's (1961) Categories of the
Theory of Grammar.

The second part borrows much from TG, and it is intended to supplement the first part, which is
concerned with the surface structure (SS) analysis. Furthermore, this deep-level part is operated
to explore the underlying semantic and syntactic relations existing in each text. The analysis of
shifts is then done in the light of these relations which represent the starting point for such an
analysis.

Two further remarks need to be made concerning the scope and operation of this component.
First, the component is basically, but not necessarily exclusively, sentential in nature, i.e.,
operates at the level of the sentence and its lower constituents. Second, in addition to the
structural orientation of this component, it has a functional one as well. In other words, in
analyzing the structure of the ST and TT units, the following questions must guide the analysis of
each text: (a) What is that unit?, i.e., its grammatical membership, (b) What does that unit do
within the given text?, i.e., the function of that unit, and (c) Where does that unit occur?, i.e., the
location of the unit. Thus, it is obvious that we are interested in the grammatical units of the two
texts from two angles: the units as independent entities and the units as members of other units in
the same text.

As for the operation, we do not consider it a condition for the simultaneous operation of the
whole component that fragments of either text be analyzed. To put it differently, the, model
makes it possible to use any of its parameters found suitable for performing the task of shift
identification. Hence, one can select any sub-level—if found relevant—as a starting point to carry
out this analysis.

Finally, one should not overlook the need to operate this component in both texts in the same
way, i.e., the sub-level chosen to analyze the ST should be the same as that chosen to analyze the
TT.
 46

So far, we have given an overall description of the morpho-syntactic component. A detailed

description of its parts is presented below.

1.2.2.1.1. The Categorical Part (Surface-level Analysis)

This part accounts for shifts happening at the SS level in terms of four theoretical categories,
namely unit, structure, class, and system, which provide the framework for the syntactic and
functional description of the data.

In addition to these categories, the categorical part of the syntactic component makes use of some
other language-specific categories called 'descriptive' categories. These are used "to talk about the
grammar of any particular language" (Halliday et al, 1964:31) and are considered to be instances
of the theoretical ones. Hence, the abstract theoretical category of 'unit' may comprise in a
particular language such instances as 'sentence,' 'clause,' 'group,' etc. The description of these
categories in one language should be made in terms specific to that language and not in terms of
any other universal construct. This is a very significant procedural precaution, which the analyst
must keep in mind. However, one might think of the problem of comparison at a later stage while
making such descriptions.

One solution to this problem comes from the fact that these categories are only components of
some other universal ones which can be used as the constant entity in the comparison. Another
equally powerful solution comes from the hypothesis of language universals: despite their
apparent differences, human languages exhibit some syntactic and semantic similarities at various
levels of abstraction.

The relations among the descriptive categories themselves and their relations with the data are
expressed by means of three interrelated scales, namely 'rank,' 'exponence,' and 'delicacy.' From
these, the first and the second scales are utilized in the present model. Interlingually, the scale of
rank accounts for shifts caused by substituting an SL unit in a particular position on the rank scale
by a TL unit in a lower or higher position, e.g., an SL group by a TL clause or word. The scale of
exponence, on the other hand, is the scale of realization. It refers to the relation between systems
and structures on one hand and to the relation between structures and the formal items of
grammar on the other. Hence, terms from systems are realized by structures and the elements of
these structures are realized by formal items. In translation, some shifts occur in the realization of
SL systems and structures in the TL, e.g., the realization of an English interrogative in Arabic.

The following diagram serves as an illustration of overt rank and covert exponence shifts taking
place in the category of unit.

The following observations concerning the analysis of overt and covert micro interlingual unit
shifts are made with reference to Diagram 2.

1. Vertically, overt micro shifts may occur either up or down the scale of rank, hence the vertical
arrow; upward shifts take place when an SL unit is substituted by a higher-in-rank TL unit
whereas downwards shifts take place when an SL unit is substituted by a lower-in-rank TL unit.
 47

In English into Arabic translation, for example, upwards shifts represent the marked type as they
seem less common due to the fact that the translator usually does not need to go upwards the TL
rank scale in search for a substitution for an SL unit. On the other hand, downwards shifts
represent the unmarked type; shifts in this direction are more likely than those in the reverse
direction. Usually, when looking for the appropriate substitution, the translator moves, optionally
or obligatorily, down the TL rank scale until he reaches the lowest-in-rank unit. Only when these
lower-in-rank units fall short, will the translator look upwards.

2. Unless dictated by any structural factor, the overt micro unit shifts must be considered
optional. In other words, the translator has to decide—in the light of his own translation
standards—either to keep the same SL unit rank, or move up or down this rank in the TL. When
all factors are the same, translation to the same unit rank provides the maximum degree of
structural accuracy; otherwise, the translator has to look for the TL unit nearest in rank to the SL
one.

3. Overt micro unit shifts are by no means restricted to the sentence rank; they may occur at any
point on the scale, hence, the shadow square is given opposite each move in Diagram 2.

4. Horizontally, Diag. 2 accounts for overt micro shifts motivated by different TL realizations of
an SL unit of the same rank. These shifts are more likely to be obligatory rather than optional.
This is a typical case in translating between English and Arabic, as the internal systems of these
languages are largely different.

Before going into the discussion of the microanalysis of shifts in other categories, it is important
to emphasize the functional nature of micro unit analysis of shifts. In addition to the structural
character of these units, their grammatical meaning, i.e., their functions should also be taken into
consideration when micro unit analysis of shifts is carried out.

1.2.2.1.2. Structure
The descriptive units of the grammar of any language are arranged into meaningful stretches or
patterns. One single instance of these patterns is called 'structure.' This abstract category which
applies to all units in the grammar of a language (except the one lowest in rank), accounts for the
various ways in which one unit may be realized by the unit next below it. Sometimes, however, a
unit may be realized by a unit above it. This phenomenon is known as rank shifting.

Languages exhibit a considerable amount of differences both in the realization of similar

structures existing in these languages and in the type of structures existing in each language. It is
worth mentioning here that the distinction between deep representation of linguistic relations and
their surface realizations constitutes an important phase for the analysis of structural shifts.

It is essential to state that there are two ways for describing every single structure. The first
relates to the sequence of elements realizing it, i.e., their order. The second relates to the class of
these elements. These two methods can be adopted for the sake of a more delicate analysis of
microstructural shifts.
 48

Furthermore, we need to distinguish between two types of choices implied in each element of a
structure. On the one hand, one is free to choose, for example, between singular nominal group
and plural nominal group in English to realize the function 'subject.' On the other hand, such
freedom is lacking in verbal groups with past and future tense forms. This distinction can only be
made by referring to the categories 'class' and 'system' (cf. below). This constitutes another
potential area of interlingual microstructural shifts.

Following Muir (1972:4), we need to distinguish between optional and obligatory elements
entering in the realization of a structure. In English, for example, the 'root' is an obligatory
element in the structure of any word while affixes are optional ones. When considered
interlingually, this distinction leads to another potential area of shifts. Arabic, for instance,
exhibits more variations than English with regard to optional and obligatory elements in the
structure of the unit 'sentence.' Indeed, interlingual micro structural shifts are likely to occur
within each unit that exhibits a structure, i.e., all units except the lowest in rank.

1.2.2.1.3. Class
By a 'class' it is meant the grouping of the constituents of a unit according to the way they operate
in the structure of another unit next higher in rank. In other words, a class refers to any set of
items having the same possibilities of operation in the structure of a particular unit (Halliday et al,
1964:29).

The need to refer to this category in the analysis of interlingual micro shifts comes from the fact
that languages differ in the restrictions they place on the occurrence of some units in the structure
of some other higher units. In English, for instance, not all the members of the unit 'phrase' can
operate as 'predicate' in clause structure, and those which can do so cannot operate in another
place (Muir, 1972:3). The items of each unit are assigned a class name according to their
potential capability of operating in the structure of units next above the one they refer to. Hence,
the more delicate the class is, the wider are the differences between the languages involved in the
comparison and the greater the number of shifts will be.

1.2.2.1.4. System
By a 'system' it is meant the closed number of elements among which a choice must be made,
e.g., the system of number in English and Arabic. In fact, the terms available in each system in
one language can show fundamental differences from the terms of the same system in another
language. This can be considered a major source of obligatory micro shifts at this level of
language description. It is worth noting here that the translator is compelled to be bound by the
SL writer's choice; otherwise his performance is destined to be erroneous. In cases where
compatible terms with the source system are taking place in the target system, the translator has
to bridge the gap by using some other means, e.g., the use of a lexical marker of number 'two' to
express duality when translating from Arabic into English.

The occurrence of shifts here can be accounted for by means of terms existing in the system of
individual languages. What increases the possibility of such occurrence is the fact that all the
descriptive units required for the description of a language are systemic in nature; they are
 49

realized by means of specific choices of the particular systems of that language. Actually, these
choices are language-specific and their applicability is governed by three criteria. The first is
specified "in terms of rank of unit to which the system is applicable; the second is specified in
terms of the part the unit is playing in the structure of a higher unit"; the third is specified "in
terms of the other options which must be chosen before the options of the given system become
available." (Berry, 1977:13)

Now, we should emphasize the mutual integration of the individual categories. In this regard, two
types of structural surface relations, namely paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations, can be
stated.

Interlingually, different dependency relations are realized by different syntactic means. One
important point to talk about is word order, as in the case of the unilateral dependency relation
between the head and the adjective in English nominal groups. The order of these elements is
Adjective + Head while the same relation is realized by the reverse order in Arabic, i.e., Head +
Adjective. The same is true for unilateral dependency relation of possession in both languages,
e.g.,
English Arabic
Robert's book /Robert/ /kitaabu/

possessor possessed possessor possessed

In these structures, where one element is typically obligatory while other elements are optional,
an agreement between the head and its modifiers is usually observed in some languages, e.g.,
number and gender agreement between 'noun' and 'adjective' in the Arabic nominal group.
However, languages vary so widely in the restrictions they assign to this agreement. In the
English nominal group, for instance, this agreement is observed between 'articles' and 'nouns' but
overlooked between 'nouns' and 'adjectives.' By contrast, Arabic seeks such agreement in both
cases. Again, this is another potential area of obligatory structural shifts in translation.

As for bilateral dependent structures, the distribution of either constituent elements is different
from that of the structure as a whole as in the prepositional groups in English and Arabic.
Following Brown and Miller (1980:255), the majority of the syntactic relations in all languages
are of this type. Furthermore, the variety of functional labels used to refer to these relations
reflects the variation of these relations in different languages.

The importance of bilateral dependency relations to the analysis of structural shifts in translation
can be appreciated by examining the following sentences:
-John beats the dog.
-Fido is a dog.
-John went home.
 50

Although one single string of elements could be assigned to the above sentences, namely NP + V
+ NP, the relation of V with the NP following it in each sentence is different. In order to account
for this difference, various functional labels are used, e.g., 'predicate,' 'complement,' 'object,' etc.

