PROPERTY CONSTRUCTION

Basic Structural Theory,

Defects & Commercial
Construction

Workshop, Week 3
Lecture, Week 12
Semester 1, 2011
1
Structural Theory
 Structural forms
 Design loads
 Soil compaction
Defects
 Types of defects
 Reasons for defects
Commercial Buildings
 Overview
 Building concepts
 Structural principles
 Construction methods
 Concrete construction
 Steel construction
 Load bearing masonry
Construction Economics
 Overview

3
 Basic Structural Theory

“Structure design is the application of structural theory to

ensure that buildings are built to support all loads and resist
all constraining forces that may reasonably expected to be
imposed on them during their expected service life”
Building Design and Construction Handbook.
Building Components

 Substructure
 Superstructure
 Finishes
 Fittings
 Services
 External services
 Structural Forms
 Mass
 Cellular
 Cross-wall
 Frame
 Beams
 Columns
 Bracing
 Shell
 Domes
 Source :
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=3P43BRYv&id=46DAD7E40BBADD4D8DC88AD107CB396EB868C91C&thid=OIP.3P43BRYvX8
_RpLE6KjHp5AHaFi&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fassets.inhabitat.com%2fwp -content%2fblogs.dir%2f1%2ffiles%2f2012%2f10%2fCob-Geodesic-Dome-
Norway-1.jpg&exph=545&expw=728&q=geodesic+dome&simid=607988245533098585&selectedIndex=0
 Date Accessed 12/5/2021
Building Elements

 Substructure  Superstructure
 Foundation base  Part of building
for building above ground
 Includes  Includes walls,
excavations, floors, roof,
footings and doors & windows
ground floor slab
Design Loads
 Loads are external forces acting on a
structure
 Loads tend to deform the structure
and its components
 Loads are classified as:
 Dead loads – made up of the weight of
the building materials that are
permanent
 Live loads – made up of weight of
occupants and equipment that are
temporary
 Wind loads – due to prevailing or
temporary winds
 Seismic loads – due to sudden
earthquakes
 Stress Forces
 Stresses are internal
forces that resist loads
 Stress Forces:
 Tensile – tend to stretch
 Compressive – tend to squeeze
together
 Torsion – tends to twist
 Shear – tends to slide parts of the
structure past another
Structural Equilibrium

 beam  slab

Load (concentrated) Load (distributed)

End supports Continuous support

 Structural Elements
 Function  Beam
 Resist imposed  horizontal structural
loads member resting on two or
 Transfer loads to more supports
foundations  Can be fixed, cantilever or
 Provide vertical & continuous
lateral stability
 Column
 Resist bending
 Vertical structural
member designed to
transmit imposed loads to
other members or to the
foundations
Downward pressure from loads on arches and couple roofs
structures tend to move supporting walls or columns outwards
and rotate footings
Design should include struts or buttress walls to withstand
outward pressure
Long slim columns will buckle under excessive vertical loads.
Sufficient thickness and reinforcement should be incorporated in
design.
Beams will bend downward at the centre under excessive
loading. Top of beam will be in compression and bottom under
tension.
Movement: Wind Pressures

Wind pressure varies with its velocity, the height of the

building and its exposure to the wind.

Wind may exert pressure on some parts of the roof and

suction on others depending on the shape and pitch of the
roof

Strong winds tent to create sufficient lift to damage roofing

cover if not properly designed
Substructure
 Soil mechanics
 Bearing capacity  Suitable soils
 Permeability  Gravelly sand
 Compressibility  Clean sand
 Shrinkage/swelling  Silty sand