Many bi-directional relations presume that one constituent element requires other constituents to
be in a particular case, e.g., in a prepositional group with a personal pronoun as a realization of
the NP, the preposition requires an oblique case in English, and an accusative one in Arabic. This
indicates that languages use different ways for implementing these relations, which adds to the
likelihood of structural shifts occurrences in this area. The degree of this likelihood increases with
the fact that none of the constituent elements in these structures is optional.

In the third type of dependency relations, i.e., co-ordinate dependency, neither constituent
depends syntactically on the other and the distribution of each constituent is the same as that of
the structure as a whole. In terms of symbols, the description of these structures is:

A A' (+) A' (+)...An, where A is any co-ordinate dependent structure and A', A', An are
constituent elements of the same distribution. Theoretically, no limit is assigned to the number of
these elements in any given structure. Yet languages may exhibit certain restrictions on the order
of these elements. The order of adjectives in the English nominal group is a good example of
these restrictions which are mostly language-specific. The optional (+) in the above formula of
these structures is meant to emphasize the possibility of having a co-ordination marker such as
'and,' 'or,' etc. for some structures. Up to this point, the need for such markers varies
interlingually. Hence, another area of shifts can be manifested.

The last type of dependency relations is that of the exclusion relation which is useful for defining
some grammatical classes such as the verbs of state in English which do not agree with
auxiliaries for the progressive aspect, and proper nouns which do not take the definite article 'the.'

However, it must be mentioned that "dependency relations cannot always be captured in a

straightforward fashion in constituent grammar" (Brown and Miller, 1980:259). What we also
need to know is an interpretive machinery to interpret these relations. In the present case, such a
machinery can be borrowed from TG which enters as a supplementary part in the syntactic
component of this model of analysis (see Diagram 1). The incorporation of this type of grammar
is accounted for in the following section.

1.2.2.1.5. Deep-level Analysis

The transformational sub-component is considered to bridge the gap in the categorial sub-
component.

The need for this injunction refers to the fact that in any translation task, the translator needs to
employ more or less four transformational syntactic processes, namely, deletion, insertion,
permutation, and/or substitution. Each of these processes is binary in nature, i.e., optional (its
adoption depends on the translator's own preference) or obligatory (the translator is compelled to
 51

apply it in order to produce well-formed TL sentences). It goes without saying that languages
exhibit substantial differences in the application of TRs and allow different means for the
application of the optional ones. It is these qualitative and quantitative differences which allow us
to amplify obligatory and optional syntactic shifts in translation. In other words, we would call
the shifts motivated by the application of obligatory TRs as obligatory syntactic shifts and those
motivated by the application of the optional ones as optional syntactic shifts.

Following Nida (1964:65), two practical advantages can be derived from the adoption of this
procedure. First, the equivalence of different formal (syntactic) structures possessing the same
meaningful relation can be seen even interlinguistically. Second, the equivalence of formally
similar structures possessing different meanings can also be readily seen. And in the same way
we would like to add a third one, namely, complex structures can be easily plotted by reference to
their kernel, i.e., deep, structures.

So far, the description of the micro level of the present model is complete. The rest of the present
paper is dedicated to describe in detail the second major level of this model, i.e., the macro level
of analysis.

1.3. Macro-Level Analysis

At this level, the model is switched to analyze a considerable amount of obligatory and optional
shifts which take place at a level higher than the micro level. In order to account for this
requirement, the present model presupposes an independent broad level of analysis called the
macro-level of analysis.

The main difference between this level and the previous one, i.e., the micro level, comes from the
direction of analysis. On the one hand, the micro level moves within the domain of the sentence
as the maximum unit of the syntactic description. The macro level, on the other hand, moves
within the domain of the text. In this sense, the macro level accounts for all variables of texture,
culture, style and rhetoric, which contribute to the occurrence of shifts at levels other than the
syntactic level. Hence, it is broken down into a number of components, each of which accounts
for a particular variable of the above ones. Diagrams 3 and 4 are presented to illustrate this
difference between the micro and macro levels of analysis.

However, this difference should not be exaggerated. Instead, the two levels should be considered
unitary since both would accept the traditional view that the sentence is the locus of structural and
stylistic variation, "though with the proviso that it entails spans wider than sentence" (Hendricks
1976:40-41).

What follows is a description of the individual components within the macro level of analysis
along with their scope of inclusion in relation to the possibility of shifts within each component.
 52

1.3.1. The Semantic Component

Meaning should be the main preoccupation of all translation. However, the amount of this
interest varies according to the type of meaning conveyed by the lexical items of a given text. As
far as translation is concerned, the translator has to do his best to transfer as much of the original
meaning as he can into the TL. But since we know that the process of meaning transfer is not a
straightforward process, the translator, therefore, is often called upon to make some semantic
adjustments in order to accomplish this task. In our case, such semantic adjustments are analyzed
as semantic shifts, which can be obligatory or optional. The former are dictated by the
unavoidable semantic gaps between the SL and TL. Such gaps are mainly caused by some
cultural and conceptual differences between the two languages. The latter in turn arise when the
translator attempts to maintain the gist of the original meaning while practicing some means of
semantic polishing.

The analysis of both types of shifts has to be carried out by extracting the semantic relations
within the lexical items of the ST then examining the possibility of conveying similar relations
into the TL by similar or different formal devices. It should be mentioned here that meaning
extraction should be made in the light of the immediate situation in which the ST functions;
otherwise, the analysis is destined to be vague. This relation is discussed below.

1.3.1.1. The Relation between Meaning and Situation

Language is performed in order to serve a variety of functions over its 'ideational' function (cf.
Halliday, 1976). In performing all these functions, language is determined situationally, i.e., the
selection of linguistic elements to convey a particular meaning is determined by the elements of
the situation in which these elements are used. This same relation is described as one of inclusion;
the former includes or presupposes the latter.

As far as the present model is concerned, the relation of inclusion between meaning and situation
brings about significant implications, the first of which is the necessity of taking the situational
variables into account in defining the meaning of the ST. The second implication goes as follows.
In addition to the impact of situation on the realization of meaning, part of this meaning is
mapped by the linguistic organization of the language in which this meaning is encoded. Hence,
one can safely generalize that if the context of situation is changed "changes will inevitably take
place in the linguistic texture. Conversely, if a shift is carried out on the linguistic level, this
context of situation will also change." (Wilss, 1982:71).

The above generalization necessitates the adoption of a broader view of the concept of meaning.
Such an extended view of meaning applies to all text types in general and those having figurative
semantic relations in particular, i.e., literary texts. In this regard, Nida (1985:119) states:
The area of cultural specification, however, is likely to provide the greatest difficulties for the
translator. In translating a text which represents an area of cultural specification in the source
language but not in the receptor language, the translator must frequently construct all sorts of
descriptive equivalents so as to make intelligible something, which is quite foreign to the
receptor.
 53

In our opinion, this process of finding semantically equivalent lexical items is carried out by
performing a variety of shifts in the central and/or peripheral components of the ST lexical
items. By means of careful contextual conditioning, the translator may remove or insert some
componential values associated with the ST lexical items. According to Nida (1969:107), "in
many instances, shifts of components involve only a shift from a literal etymological meaning to
one which is functionally more relevant." Nida's example for this case is the translation of the
word 'devil' whose etymological meaning is 'Satan.' If translated, say, into Arabic, the word
would mean nothing unless an etymological shift is used, i.e., the translator has to refer to its
etymological origin then transfer it into the TL. Another type of componential shift goes from
generic to specific meaning or vice versa.

As for the relation between the lexical items and their referents, which is the core of their
referential meaning, the translator is likely to face three situations. The first one is "the existence
of a term (and its corresponding referent) in the receptor language, but with an equivalent
function being performed by another referent" (ibid. 44). A good example for such a situation
arises when translating from English into a language which has no word for 'snow.' The translator
has to replace the word 'snow' in the phrase 'as white as snow' by another word, which refers to a
white-colored object.

The second situation is "the existence of the referent in the receptor language, but with a different
function from what it has in the source language."(ibid.). The English word 'owl' and its Arabic
equivalent 'buum' represent a good example for such a problem. In English, it refers to a class of
birds with positive connotation, i.e., wisdom and good omen. Arabic has exactly the opposite
connotation for the same referent, the fact which necessitates finding another word referring to an
object with similar connotations.

The third situation is "the non-existence of the referent in the receptor language and no other
referent with a parallel function" (ibid.45). The translation of any lexical item denoting
technological inventions from English into Arabic provides a good example for such a problem.
Here, the translator is compelled to force foreign words into the TT or to use descriptive phrases
to explain the meaning of individual lexical items.

In all the situations discussed above, the translator finds himself obliged to adopt some strategies
so as to bridge these semantic gaps. In this regard, Jacobson's (1959:234) words would serve to
conclude the discussion:

Wherever there is deficiency, terminology may be qualified and amplified by loan words or loan
translations or semantic shifts and finally, by circumlocutions.
 54

1.4. The Textual Component

To be described as such, a text should exhibit two kinds of structural and cohesive relations: local
and global (Hendricks, 1976:41). The first can be accounted for by 'Sentence Grammar' on which
enough has already been said. The second kind includes the relations which cannot be accounted
for "without reference to inter-sentence features and to portions of the text beyond the sentence
under consideration" (Enkvist, 1973:111). Consequently, the inclusion of such a component
would inevitably presume reliance on text linguistics. As a matter of fact, the incorporation of this
linguistic approach is an essential procedural condition for the macro level of analysis. In other
words, the analysis cannot be carried out on randomly chosen sentences without taking into
account that these sentences should exhibit the property of global cohesion in addition to their
local cohesion. This particular requirement is satisfied by inserting a textual component within
the macro level. The analysis within this component will focus on the elements within individual
sentences which, in addition to playing a role in the structure of the sentence itself, also
contribute to its integration into the textual whole, by making it dependent in some way on other
sentences within the same text. These dependent sentences convey information about one
another, which makes them constitute a cohesive whole. There are two other sources of this
interdependence, namely, textual and discoursal. The former refers to the variety of global and
local cohesive markers within the portions of the text while the latter refers to the functional
dependency among these portions. The latter dimension imposes the inclusion of another macro
discipline of language description, namely, 'discourse analysis.' This means that the question to
be asked about any linguistic unit is what the user hopes to achieve with this particular bit of
language, i.e., its use, in addition to its form. This issue is accounted for by the pragmatic
component within the macro level. The description of this component will be given after the
description of the present component.

By now, it is obvious that the textual component of shift analysis views the data in their broad
scope. Hence, this analysis will be carried out in terms of the textual well-formedness which
entails such variables as collocation, reiteration, ellipsis, references, substitution and the like.

1.5.The Pragmatic Component

Stalinker (1973:38) defines pragmatics as "the study of purposes for which sentences are used, of
the real-world conditions under which a sentence may be appropriately used and alternate." In
this sense the meaning of a single expression may vary in accordance with the purposes behind it
and the conditions surrounding the communicative act.

This view of meaning, which necessitates the inclusion of a pragmatic component in any proper
semantic analysis, corresponds to what Widdowson (1973:69) refers to as "the communicative
use of sentences in the performing of social actions." Leech (1974:141) uses the term 'connotative
meaning' to refer to the same type of meaning. To him, the connotation of an expression is the
"communicative value an expression has...over and above its purely conceptual meaning."

In contrast to the linguistic meaning, which can be extracted from the grammatical relations
within a given text, pragmatic meaning can only be analyzed by referring to the cultural and/or
linguistic context of that text. Accordingly, the analysis of pragmatic shifts in translation can only
 55

be carried out by attending to the immediate cultural context of situation of the ST and matching
it with that in the TL so as to put a finger on the possible areas of shifts when the translator tries
to convey the same message into the TL. In this connection, reference is to be made to speech
acts theory as initiated by some pragmatists, e.g., Austin (1965 ). This means that the analysis
should account for variables such as the intentions of the writer or speaker, his expectation, the
time of utterance, the truth value of the propositions expressed, other speech acts being performed
in the same situation, and so on. In other words, the analysis will take into consideration the
major functions of language as a means of communication in a social setting. What is important
here is that the realization of these functions varies greatly from one language to another, which
adds to the necessity of using a pragmatic component in the present model. In fact, this variation
in the realization of the pragmatic functions of language goes is expressed in two phases. First,
languages employ different formal devices for realizing similar speech acts. These formal
variations include all lexical and syntactic means allowed by the grammar of each language.
Second, the contextual spectrum, which imposes the performing of particular acts, differs
considerably from one culture to another. Furthermore, at a higher level of delicacy, "cultures
may also differ in the rules for when certain speech acts can be appropriately performed."
(Benthalia and Davies, 1989:102). In this regard, one may refer to the considerable differences
between English and Arabic in the kind of formulas commonly used to perform the acts of
greeting, leave-taking, thanking, apologizing and so on. The content of these formulas and the
rules of their use frequently reflect the particular values and beliefs of their....users. To take only
one example of these differences, Arab speakers frequently use formulas containing religious
references for greeting and thanking, e.g., / baraka Allahu fiik/ (lit. 'blessing of God upon you'); /
Allah ykhaliik/ (lit. 'may God preserve you'), etc., while functionally corresponding English
formulas do not contain such references. Similar differences between the two languages can be
recognized in the formal realization of 'imperatives.' There are many situations in which an Arab
speaker uses an imperative construction while intending to convey a polite request or invitation.
In such a case he may use some forms of invocation or good wish for the addressee.

The above discussion entails that the categorization of speech acts into, greeting, thinking,
request, etc., is a universal phenomenon, the linguistic realization of these acts and the rules of
their performance in one language "do not necessarily have exact equivalents in another
language, and raise a lot of questions related to the theory of translation." (Enkvist, 1973:57). The
implication of this statement on the phenomenon of shifts is self-evident: one needs to account for
all these differences in order to point out the possible shifts within this particular area. Another
requirement for this analysis is to identify in each language which formal devices are used for
particular speech acts. Both formal realizations then will be compared so as to point the
obligatory and optional shifts between them.

The inclusion of the textual component in the present model entails the inclusion of another
related, through distinct, component, namely the rhetorical on which a brief account is given
below.

1.6. The Rhetorical Component

The native speakers of any language are capable sometimes of maintaining the logical
relationship that exists between a group of linguistic units even with the absence of explicit maker
 56

for this relation. An English native speaker, for example, can give the same interpretation for the
following sentences, where the first contains an overt linkage marker, which is lacking in the
second:
- Medicines can kill and therefore should be kept out of children's reach.
- Medicines can kill; they should be kept out of children's reach.

Kaplan (1972:ix) attributes this ability to the fact that this is how speakers of English organize
their thought by means of culture-specific devices known as 'rhetorical devices.' The cultural
restrictedness of these devices implies the inevitable occurrence of shifts in this particular area for
which this particular component is dedicated. In his attempt to characterize the rhetorical
structure of a number of languages, Kaplan (ibid. 61) views English as 'direct' whereas much
oriental writings are 'indirect' or 'circulocutionary.' According to him, the speakers of Semitic
languages tend to transfer a complex series of parallel constructions to English. Therefore, this
gives evidence for the likelihood of shifts in this particular area.

Languages may also exhibit many differences in other phases of rhetoric such as foregrounding,
irony, allegory, metaphor, simile, metonym, etc., The reason behind these differences is self-
evident: these phases are associated with people's conceptual experiences and ideologies. In this
regard, the variations between English and Arabic in the area of simile and metaphor represent a
good example. In consequence, this particular component has been included so as to account for
the possible shifts that may arise with some major rhetorical devices, e.g., metaphor, idiomatic
expressions, foregrounding and metonym.

1.7. The Stylistic Component

Style is the last area to be dealt with at the macro level of analysis. Hence, we shall consider
certain overall features of style which contribute to the occurrence of shifts of various levels of
the TL text. Furthermore, we do not intend to restrict the term 'stylistic' to its literary conception.
Instead, following Fowler (1966:15), I hold the view that style is "a property of all texts,"
without, however, going as far as to overlook the fact that literary texts exhibit some stylistic
features more clearly than non-literary ones. With this clear precaution in mind, we assume that
every language has its own stylistic conventions which may differ from those of other languages,
which may cause stylistic shifts to arise when two languages are involved in terms of the function
of these conventions and their formal carriers, i.e., their linguistic realizations. When two or more
TL expressions are available at the translator's disposal to express the same SL meaning, stylistic
shifts become possible. Obviously, the role of content here is to serve as the starting point for
shift analysis. The other issue relevant to the analysis of stylistic shifts is the problem of style
definition. The need for a satisfactory definition of the term 'style' would help us get rid of the
complexities of literary criticism. In other words, we need to restrict this term so as to account for
the measurement of stylistic shifts in the TT regardless of their type. This means that this term
should be defined in purely linguistic terms rather than defining it as a literary concept.

Here, it is necessary to emphasize the overwhelmingly optional nature of stylistic shifts. In other
words, I perceive these shifts as TL structural alternative means of expressing a single SL
message at various levels of language use.
 57

Interlingually, stylistic shifts can be explained with reference to the same distinction between
obligatory and optional application of language rules. An obligatory rule in one language could
be optional in another. Accordingly, the analyst's task is to analyze the original writer's typical
strategies in utilizing optional transformations and his use of different kinds of transformational
operations to compare them with those of the translator.

The second important point presumed by Galperin's statement refers to the variety of implications
conjoined with the term 'style.' The point can put more concretely as follows: the definition of
style "implies that words [and other linguistic units] on a page might been different, or differently
arranged, without a corresponding difference in substance" (Ohman, 1964:430). One significant
implication of this statement is that a distinction should be made between the form of the message
and its content. The following section is a discussion of this issue.

1.7.1. Dichotomy of Form and Content:

Nida and Taber's (1969:105-6) statement in favor of this dichotomy seems the best starting point
for this section. It reads as follows:

In translating the message from one language to another, it is the content which must be
preserved at any level; the form, except in special cases, such as poetry, is largely secondary,
since within each language the rules for relating content are highly complex, arbitrary and
variable... Of course if by coincidence, it is possible to convey the same content in the receptor
language in a form which resembles that of the source, so much the better, we preserve the form
when we can, but more often it has to be transferred precisely in order to preserve the content.
An excessive effort to preserve the form inevitably results in a serious loss or distortion of the
message.

The implication of the above statement is evident: stylistic shifts are expected with the translator's
effort to preserve the balance between form and content of the message on the one hand and his
tendency to reflect his character on the other.

Although some scholars tend to restrict the criterion of form to literary texts, our position here is
that "there is probably no absolute formal distinction between literature and non-literature: neither
of these two categories is formally homogenous." (Fowler, 1966:16). However, this
generalization should not be misunderstood as to deny the existence of literature. Instead, it is
meant as being a working hypothesis necessary for the task of analyzing stylistic shifts within a
linguistic framework. To put it more clearly, we assume that all examples of language use exhibit
a linguistic form susceptible for empirical investigation (ibid.). Furthermore, it makes no
difference if the designation 'literature' is used for a certain class of constructions, since members
of this class exhibit formal differences among themselves as well as compared to other members
outside this class. In short, "there is no constant, or a set of constants, which differentiates all
members of the class 'literature' from the members of the class ''non-literature.'" (ibid.11). Even
when we agree on the importance of form to literature, this does not trivialize the fact that
linguistic forms exist and should be taken as an essential area of investigation in all other
examples of language use. The inseparability of form and content goes with the view that form
 58

has a function and the translator has to discover and transfer it to the TL (cf. Crystal and Davy,
1969; Leech and Short, 1981; Hatim and Mason, 1990). In this sense, the translator's task is not
only to transfer the content of the message but also to transfer its form as far as possible.
However, following Nida (1985:24) "languages clearly do not differ primarily in what they can
communicate, but in how they do it." This is an overt reference to the occurrence of stylistic
shifts in translation at two levels. On the one hand, there is the intrasentential level where
languages differ in their optional and obligatory rules of sentence formation. On the other hand,
stylistic shifts are also likely to occur at the inter-sentential macro level where language may
exhibit substantial differences in the rules of text formation and message organization.
Consequently, the analysis of these shifts will be carried out on both levels in parallel with the
axis of obligatory and optional shifts.

Now the conclusion to be drawn is that 'stylistic shifts' is a cover term used to refer to the variety
of macro formal modifications of the ST when transferred into the TL. The occurrence of these
shifts, moreover, can only be predicted by referring to the rhetorical and stylistic conventions of
each language in question in addition to the translator's preference, choice, and ability.
Before moving to the framework of analyzing stylistic shifts, it should be mentioned here that the
contribution of form to the meaning of a text varies according to the text type. The amount of
stylistic shifts varies accordingly. In some genres, e.g., prose, poetry, religious texts, etc., form
has a cohesive and an aesthetic function which conveys "the creative will of the writer and lend
the text an outward shape" (Wilss, 1982:76).

1.7.2. The Role of the Translator

Among all factors affecting the occurrence of stylistic shifts, the role of the translator stands as
the most recognizable factor. The majority of optional shifts taking place in translation can be
attributed to the differences between the original writer and the translator as two text-producers.
However, the impacts of these differences are usually suppressed by the literary norms of the TL
and the norms of the translation activity itself. More important is the translator's relation to the
text given. This relation is neatly described by Popovic (1970:80) as follows:

It is not the translator's only business to 'identify' himself with the original; that would merely
result in transparent translation. The translator also has the right to differ organically, to be
independent, as long as independence is pursued for the sake of the original, a technique applied
in order to reproduce it as a living work... Thus shifts do not occur because the translator wishes
to 'change' a work, but because he strives to reproduce it as faithfully as possible and to grasp it
in its totality.