Soil type

 Problem soils
 Coarse grained
 Gravels, sand
 Top soil
(non-cohesive)  Peat
 Fine grained  Soft clays
 Silts, clays  Filled sites
(cohesive)
Soil Testing
 On-site testing
 Standard penetration test
 Perth Sand Penetrometer
 Density of granular soil
 An acceptable reading for domestic
construction on clean sand when using a
penetrometer to test the soil compaction
would be 7 blows
 Loading test
 Test for settlement of soil
 Vane test
 Shear strength of cohesive soil
 Laboratory testing
 Bulk density test
 Pits & trenches
 Weight per unit volume of soil
 Sulphate content test
 Auger drilling
 Chemical testing
 Soil Suitability& Compaction
 Non-cohesive soils will improve their bearing capacity
by compaction
 Clean fill should be compacted in layers of no more
than 300 mm
 The addition of some moisture will improve
compaction
 Compaction testing using a sand penetrometer is
acceptable for low-rise buildings
 Compacted soils will better
resist settlement
Pitch Vs Truss
 Defects in Buildings
 Introduction
 Buildings are expected to have a long and trouble free life.
However, buildings require constant care and maintenance to
remain in good working condition.
 Some buildings will deteriorate at a much faster rate, or even
fail structurally, due to inadequate design, faulty or sub-
standard materials use, and bad workmanship.
 The correct diagnosis of defects can reduces not only the
incidence of failure and repair work, but also provides data to
the designer, materials and component manufacturer and
builder.
 In the analysis of building failures, both natural deterioration,
defective materials and faulty workmanship should be
considered as they often result the same symptoms.
 Defects, faults and omissions in the original construction often
are the root cause of rapid deterioration in buildings.
 Causes of Defects
 Omissions and faults in the original design
 Uses that are beyond the original scope
 Deterioration due to exposure to weather
 Natural deterioration due to age
 Lack of necessary maintenance and repairs
 Overloading by forces beyond the design limits
 Settlement
 Subsidence
 Poor workmanship
 Sub-standard materials
 Common Defects
 Cracks and spalling to concrete floors
 Cracking to walls
 Dampness to walls
 Erosion of brickwork and mortar joints
 Cracking plasterwork
 Dampness to ceilings
 Roof frame sagging and distortion
 Roof leaks
 Asbestos materials
 Wood rotting
Faults & Causes
Cracks to concrete slab Inadequate foundations; insufficient concrete strength;
reinforcing rebar; inadequate concrete curing; slab not thick
enough

Source:
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=sUXLNlu3&id=F82EBA24AB46D21C7913684C6AD49047CAB1E7
B1&thid=OIP.sUXLNlu3EwxVDOlb9aQuhwHaFj&mediaurl=https%3a%2f%2fwww.truelevelconcrete.ca%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f2017%2f11%2fFN_RES_SR_Slab-Crack_04-1-
1024x768.jpg&exph=768&expw=1024&q=cracks+to+concrete+slab&simid=608024550899386858&selectedIndex=13
Accessed 22/5/2020
Faults & Causes
Wall cracks Inadequate foundations; inadequate footing design;
differential settlement; lack of expansion joints; reactive soil;

Source:https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=xKsyQNPr&id=29D85744E2A28940920D94B4
7D6CC40F75B4BCA6&thid=OIP.xKsyQNPrioxmuivsMHfwWwHaFj&mediaurl=https%3a%2f%2finspectapedia.com
%2fstructure%2fShrinkageCrack111DJF.jpg&exph=480&expw=640&q=wall+cracks&simid=60803897341994901
5&selectedIndex=49
Date Accessed: 22/5/2020
Faults & Causes
Wall dampness Rising dampness due to omission or faulty of DPC; lack of
weepholes to brickwork; faulty flashings over openings;
breach of cavity wall; faulty roof plumbing

Source:
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=ay0BIDih&id=4B44E0EF8
17D98FFFD03B91DE0D8EE80A1CEA6F5&thid=OIP.ay0BIDihREQUPSF385GiJQHaDf&
mediaurl=https%3a%2f%2fprecision-dampproofing.co.uk%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f2017%2f06%2fAre-Damp-Walls-Bad-For-
You.png&exph=565&expw=1200&q=wall+dampness&simid=608005034587326389
&selectedIndex=10
Date Accessed 22/5/2020
Faults & Causes
Fretting brickwork & Mortar Bricks not adequately cured before use; chemical erosion from
atmosphere; weathering from exposure; insufficient mortar
strength