Popovic's statement reminds us of many factors, which affect the translator's adoption of a
particular style in rendering a particular text into another language. One of these factors is the
literary norms that may differ in the SL and TL, the case which leaves the translator with three
choices: to imitate the original style, to rely on the TL stylistic norms, or to compromise the two
by practicing his own stylistic prejudice. The last two options would naturally result in a great
deal of stylistic shifts.
 59

The other point is that some languages may have much more highly developed aesthetic and
rhetorical patterns than other languages, which gives the translator more freedom to choose the
way he likes in expressing the original message. Moreover, the range and refinement of some
literary genres could be more developed in one language than in another. Both cases are typically
applicable to the translation of elevated literature such as poems, epics, religious texts, etc.

The third factor relevant to the role of the translator in stylistic shifts relates to the 'national
features' of the ST. In this regard Zora Jesenka (quoted by Popovic, 1970:81) has the following to
say:

Both the translator and the reader are the children of their generation, which displays its own
character in its manner of perception and expression. And the older the work we translate and
the more distant the culture which produced it, the more crucial culture is the question of how to
preserve the temporal and national features of the original and to make them accessible to the
actual perception of the present reader.

Thus, it is the aim of making such literary works accessible to the TL reader that encourages the
translator to use stylistic shifts. Following Popovic (ibid.), such shifts are expected as a rule
"because the identity and difference in relation to the original cannot be solved without some
residue." Up to this point, the translator's dilemma becomes evident: he would never strive to
preserve all the singularities of the original but rather he would try to reflect his own identity
while preserving the gist of the original message. Furthermore, he will try to make use of
contemporary equivalents and comprehensible by his perceptive reader. Doing all these tasks, the
translator will display much of his translation skill and literary taste. Skill and literary taste are
two prerequisites to produce a 'natural' translation because the act of substituting the SL norms by
TL ones is a highly subjective issue that demands creative intuition on the part of the translator.
Again, this is so because direct transfer of specific stylistic features from the SL into the TL is
hindered by both the organic character of the ST components and the divergence between the two
stylistic norms of both languages, on the other. This transfer becomes possible "only by means of
an equivalent function, namely by appropriate shifts." (Popovic, ibid.83).

To sum up, our perception of the role of the translator is that he is a performer of a dual task. On
the one hand, he has to adhere as much as he can to the content of the message, including its form
(if it is part of this content); on the other hand, he tries to reflect his identity and tends to produce
a 'natural' text. This tendency, we believe, can best be achieved by means of a set of stylistic
shifts.

Conclusions
The first noteworthy conclusion of this paper is that the phenomenon of 'shift' should be
redefined positively as the consequence of the translator's effort to establish translation
equivalence (TE) between two different language-systems: that of the SL and that of the TL.
Psychologically, the occurrence of these shifts reflects the translator's awareness of the linguistic
and non-linguistic discrepancies between the SL and TL. In this sense, shifts can be defined as
 60

problem-solving strategies adopted consciously to minimize the inevitable loss of meaning when
rendering a text from one language into another.

Second, since translation proper is concerned with the transfer of meaning, the analysis of shifts
in translation should take into account the non-linguistic factors—in addition to the linguistic
ones—so as to achieve a comprehensive analysis of these shifts.

Third, shifts in translation constitute a counterclaim to language universals ; therefore, these

shifts can be better examined within the domain of 'difference' in translation. This conclusion is
based on the assumption that languages do not differ primarily in what they communicate but in
how they do so. Consequently, CA has been proved as a powerful diagnostic tool for shift
analysis.

Fourth, the distinction between various types of shifts at various levels necessitates the distinction
between various types of equivalence in translation, e.g., functional, pragmatic, textual,
collocational, rhetorical, etc.

Fifth, the distinction between micro-level and macro-level shifts is compatible with the
distinction between various types of translation, e.g., literal, free, etc. The same distinction is also
compatible with the distinction between various units of translation, e.g., word, sentence,
paragraph, etc.

Sixth, the postulation of the terms, 'optional' and 'obligatory' shifts satisfies the need to account
for linguistic and non-linguistic differences between the languages involved in this process.
Finally, we assume for our model, as it is described above, a universal operation regardless of the
languages involved in this task.

Selection 3: Professional Language Translators

The Translation Profession

So what's it all about? Who and what is a translator? How does one become a translator? What is
going on in the translation profession? This article and the other thirteen will take a close look at
these and related questions. This first article is an overview of what is to come in the rest of the
series, though by no means an outline or a summation of the remaining thirteen articles. If you are
an experienced translator, you might want to browse this article and then get into the meatier
discussions of current and forthcoming technologies, sticky financial and legal issues, or nagging
ethical problems. If you are new to the profession, or if you are exploring translation as a possible
profession, please take the time to read this article so that you are acquainted with certain basics
about translators and what they do.
 61

What is a Translator?
A translator converts written material, such as newspaper and magazine articles, books, manuals,
or documents from one language into another. This is not to be confused with an interpreter, who
converts spoken material, such as speeches, presentations, depositions, and the like, from one
language to another. Although there is some vague connection between the abilities involved in
translation and interpretation, translators cannot necessarily interpret, nor can interpreters
necessarily translate. Moreover, the best translators are not good interpreters and likewise, truly
great interpreters are not much for translation. And while many professional training programs
require interpreters to develop some skill in translation, professionally trained translators often
have no exposure to the skills of interpretation.

To be clear about the languages used by translators, I‘ll refer to the translator‘s native language as
the A language and the non-native languages as the B or C languages. A B language is one which
the translator can speak, read, and write virtually as a native speaker does. A C language is one
which the translator can read and understand like a native, but does not necessarily speak or write
so well. Obviously we all have an A language, and equally evident, all translators have a B
language. Many translators have more than one B language, and some also have C languages.
What very few people have is two A languages, and even if you are one of those who do, take
care in making the claim, as many people will be skeptical.

I‘ll also use the following terms. Source text or language will refer to the language which the
material first appears in, usually the translator‘s B language. Target text and language refer to the
language that the material is translated into, usually the translator‘s A language. In general,
translators work from their B or C languages into their A languages, though an individual‘s skills
and the market‘s needs may alter this principle.

Bilingualism
A good translator is by definition bilingual. The opposite is not necessarily true, however. A born
and bred bilingual will still need two things to become a translator: first, the skills and experience
necessary for translation; second, knowledge of the field in which he or she will translate. The
skills and experience for translation include the ability to write well in the target language, the
ability to read and understand the source language material thoroughly, and the ability to work
with the latest word-processing and communications hardware and software.

This brings up an important question: Does a born and bred bilingual makes a better translator
than someone who learned the B language later in life? There is no definite answer, but the
following issues are important. First, a born and bred bilingual often suffers from not truly
knowing any language well enough to translate, with some even suffering from what is known as
alingualism, a state in which a person does lacks a full, fluent command of any language. Second,
born and bred bilinguals often don‘t know the culture of the target language well enough to
provide top-quality translations, or cannot recognize what aspects of the source language and its
culture need to be treated with particular care, as they are in a sense too close to the language.
And last, they often lack the analytical linguistic skills to work through a sticky text.
 62

On the other hand, the acquired bilingual may not have the same in-depth knowledge of
colloquialisms, slang, and dialect that the born bilingual has. As well, the acquired bilingual will
not be able to translate as readily in both directions (from B to A language and A to B language).
Finally, born bilinguals often have a greater appreciation of the subtleties and nuances of both
their languages than someone who learns their B language later in life can ever hope to have.

The Education of a Translator

Translators come from all backgrounds. Some have Masters degrees in translation from the
Monterey Institute of International Studies or Kent State University, some have certificates from
Georgetown University or other programs in the United States, others have degrees from schools
in Europe (such as the ones in London, Paris, or Geneva) or Asia (such as Simul Academy in
Tokyo or Winzao in Taiwan) and many have a degree in a general field such as literature or
history. While a specialized degree in translation is useful, it is far from necessary. What counts
more than anything else is ability. So where does this ability come from?

Perhaps it is nature, but I suspect that nurture helps immensely. Most translators are very well-
read in their languages, and can write well. Some are writers who use translation as a way to
write for a living. Others are fascinated by language and use translation as a way to be close to
their favorite subject. Still others are experts in certain fields and use their language skills to work
in that field.

Almost all professional translators in the United States have at least a college degree. Some even
have advanced degrees either in translation or in the field they specialize in (a few even have
both). Most translators have university-level language training in their B and C languages. Some
started their languages earlier, others later, but very few translators have no language training at
all. Of course, language training might mean specialized courses from a variety of schools.

Translators also generally have lived in the countries where their languages are spoken. I know of
translators who have spent seven or even ten years in the countries of their B language. Some
translators have spent more time in the country of their B language than in the country of their A
language. The notable exception to this is Spanish in the United States and English abroad.
Because Spanish is used so widely and is as common as English in many parts of the U.S., some
translators learn and then work in the language without ever leaving the U.S. As well, translators
in other countries often work from English into their native language with just the language
training they received in school.

Above all, translators must have a deep interest and dedication to the languages they work with.
The only exception to this rule is people who translate very specialized material. I know an
individual with a Ph.D. in mathematics who translated a book on topology from French to
English. His French skills are dubious, but since few people in the world understand the material,
he was suitable. In almost all cases, however, translators have to be committed to honing and
polishing their language skills throughout their professional life.
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The knowledge of the field the translator is working in is often overlooked by translators and
those that hire them. Translators are by definition language professionals, but they also have to
cultivate a knowledge of the areas they work in. Few translators claim to be able to translate
anything written in their languages, just as few people can claim to be experts in everything. Most
translators have to specialize, working with one or a few related categories of material: legal,
financial, medical, computers, or electrical engineering, to name a few. Each field has its own
vocabulary, syntax, and style; the translator has to work hard to develop the knowledge necessary
to deal with such material.

The knowledge also includes two other important factors. First, the translator should have the
background knowledge to work in the field. This does not mean that a medical translator should
have an M.D. or that a translator of software manuals should be a programmer. But some
background, experience, or education (or all three) is essential. This can be obtained through
coursework, on-the-job experience, or self-study. No one seems too concerned with exactly how
translators develop their subject knowledge, as long as they truly have. And though translators do
have degrees in their specialization, most do not.

Second, the translator should have the necessary resources to deal with the material. This means
dictionaries, glossaries, and any other resources. Such resources can include web sites devoted to
translation or terminology, Usenet discussion groups concerning translation, friends or colleagues
who work in the profession, and magazines and journals. And translators have to work tirelessly
to maintain if not improve their knowledge of the fields they work in by reading related material.
They also have to invest the time and money in maintaining their reference library.

In other words, professional translators are always learning. You don‘t just put your hand on a
rock and say: "I am a translator." Nor do you simply acquire a language in a few months by living
somewhere and then begin translating. Heinrich Schliemann may have learned to read each of his
languages in six weeks, but he couldn‘t write or speak them (nor did he need to). Moreover, at
that time, languages had considerably more limited vocabularies than now. And of course,
reading and translating are two separate things.

So at what point are you ready to begin translating? Simple. When you feel that your abilities of
expression and comprehension in your A and B languages are strong enough that you can do the
job properly by the client‘s deadline. The length of time to cultivate these abilities depends on the
person and the language. Native speakers of English have an easier time with the Romance and
Germanic languages because their grammars, syntax, and vocabulary are relatively familiar. A
language like Chinese or Japanese takes a long time simply because you have to learn to read and
understand thousands of characters, as well as deal with grammar, syntax, and structure wholly
unrelated to that seen in English.

Finally, you have to be able to prove that you have the skills you claim to have. Experience
living, working, and studying in the country of your B language is one form of proof. A degree in
your language or in translation is another. Taking a test such as the ones given by the ATA, the
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State Department, or the United Nations is another. But I‘ll leave the discussion of accreditation
for a separate article.

What is a Translation
A turn-of-the-century Russian translator said: "Translation is like a woman, if she is beautiful,
she is not faithful; if she is faithful, she is not beautiful." I hope you will ignore the blatant sexism
in the statement and instead see one of the kernels of truth in translation. Translators must strike a
balance between fidelity to the source text and readability in the target language. We have all
seen material that is so obviously translated as to sound awkward in our native languages, and in
some cases as to bear enough hallmarks of the source language as to be readily identifiable as
coming from it. The best translation is the one that no one recognizes as a translation. In other
words, the document should read as though it were written in the target language originally. This
implies, by extension, that the translator's time and effort are transparent, and the translator ends
up being invisible. In other words, you do your best work when no one realizes you have done
anything.

Achieving this level of translation is challenging, to say the least. Imagine walking a tightrope
blindfolded during a wind storm, with people throwing heavy objects at you and shaking the
rope. This represents the balancing act. Now add to it the often unreasonable deadline which
agencies require of translators by having someone behind you on the rope poking you in the seat
of your pants with a pitchfork. Sound frustrating? It can be. But if you enjoy a challenge and
know how to deal with your languages, it‘s not too bad after you‘ve been at if for a while (I
suppose the same can be said for tightrope walking).

The trick is to let your clients decide what they want. Since they have to live with the results of
your work, let them choose. Patiently explain to them the options they have, how long each might
take, and how much each possible version will cost. They‘ll decide if they want a literal, if
unreadable, translation or if they want a Pulitzer Prize-winning text.

If your client can‘t decide, doesn‘t know, or won‘t tell you, then follow the advice of Buddha and
take the middle path. This is easier with some languages and some subject areas than others.
Although most people think that technical material is easiest for stylistic considerations, consider
this. Academic style varies from nation to nation. In English, we generally present our thesis, then
give the evidence, develop the argument, and then reach the conclusion. However, in Japanese,
we usually present a vague thesis, give the evidence slowly with lots of discussion, and then
reach some tentative statement about the thesis in the form of a conclusion. Other differences
exist among other language pairs. Somehow you have to deal with these differences.

Another potential pitfall with technical translation is that often the client cannot let you see or
touch the object in question. If you are translating a computer system manual, it‘s very helpful to
see and even work a little with the system. The same holds for a video game, home audio
component, or for that matter a scanning electron microscope, which I realize is hardly something
you want in your home, but I have translated manuals and technical specifications for such
technology. Sometimes seeing the product in question is not possible, the system or software may
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still be in development, so you are effectively flying blind, trying to land yourself at a destination
you‘ve never seen. You might have to create terminology for the system, only to find that the
client wants something else. You then have to go back and change everything you did.

The most difficult problem is when you encounter something in one language that doesn‘t exist
in the other. Financial instruments, legal procedures, government and business structures, and so
on vary from nation to nation and culture to culture. Although standard glossaries exist for the
most commonplace of these, in other words those that you might hear about on Headline News,
translators are usually dealing with new or specialized material and information, so you might be
stuck having to christen something on your own, or leave it in the A language and put in a
translator‘s note explaining what the term means.

There is a Golden Triangle in any form of business. It is an equilateral triangle (meaning that all
three sides are the same size), with the first side being Quality, the second, Time, and the last,
Price. If you consider an ideal project to be a balance of all three, and therefore rest in the center
of the triangle, you can see what happens when you want to lower costs (imagine your job
moving toward the Price side). Quality goes down and Time remains the same. If you want a
cheap job done quickly, then Quality really drops. Conversely, if you want a job whose Quality is
excellent, then Price and Time both rise. Keep this in mind when you consider your translation
speed and what you charge; you will want to be flexible in both areas to give your clients what
they want.

What is Translated
Most of the material people want translated is not high culture. I have translated materials
ranging from articles in medical journals on deep vein thrombosis to bearer‘s bonds. The longest
translation project I ever did was a 65,000-word book; the shortest, a two-word phrase.

Outsiders to the profession generally see translation as a slow and expensive process which most
businesses and organizations would rather avoid. One client told me that translation was, and I
quote, "A f*cking pain in the Go**amn #ss." They prefer not to go through the hassle of calling
some agency, sending them the material, waiting for a bid, bargaining and haggling over price,
form and date of delivery, and then waiting to see if they get something they can use. Very little
of what businesses do is worth translating. So what they do translate has to be important to
someone somewhere. And therefore it has to be important to you to do it right, especially if you
want to get more work from that client.

What might seem stupid to you could be worth a lot to someone. I‘ve translated lost traveler‘s
checks surveys, interoffice memos, and advertising copy for car care products. None of this is
high culture. But someone wanted it, so I did my absolute best. Remember, the only way to
survive as a translator is to do a good job. You will be judged primarily if not solely on your
work.

This said, materials to be translated come in all sizes and shapes. Often you have to deal with
hand-written material. Someone scrawled out some message to someone else and this twenty-
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five-word chit of paper is now Exhibit A in an international patent infringement lawsuit. You
probably won‘t know that, but it could happen. When I was working in-house as a translator for
the City of Kawasaki in Japan, my supervisor plopped a short letter on my desk and I translated
it. I later found out that Prime Minister Takeshita took this letter to President Reagan during the
Summit meeting in 1988. You never know.

When translating, no problem is too small, no term too minor to be ignored. The people who read
your translation don‘t know the source language. If they did, they wouldn‘t have hired you. It‘s
easy to see why an article describing a surgical procedure must be done very accurately. It might
be harder to see why the comments of a Japanese co-ed on an airline survey would be important,
but they could affect future policy of that carrier. You have to take it all seriously if you want
your clients to take you seriously.

The Role of the Translator

Translators are language professionals. They are applied linguists, competent writers, diplomats,
and educated amateurs. Like linguists, translators have to be capable of discerning subtleties and
nuances in their languages, researching terminology and colloquialisms, and handling new
developments in their languages. Like writers, translators have to be accustomed to working long
hours alone on a subject which interests few people and with a language that few people around
them know. Like diplomats, translators have to be sensitive to the cultural and social differences
which exist in their languages and be capable of addressing these issues when translating. And
like educated amateurs, translators have to know the basics and some of the details about the
subjects they deal with.

The above is an idealization of the translator, an image which professional translators aspire to
and achieve with varying degrees of success. Not all translators need to overflow with these
qualities. They must, however, have them in sufficient measure to be able to translate their
material in a manner acceptable to their clients.

Somewhere in the process of translating, the translator will come across all these issues. When I
work with technical or medical documents, I have to deal with the intricacies of technical writing
in Japanese and English and research new or obscure terms (and sometimes invent my own). I
struggle with my English to polish and hone it so that the client sees the material as natural,
without the tell-tale signs that it was translated from Japanese. I deal with the differences between
Japanese and American culture, especially when I translate computer manuals. We give
instructions and explanations in the U.S. very differently from how people give them in Japan.

Like any professional, translators have to stay on top of their areas of expertise. I devote a lot of
my time to browsing through magazines like "PC Magazine", "MacWorld", "Scientific
American", "The Journal of the American Medical Association", and the "New England Journal
of Medicine" as well as reading numerous books on developments in medicine and computer
science.
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The fundamental rule when you‘re not sure of a term or phrase is ask. When you have doubts or
questions about a translation, call the client, ask your question, and then get the answer. If you‘re
still not sure, make a note of it in the final translation. Clients are surprisingly tolerant of such
notes and often expect them. I‘ve even heard that clients are sometimes suspicious when they
don‘t see these notes. After all, how much can a translator know about new surgical procedures to
clear a pulmonary embolism?

In-House versus Freelance

Translators either work for themselves as freelance translators or in-house as employees of, for
instance, a translation agency or software localization firm. The former are typically called
freelance translators, or freelancers, and the latter in-house translators. If you are just entering the
profession, or if you are considering translation as a career, you have to look closely at these two
options to decide which is right for you.

As a freelance translator, you are a business owner. You will take care of marketing, invoicing,
accounts payable and receivable, taxes, equipment purchases and maintenance, and so forth.
Freelance translators may make more per year on average than in-house translators, but their
income is far more variable, and they have to cover all their own expenses, including all taxes,
retirement funds, medical and other forms of insurance, and business/operating costs.

As an in-house translator, you work for someone else. You go to your office in the morning, sit in
your cubicle during the day translating whatever the company needs, attend meetings to discuss
large-scale translation projects, terminology, or equipment, go to training sessions to learn to use
the new LAN system or MAT software, and then go home in the evening. Like most jobs, you get
paid vacation, insurance, half of your Social Security and FICA taxes paid, and a retirement plan
of some sort.

Although the remaining articles will discuss the above differences between freelance and in-
house translation in detail, and even offer suggestions as to which people might be suited for, I
will say here that often questions of personality and work style are irrelevant. The first and most
important question is money. Can you afford to be a freelance translator? To start as a freelance
translator, you will need a several thousand dollars to get the computer hardware and software
you need, to do some marketing, and to wait out the first few months during which time you will
likely have little work, and you will be patiently waiting for that first invoice to be paid. So if you
are single with few financial responsibilities, some money saved, and don't mind a bit of a risk,
the answer to the money question is affirmative: you can have a go at freelance translation. If
however you are married with a couple of children, have the usual expenses of a mortgage,
medical costs, and so forth, then you should think very carefully before starting up as a freelance
translator.

There is also a strong argument for getting your feet wet in the industry by working for someone
else. You can think of it as paid on-the-job training. You will learn more about translating by
translating than by doing anything else. And you will also acquire not only all that secondary
know-how, such as word processing, negotiating, or filing tax forms, but also lots of practical
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knowledge of the industry, such as rates, which language pairs or subject areas are in demand, or
what technologies are likely to affect translation in the near future. You might even develop
relationships that can be turned into clients for a freelance business. So consider starting off as an
in-house translator, especially if you are uncomfortable with the financial aspects of working for
yourself, or are uncertain as to how you will feel about working at home alone.

A Paradox
The very qualities that seem to make a good translator, those of attention to detail, passion for
languages and research, care and craft in writing, also seem to be those that make a poor
negotiator or marketing person. How does one overcome this paradox? One, force yourself to
market, even when you don‘t want to. Make a commitment to yourself to send 100 letters to
agencies this week; to call your top five clients for a brief chat; to do annual taxes before 1
October, after having filed an extension on 15 April. You are in business, and don‘t forget it.

You should also remind your clients that you are a business professional. Translators want to be
treated as professionals, and therefore, they have to behave as professionals. Take the time to
learn about your industry, about your languages, about your subject specializations, and about the
technology you use to do the work you do. In any industry, there are always too many people
wanting to do the work to be done, and too few people who can actually do the work properly. As
a translator, you want to make clear to everyone that you are in the latter category, and not in the
former.

Above all, as a translator, you are standing between two people or organizations, one which
created the material and the other which wants to read it. You are their solution to this otherwise
intractable problem. Remember, it‘s the information age, and there‘s lots of information out there
in lots of languages. Translators are the ones who bring this precious commodity to the people
who want it.

Selection 4: Ethics and Professionalism in Translation

The True Professional

I am going to make a hazy but important distinction here. I believe there are translators and then
there are professional translators. The former are people who translate on the side, using their
knowledge of a particular field to translation work. For instance, in a previous article, I referred to
a mathematician who translated a book on advanced mathematics from French to English. I do
not consider him a professional translator.

Professional translators are applied linguists whose ability to work with language, write well, and
for free-lancers, to operate a business, represents their source of income. Professional translators
are people who are dedicated to their languages and the nations, societies, and cultures which
come with them. They are devoted to improving their ability to understand their source language
and write in their target language. They recognize that translation is both an art and a skill. As
such, they are also committed to deepening their knowledge of the fields they translate in, and to
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cultivating greater facility for writing about such matters. They also have nurtured a deep respect
for business ethics, aware that they are in many instances the communications conduit for a
product or service, for information or opinion, and so must consider the consequences of their
linguistic decisions. Finally, professional translators know that they can always improve and
polish their translation ability.

Professional translators are also distinguished by certain attitudes and approaches to their work.
In this article, I want to take a close look at these attitudes and approaches and help clarify what a
professional translator is and how we can all become more professional about being a translator.

Unlike the medical or legal professions, there are no precise academic or professional
prerequisites to be a translator. This is a boon for those talented individuals who want to get
started in the translation industry and a bane for those people trying to identify true professionals.
The only requirement a translator must fulfill is knowing two or more languages. Anything less is
rather hard to accept.

Virtually all professional translators in the United States have at least a Bachelor‘s degree, and
translation vendors will rarely if ever work with a translator who does not have an undergraduate
education. Often these degrees are in language studies, or some related field. However, some
translators have degrees in their field of specialization and have academic language training as a
college minor. Others have advanced degrees in translation itself. Still others have little if any
formal academic language training, instead having learned their languages either in the home or
while living abroad.

Translators have to be able to write, so you might assume that translators have formal academic
training as writers and professional writing experience. I have found little evidence for this. Few
translators I know truly love writing; to most it seems to be merely an essential aspect of
translation. However, most professional translators do have a deep interest in writing, be it as a
necessary tool or an art form.

Finally, virtually all translators have a well developed knowledge of one or more specialized
fields, such as finance, law, including in particular patent and corporate law, computer science,
medicine, pharmaceuticals, and so on. This is not to say that translators are experts per se in such
fields, but they do have enough knowledge to read, understand, and then translate common
material in the field. And very few translators will ever develop such in-depth knowledge in more
than a few fields.

Ethics
I have said virtually nothing about professional ethics in the previous articles, except to make
suggestions as to how translators might better approach their business endeavors. There are,
however, ethical considerations in translation, including decisions on how to charge clients, when
to refuse to do a translation job, or how to respond when clients treat you poorly. What follows is
a series of general observations that I hope will provide some ideas as to how and why ethical
business behavior is advantageous, particularly in the long run.
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Translators are often privy to secret information, be that the financial plans of a company, a
pharmaceutical patent, or the specifications for a new computer chip. If it hasn‘t occurred to you
that there are people who would pay a lot of money for this information, then you shouldn‘t take
up writing espionage thrillers. If it hasn‘t occurred to you that you could use financial information
to make money, then Ivan Bosky probably isn‘t your hero or idol. Translators have to keep this
kind of information to themselves, regardless of whether or not they are asked to sign a
nondisclosure or confidentiality agreement.

Occasionally the desire for secrecy goes so far as to require the translator not to talk about the job
at all. I have at least two larger jobs like this per year, and while doing such work I say nothing to
anyone about it other than that I currently have work (much as the Chinese greet each other with
a phrase that literally translates as "did you eat rice?", freelance translators often greet each other
with a question like "have enough work these day?"). This probably irritates some of my friends
and colleagues, who may arrive at the incorrect assumption that I am translating design
specifications for a UFO hyperdrive being reverse-engineered at Area 51 in Nevada, but I do feel
bound to honor the agreements I enter into.

You may be wondering, so what? It won't matter if I tell me spouse, my friend, my fellow
translator, that I am working on documents related to a major international lawsuit that won't
become public for the next three months. Please trust me when I tell you it will. The translation
industry is very small and tightly knit; it is composed of people who know how to communicate
and are used to doing so via the Internet and the Web, and of people who generally like to talk
about work if only because they tend to work alone. So anything you say could end up being
mentioned in a Usenet group or chat room, at which point it would be public knowledge. And if
you can't figure out why leaking the preparation for a major, multi-billion dollar lawsuit
regarding illegal trade practices six months before it becomes public would be a problem, then
you probably shouldn't be a translator.

In a similar vein, translators have to honor the agreements they make. If you agree to do a job,
then you have to do it. You can‘t just farm out your work and take a percentage without telling
your clients that you do this. They have a right to know who is actually doing the work. If they
decide to hire you, then they want you, not someone you know, to do the job. Moreover, you
have to do the job the way you say you will, which often means doing what the client asks. If the
client provides a glossary or style sheet, follow it, regardless of your personal opinion of their
word choice or formatting ideas. If they request a particular file format, provide it. If you really
think something is wrong with their terminology or format choices, tell them. The client always
has the final word on such matters, but at the same time will usually appreciate your observations
or suggestions.

In the same vein, translators should not accept assignments they don‘t have the time or
qualifications to do. I regularly turn down work because I am too busy with other jobs or because
I don‘t have the expertise to do the job justice. Remember, the easiest way to lose a client is to do
a bad job. Don‘t.
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Efficient Ethics
All right, enough of the lecture. I realize most readers don't want a polemic, so let me see if I
can't motivate you through a simple strategy and a few basic facts about the translation industry
to be an ethical, professional translator.

There is a well-established idea for the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma in Game Theory called the
Tit-for-Tat Strategy. The Prisoner's Dilemma may be familiar, but for those to whom it is new, it
goes like this: Two criminals who together committed a crime are brought in by the police for
questioning. The police think they both did it, but would have a much easier time if one ratted out
the other. So they separate the two criminals and make the following offer to each: If you rat out
your partner, we'll get the district attorney to give you only six months. If you stay quiet and your
partner rats you out, you get ten years. And though the police say nothing, there is of course the
possibility that the criminals could go free (but only if they both keep quiet). Under such
circumstances, most criminals will rat out their partner. Now to generalize this idea a bit for the
Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma. In this version, a group of individuals of any size are all set to
interact with each other repeatedly over the same issue. In any given interaction, an individual
can cooperate or defect. In other words, you can be nice to the other members of the group, or
you can screw them. It can be shown mathematically, and has been shown many times, that the
best strategy in this Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma is Tit-for-Tat, or to be specific: cooperate (be
nice) when interacting with another member of the group for the first time, then reciprocate their
behavior thereafter. In other words, after you're nice to this other individual, if that individual is
nice back, be nice; if that individual defects (screws you), defect back (screw 'em back). This is
the best long-term strategy because it is simple and effective.

Why? you ask. The answer is in thinking about the situation overall. Always start off nice. Easy
enough to understand that, since goodwill generally begets goodwill, and you know that you will
be interacting with these other individuals in the future (no sense in making enemies right away).
After the initial encounter, be nice only if the others are nice to you. Again, easy enough to
understand because you want to reward good behavior and encourage it to continue, and you
want to punish bad behavior and discourage it in the future. The only requirement for this strategy
to work is that you keep track of what others are doing to you. Fortunately, the human brain is
well-designed for this task, and there is computer software, such as Personal Information
Managers (PIMs) to further simplify the task.

So how to apply this to freelance translation? Again, simple. Always start off with a nice, polite,
cooperative attitude toward any new client. Don't be automatically suspicious; just be careful.
You can find out a lot about a potential new client by asking colleagues and doing web searches.
Unless there is sound reason to reject work from the new client, do the work properly (your form
of cooperation), then monitor what happens. If you are treated well, paid promptly, and offered
more work (the client's form of cooperation), of course you accept it. You cooperated, the client
reciprocated, everyone is happy. If the client screws you, screw them back (so to speak) by not
accepting any more work and by reporting their behavior to everyone else in the group. Cheats
cannot succeed in the long run unless the group in question is infinitely large; since there is a
finite number of translators, no client can screw translators forever. Conversely, no translator can
translate for very long while screwing clients, because there is a finite number of clients
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available. Cheats may be able to succeed in the short run, but only if the rest of the group lets
them. We can talk to each other about bad client experiences, just as clients talk amongst
themselves about bad experiences with particular translators. We can post accurate, precise
information regarding bad behavior from clients on web sites dedicated to such matters. In
essence, we can help each other keep track of everyone's behavior, encouraging good behavior
and punishing bad behavior. A translator will not last any longer without clients than a translation
vendor will last without translators.

Recently in the journal Science there appeared the latest in a long series of studies on Game
Theory and altruistic behavior. Once again researchers clearly showed that those individuals who
are known to be open, generous, and honest benefit the most in the long run. The Golden Rule
applies here, in other words. Not only will people do unto you as you do to them, or are likely to
do to them, but these people are keeping track, as should you.

To sum up, the translation industry is a small, tightly-integrated industry in which people tend to
talk a lot. We can use this to our advantage by adopting the Tit-for-Tat strategy in our business
efforts and helping each other keep track of who has done what. Good behavior, whether it is a
translator doing quality work and delivering it on time or a client offering respectable rates and
paying promptly, should be recognized and rewarded. Bad behavior, for instance a translator
consistently and without reason delivering work late or an agency regularly withholding or failing
to pay translators, should be acknowledged and punished. If each of us does even a little of this,
the industry itself will automatically improve rapidly and dramatically.

All that said, now we'll look at some specific recommendations and suggestions as to how we can
all become more professional in our translation endeavors.

Handling Clients
The true professional knows how to conduct business, including the art of negotiation, providing
necessary information, and making agreements for each job.

I‘ve discussed the importance of negotiation in previous articles. The only point I want to raise
here is that sounding confident and definite when you negotiate is important. You won‘t impress
anyone if you hem and haw when asked questions about price or terms of delivery. Know your
rates by heart, know your hardware and software by heart, and know what you can do. Give this
information freely and firmly, and then watch and wait. Remember, the heart of negotiation is
compromise; if the client doesn‘t like your terms, they‘ll make a counter offer. Then it‘s up to
you to accept or make yet another counter offer.

One word of advice about negotiation: dickering and bickering is not the way to cultivate clients.
Often a slightly lower rate in the short run leads to more work and higher rates in the future. I
have started at slightly lower rates with agencies and then found in short order that they were
feeding me large assignments regularly. Conversely, I‘ve turned down rates which I thought were
too low and then found that the agency later offered me work at a higher rate. If you provide
quality work at a fair price, you will have clients.
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Providing information is an essential part of being a professional translator. Clients have to know
who you are, where you work, what you can do, and what you charge. When you receive a
request for information from a client, be it a new client who has sent you a contractor‘s
employment form or an old client requesting updated information, give it willingly and in detail.
Your clients have to know you.

You also have to be accessible. Make sure you are in your office, or at least near your phone,
during the workday. Just because no one calls you in the morning doesn‘t mean you have the
afternoon off. You should still be in your office. Sure, you‘re saying to yourself, that‘s important,
but I can still go out and do things. Yes, you can. But remember that if a client can‘t reach you
they‘ll send the job to someone else. At the very least, get an answering machine which lets you
call in and collect your messages from another phone. I have one and it‘s helped me considerably,
especially when I‘m out on business and I want to know what‘s going on back in my office. Also
check your email many times per day. Some clients are now sending out job offers via email and
expect prompt responses. In particular, if you participate in any of the Web-based translation
exchanges, such as Proz (www.proz.com) or Aquarius (aquarius.net), then you should check your
email regularly to see if someone is soliciting your services, or if your bid for a job has been
successful.

Making agreements refers to setting the rules for each job. By rules I mean terms which include
how the job is to be done, how much you will be paid, and when and how it will be delivered.
Establish all of this before you accept the job. You might even want to get the terms in writing,
though I don‘t bother doing this with clients I know well. Just make sure you know what you are
supposed to translate, what file format the client wants, when and how you are to deliver the job,
and what you‘ll be paid for it. Accepting a job without this information is foolish and can lead to
numerous problems.

Sometimes an agency will say that they don‘t really care when you finish a job, what file format
you use or how you deliver it. What they mean is that they don‘t need it fast, they have the
hardware and software to handle common file formats, and they aren‘t concerned with the
delivery method. Regardless of their level of interest, you should establish how you are going to
do the job, and then do it that way.

After-service
I love this word, whose origin is found in Japanese business culture but exists in one form or
another all over the world. The notion that a translation job ends the moment you push the Send
File button in your email software, fire off the fax, deposit the papers in an envelope, or complete
the upload of the translated file to an FTP site is both unprofessional and irresponsible. Don‘t
leave your home for the beach right after you finish a translation assignment; numerous things
can go wrong after you send the job.

What can possibly happen that requires my involvement? you ask. Here‘s the list: the agency‘s
fax machine doesn‘t print your transmission clearly enough (this happens often when sending
hand-written work, such as an editing job); the BBS or FTP site doesn‘t receive the modem
 74

transmission; the agency can‘t open or convert your file; the agency opens your file but gets mere
gibberish (affectionately known among hackers as baud barf); the agency loses your file; or the
agency has questions about what you did.

You have to stick around after you send the job, just in case. I‘ve sent jobs in to agencies on the
East Coast on Friday morning and then received calls at 6:00 p.m. my time. If you know you are
going out (or away for the weekend), tell the agency beforehand, preferably when you deliver the
job. Make sure they know you won‘t be around after a particular hour and ask them to confirm
that the file you sent was received and can be processed. It takes a little more effort but is well
worth it; the agency will love you.

Professionals solve problems. This also means that you should try to help your clients with
problems. I have helped numerous clients troubleshoot a computer network, BBS, or software
incompatibility over the phone while negotiating or discussing a job. Always be useful and
helpful; it will make them remember you and think well of you.

Translators must stand by their work. Eventually, a client will call you and tell you that your
translation sucks, that their bilingual five-year-old niece could have done a better job, that a
colubus monkey has superior spelling skills. Regardless of how offended or angered you are by
such claims, take the time to work through the problem with the client. Ask for specific
comments, such as where the errors are, what kind they are, and how many there are. If the errors
are in fact your responsibility, offer to fix them immediately at no extra charge. If the errors fall
into that nebulous area of style or proofreading, offer to participate in the clean-up process but
stand by your work if you did what you were told. The most important thing is to service the
client. They have the work and the money, so it behooves you to make a positive impression no
matter how negative the situation might be.

Even after the job is finished and the agency confirms receipt of it, keep the file on your hard
drive for weeks to come. I usually keep the file on my hard drive until after I am paid for the job,
and then I remove , though it is still available on an archival disc. Why? For one, I worked with a
translation vendor which lost my translated file some five weeks after I submitted it. They were in
a panic and called me, praying that I had kept the file. To their delight, I said I had it and would
upload it immediately. Of course, this won‘t happen five years later, but five years seems to be
the current statute of limitations on law suits involving translated materials as well as most other
suits in which translated materials could be subpoenaed. So keep everything you translate for at
least five years and remember to deduct the cost of the disks and the space used to store them.

As an aside, I recycle printed material after three to five years since completion of a job, but I
retain electronic copies of all material I have ever worked on. Data storage is so cheap and
efficient that deleting files seems pointless. I may not be able to open some of those files
eventually, but with the right tool in the right hands the textual content could be extracted.

Upon finishing a large job such as a book or computer manual (I‘ve done many of both), I
usually send the agency a letter along with the finished translation and keep in contact with them
 75

as they edit my work and prepare it for publication. I also make clear that I am willing to remain
involved in the process, that the agency may call me for clarifications on my work, such as
choices about style or terminology, and that I am genuinely interested in the final outcome. It‘s
always good business to be involved in the entire process, not just the small part of it which
represents your work.

In sum, you should treat your clients like puppy dogs. They are very curious, very busy, easily
distracted, always rushing from one thing to the next, and not necessarily willing or able to
understand everything you ask of them or report to them. I don't mean you should not respect
your clients, or that you should look down on them. Quite the opposite. Know their limitations
and work with them. Don't assume they already know (much like a new owner of a puppy might
do), but instead check, double-check, and then check once more. There is an aphorism in
Japanese that goes: to question and ask is a moment's shame; to question and not ask is a lifetime
of shame. If you fail to ask, the shame will be doubly yours, because not only will you often look
and feel silly, but you may well also lose a client.

The Suit Does Not Make the Translator

Translators are among those fortunate few who do not have to dress up for work. I won‘t go into
the details of what I have worn or where exactly I was in my home when talking to clients on the
phone, but suffice it to say that those were not conditions under which I would have wanted to be
face to face with a business contact. Conversely, translators have to sound professional at all
times, regardless of the situation.

In many businesses, a visual impression is the most important. A good suit, a proper haircut, a
clean shave (of the legs or face), and the other professional amenities are essential to success.
Translators don‘t have to endure this unless they work in-house or meet with their clients in
person. Instead, we have to rely on what we say, how we say it, and how we sound in order to
create and maintain business relations. So good spoken English, or any other language you use
professionally, a confident, polished manner, and a strong sense of professionalism in what you
say is vital.

You literally cannot afford to have one of those bored, dull voices that telemarketing firms inflict
on the average American daily. You can‘t afford to sneeze and cough throughout your business
negotiations, unless desperately ill, in which case you might consider not working. Few people
translate well while suffering from the flu and using powerful decongestants. You can‘t afford the
cries of children, the yelping or chirping of pets, or the complaints of roommates in the
background. Your home office has to sound like an office. Make sure it is in a quiet part of your
home, away from the noise of a kitchen, garage, playroom, or workroom, and can be closed off
from the rest of the house by a door. If you live alone, just keep the stereo or TV down, or have a
remote with a mute button handy to turn off the volume when the phone rings.

A Nice Neat Package

So a professional translator is something of a package, combining a strong linguistic background
with an interest in writing, as well as polished business skills. I realize that I haven‘t answered the
 76

question with which I started this article: whence cometh the true professionals? However, the
true professionals themselves may not know where they come from, and I‘m not sure it‘s all that
important that they do. All translators have to strive for an ever higher level of professionalism to
bring prestige and respect to themselves and the translation profession.

Selection 5: Text Translator

A well-known Italian saying declares traduttore, traditore, 'Translator, traitor,' implying this
sneaky species is congenitally incapable of remaining faithful to the original text. For most
people, a good translation is one that looks nothing like a translation. In other words, the
translator should be invisible, their work limited to conveying the original's meaning in a fluent
and natural style. These commonplace ideas have provoked the questions behind this article. Are
we all indeed lurking traitors who have to remain invisible for our work to be minimally
acceptable? Why do people generally entertain such notions and what bearing do these have on
our profession? Let's start with the dictum 'translator, traitor.' People capable of reading texts or
watching films in their original languages almost always grumble about the quality of the
translation found in books and subtitles. Which of us has not overheard someone muttering in the
movie theatre, "hmm, but the character didn't say that: the translator is useless."

Most of those making this type of comment are unaware of the difficulties inherent in translating
for film. In addition to following all the dialogues and possessing a deep knowledge of the
country and culture where the story is set, the translator subtitling a film has to work within the
time limit of the scene. Since a subtitle cannot 'leak' into the next scene, the viewer has to be able
to read the entire translated speech during the scene in question.

Of course, sometimes the lay audience is right. After all, there are film translations that are
simply feeble, ideal candidates for a program of bloopers and howlers... But film translators -
including those working for TV and video, albeit with a few differences - are forced to cut the
characters' speech fairly drastically, limiting the subtitles to conveying the context of what is said.
As a result, film translation - whether dubbed or subtitled - is much more an adaptation than a
simple transcription into the target language.

Because most people think of the process of translation as a mere swapping of words from one
language to another, it is common for us to hear comments that basically devalue our work. Were
translation really such an easy task, it would have been replaced by computer software long ago,
rather than remaining the often extremely exhausting intellectual work it actually is. Which one
of us does not have a relative or friend who appears from time to time with the technical manual
for some electronic device or other and asks whether "you could do a quick translation"? After
several such experiences, I have found a way of fixing this type of situation: I take the manual,
flip through it, count the pages, and state how much my 'quick translation' will cost. In most
cases, this is enough for the cheeky in-law to give up...
 77

The main upshot of this attitude, which we can dub universal, is the notion that translation is an
undemanding job. Translating is presumed to be easy as people imagine it involves little more
than an automatic and mechanical process, matching word for word the contents of the original
(where just the wrapping is swapped). Another nefarious outcome of the long-term propagation
of this idea is underpayment for translation work. Perceiving it as child's play, clients often
budget low costs for related work. It is common for companies and people to be astonished with
the prices actually charged, and they are unprepared to pay the sums that a project actually
demands.

An impossible invisibility
Another central point of this article is the idea of the translator's 'invisibility.' This notion is
reflected in the instructions frequently dispatched to the translator, roughly along the lines of
"reproduce the idea of the original text in full, follow to the letter the original's style and ensure
that the translation has the same fluency and naturalness as the original text." For most critics, a
good translation is one that bears no living resemblance to a translation and where the translator
manages to convey the meaning of the original text. This attitude completely negates the
translator's essential intervention in the text.

In the real world, of course, our work is slightly more complicated than switching words around
like building blocks - it is much more complex, demanding an interchange of meanings. If it were
an easy operation, automatic translation programs would be able to perform the task. However
since it is necessary to exchange and change meanings, especially in order to achieve the much
coveted fluency in the target language, nothing matches human thought and the human being's
capacity for abstraction. Our task is to transmit the text's meaning, bearing in mind that it is not
always possible to find exact equivalents. For example, in Polish the word 'table' has not only one
counterpart but two: stol (which means a dining table) and stolik (which means a coffee or
telephone table). In this case, as in so many others, where we cannot simply swap one word for
another, we have to adapt the text. Translation is an extremely complex mental process of
substituting meanings, where we continually make choices based on our current lifestyle, the
country where we live and even our own life history and experiences.

Apart from the difference in language, there is a whole set of other differences that the translator
must take into account. Some of these differences completely engulf every translator, such as the
social and historical context within which they live. For example, cable TV recently broadcast a
mini-series on the rap movement in the US. I can readily imagine how difficult the subtitling
must have been, given the immense cultural differences involved. Obviously, the Portuguese
spoken in Brazil displays variations that reflect the social context of its speakers. Yet in contrast
to rap in the United States, these variations are not overtly intentional. In the US, rap language is
frequently used as a form of protest. Even if the translator opts to use a more informal, slang-
based language, this alone is unlikely to capture the overall social context of rap. Historical
context also influences the creation of the translated text. Were someone to produce a translation
of Shakespeare or Cervantes today, their text would undoubtedly be very different from a text
produced even decades ago.
 78

The idea that translation is a simple exchange of meanings also involves another supposition -
that the translator is capable of reading the author's mind and converting what he or she meant
into another language. However, no reader - including the translator - is capable of absorbing
exactly what an author meant to say. Every reading we make is equally influenced by our
education, the environment in which we live and by the present moment.

These factors in mind, it is difficult to think of the translator as an invisible being. Even the most
fluent text will be heavily influenced by its surroundings. No translator works simply by
swapping words. Our work involves adapting and transferring the meaning of these words into
the local reality. It is not by chance that software translation is called 'localization,' or in other
words, adaptation to local patterns.

Fortunately, this view is slowly being replaced by a more relativist approach, where thought is
taken to be linguistically constructed. From this perspective, languages represent concepts rather
than objects. These concepts take shape in the mind of speakers independently of the objects they
represent.

In earlier time, scholars debated whether it was possible to transfer meaning from one language
to another. Contemporary academics have turned to questioning how far it is possible to transfer
such meaning or how far languages are formed by 'human nature' and how far they are shaped by
culture.

Following these insights and taking into account the translator's environment, he or she no longer
appears as a 'traitor.' Today we know just how much we are influenced by the historical moment,
culture and society in which we live. We also know nowadays that before translating a text, it is
necessary to contextualize it, identifying the period, place and circumstances in which it was
written. Rosemary Arrojo describes this process in her book Oficina de traducao (The Translation
Workshop):

The text, like the sign, ceases to be a 'faithful' representation of a stable object capable of existing
outside the infinite labyrinth of language and becomes a machine of potential meanings. Hence,
the prototypical image of the 'original' text ceases to resemble a sequence of containers carrying
a determinable and completely recoverable content. Instead of considering the text, or the sign,
as a receptacle in which 'content' can be deposited and kept under control, I suggest that its
prototypical image becomes that of a palimpsest, from the Greek palimpsestos ('rubbed smooth
again'), referring to the "ancient writing material, especially parchment, that, due to its scarcity
or high price, was used two or three times [...] by rubbing off the previous text."

Metaphorically, in our 'workshop,' the 'palimpsest' becomes the text erased in each cultural
community and each epoch, so as to give way to another writing (or interpretation, reading or
translation) of the 'same' text.

Seen from this viewpoint, translators no longer resemble traitors, but people responsible for
adapting the original text to the current social and historical context.
 79

The work of translation is acquiring the recognition it deserves as people and companies demand
higher quality results and become aware of the difficulties involved in the process. Each sub-area
of translation (literary, legal, IT, film, TV, video and so on) has its own peculiarities, such as the
use of special tools, the limits imposed by space and time, production of source texts by non-
native speakers, and so on. These aspects, associated with the increased demand caused by
globalization, have highlighted the above questions and show that translation is in fact a highly
complex and specialized process.

So when that annoying brother-in-law appears with the little manual for his latest electronic
gadget, debate these philosophical questions with him. And at the end, quote the price for the
translation. I promise he will give up very quickly.

Selection 6: How Many Words Per Day Does a Translator Do?

One topic most freelance translators just starting up their business devote some thought and
calculations to, is this: How many words am I supposed to translate per day?

Well, it is a tricky question - and it doesn't really have an answer! We all have different working
approaches, different speciality fields, different software etc. This makes it very difficult to
generalize. You will soon notice yourself; two texts of equal length will take you different long to
translate.

The main factors involved in deciding how many words you can translate per hour or per day are:
Text format - When you are working from hardcopies it takes longer than when you are working
on electronic texts. It will also go quicker if you are working in a program you are very familiar
with as opposed to a program you have just bought and are unfamiliar with.

Available dictionaries - Looking up words you don't know will go quick if your dictionaries are
good. If you have to search for words - be it on the Internet or at the library - you will loose a lot
of time.

Use of CAT-tools - If you are using a CAT-tool, the translation process will go quicker,
especially if you are working on a repetitive text.

Speciality topic - The more familiar you are with the topic, the quicker the translating will go.

Style of the source text - Another factor is the style the author of the source text has used. If you
compare two texts within the same topic you might find that one text will consist of floating and
poetic sentences whilst the other will have short and hard sentences.

Typing speed - How quick can you type? This is also one factor determining how many words
per day you get through.
 80

Motivation - When you are having a bad day and not feeling too good, it will also be very
difficult to get your work done. The more motivated and focused you are, the quicker you can
translate.

Then you also have to calculate the time it will take you to edit and proofread your work. The
translating job does not consist of just translating - you also have to check and double check your
work!

The average translator will tell you that he or she can translate 100 words per hour working on a
complicated text where he or she is not familiar with the topic and needs to do a lot of research.
On the other hand the same translator will tell you he or she can do 500 words per hour working
on an easy text in his or her speciality field.

When working on a project requiring extra effort an average translator will do up to 4000 - 6000
words per day. But this workload cannot be maintained over longer periods of time. An average
translator will do between 2000 and 3000 words per day, working at a comfortable speed and also
having time to revise and proofread his or her work properly.

Consider the following two translations: Translation 1 is a PowerPoint presentation consisting of

1200 words and the text is an environmental report. Translation 2 is a software manual of 3000
words written in Word. If you asked several translators to perform these two translations and then
asked how long each translation took them, you would not get the same answer from any of them.

I would use about six hours for the first job and about seven hours for the second job, that is
including editing and proofreading, not counting breaks. Even if translation 2 has over double the
amount of words, I do not need much more time on that than the first translation. I am not very
familiar with the topic environment. I would have to spend relatively much time researching the
terminology and looking up words. In addition, I am not very familiar with PowerPoint either.
Even though this is a relatively easy program, I am bound to run into a problem or two. A
software manual, on the other hand, is right up my street. This is a subject I don't need to do a lot
of research on, as I am quite familiar with the terminology used. In addition Word would not
cause me any problems.

So basically you have to set your own standards. To do this you can time yourself. See how much
you can translate of different types of texts in one hour. This way you get an idea of how much
you can expect to do in a day of a certain type of text. You learn as you go - and soon you will be
able to predict very accurately how long it will take you to translate any given text.
 CONTENTS
Chapter 1: ISSUES RELATED TO TRANSLATION 1
Unit 1: The Business of Translating 1
Unit 2: Thoughts for the Future 4
Unit 3: What Every Novice Translator Should Know 8
Unit 4: What Makes a Translator? 16
Unit 5: Polishing Your Translation Style 20
Unit 6: Myths about Translation and Translator 25
Chapter 2: ISSUES RELATED TO INTERPRETATION 28
Unit 7: Interpreting 28
Unit 8: The Interpreter 30
Unit 9: What Makes an Interpreter Do? 31
Unit 10: Working with Simultaneous Interpreters 33
Unit 11: Strategies for New Interpreters 34
Chapter 3: SELECTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 40
Selection 1: Quick Answers to General Questions 40
Selection 2: Contrasting a Model for Shift Analysis in Translation 43
Selection 3: Professional Language Translators 60
Selection 4: Ethics and Professionalism in Translation 68
Selection 5: Text Translator 76
Selection 6: How Many Words Per Day Does a Translator Do? 79
References 81
Thông tin về tác giả của giáo trình:
- Họ và tên: Nguyễn Văn Tuấn
- Sinh năm: 1963
- Cơ quan công tác: Tổ Biên-phiên dịch, Khoa Tiếng Anh, Trường Đại học Ngoại
Ngữ Huế
- Địa chỉ email: tuannguyen11863@yahoo.com

Phạm vi và đối tượng sử dụng giáo trình:

- Giáo trình Translation Psychology chủ yếu sử dụng để dạy cho sinh viên ngành
Tiếng Anh, chuyên ngành Biên phiên dịch. Giáo trình này còn có thể dùng để dạy
hoặc dùng như nguồn tham khảo cho sinh viên ngành Quốc tế học, Việt Nam học.
- Giáo trình có thể dùng cho các trường Đại học ngoại ngữ, Đại học sư phạm ngoại
ngữ, Học viện quan hệ quốc tế.
- Yêu cầu kiến thức trước lúc học môn này:
Để học tốt môn này, người học cần phải có kiến thức cơ bản về lý thuyết dịch bao
gồm các khái niệm về biên-phiên dịch, khái niệm về ngữ nghĩa, ngữ dụng và diễn
ngôn. Ngoài ra người học cần có kinh nghiệm ít nhiều về công tác biên-phiên dịch
hoặc là đang tham gia công việc này hoặ là sinh viên đang học các môn biên-
phiên dịch thực hành
- Các từ khóa để tra cứu:
Business of translating, interpreting, interpreter, translation evaluation, research
skills, CAT, comprehension skills, composing skills, criteria for a good translator,
simultaneous interpretation
- Giáo trình chưa được xuất bản, chỉ được sử dụng trong chương trình elearning của
Đại học Huế.