Source:
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=G7fTQuSG&id=4BAAD65
578E0DDE98BB63817B92198ABF69EA34A&thid=OIP.G7fTQuSG8U41sRopm2CaUgH
aFj&mediaurl=https%3a%2f%2fresidentialsettlements.com.au%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f2010%2f06%2fIMG_0423.jpg&exph=1200&expw=1600&q=f
retting+brickwork&simid=608052730152812652&selectedIndex=3
Date Accessed: 22/05/2020
Faults & Causes
Roof leaking Broken tiles; roof decking incorrectly installed; ponding of flat
roof ; ridge cap pointing deterioration; inadequate flashings
and roof drainage; faulty roof penetrations

Source:
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=NTH17li2&id=09F556916
52192B65290F1D6FCF40720FD6BBC95&thid=OIP.NTH17li2LAHFJLZfQ4zxPgHaE0&m
ediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.goldkeyroofing.com%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2froof-leaking-water-
damage.jpg&exph=520&expw=800&q=roof+leaking&simid=607999610022527043&
selectedIndex=1
Date Accessed: 22/5/2020
Faults & Causes
Roof sagging Faulty roof design; inadequate roof timber sizes; excessive
loadings; use of unseasoned timber; faulty carpentry; rusted
structural fixings

Source:
https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=XeJGv2%2b9&id=E86178575D26F1082C6C89B7A6B
BF0C4CAC00003&thid=OIP.XeJGv2-9TSDIDsgK8PbJ2wHaFj&mediaurl=http%3a%2f%2fwww.lighthouse-home-
inspection.com%2fimages%2fsagging-
roof.jpg&exph=300&expw=400&q=roof+sagging&simid=608014212984408932&selectedIndex=4
Date accessed: 22/5/2020
Faults & Causes
Timber deterioration & Termites and other borers attack; wood destroying fungi; dry
rot; wet rot (due to moisture and lack of ventilation)
decay

Source:
https://https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&id=4C1192966B44568D
EB2D35DB1699793541CF85A8&thid=OIP.Z-gnngP-
1Cw0RYN4GNv30AHaE7&exph=653&expw=980&q=Timber+decay&selectedindex=1
&vt=0&sim=11&ccid=Z%2BgnngP%2B&simid=608004078487340912&mediaurl=htt
ps%3A%2F%2Fwww.homebuilding.co.uk%2Fcontent%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F10%
2FTimber-Decay-Window-Frame.jpg
Date Accessed 22/5/2020
Foundation Faults
 Unsuitable soils  Earthworks
 Organic topsoil  Incomplete clearing

 Reactive clays and grubbing

 Uncompressed peat  Insufficient or

 Other issues differential

compaction
 Uncontrolled fill
 Drainage
 Contaminated
 Insufficient or faulty
ground
drainage
 Acid soils
 High water table
 Subsidence
 Underground
streams
Sub-structure Faults
 Footings
 Inadequate size for imposed loads
 Insufficient reinforcing
 Trees and vegetation
 Ground slab
 Damp-proof member breach
 Inadequate reinforcing
 Concrete laying & curing
 Insufficient thickness of slab
Super-structure Faults
 External walls
 Cavity walls
 Breach of cavity
 Inadequate or omitted expansion joints
 Uneven settlement
 Suspended slabs
 Cracking
 Concrete cancer
 Internal walls
 Cracking
 Dampness
 Roof
 Sagging
 Leaking
 Faulty roof drainage
Dilapidation Surveys
 Determination of existing building condition and
defects prior to commencement of additions
 Determination of adjoining buildings conditions
and defects prior to commencement of
construction
 Identify and record building defects through
photographic, graphic and digital information
 Determine quantum of reparation costs
 Obtain written agreement as to existing defects
and method of compensation for additional
damage due to building works
 Monitor dilapidation during construction
 Post-construction report
Questions
 What is the difference between
settlement and subsidence?
 Why should trees not be planted close to
a building?
 How can drainage problems affect
foundations?
 How can the load bearing capacity of
footings be improved?
 What could be some of the causes for wall
cracks?
 Explain the phenomenon of rising damp.
 Commercial Buildings
 What is a commercial
building?
 Strictly, by definition, a commercial building is
classified as a building in which any natural
resources, goods, services or money are either
developed, sold, exchanged or stored.

 Commercial building also encompasses

alterations, renovations and general repairs of
commercial and industrial buildings, and for
organising and managing construction.

33
 Commercial Buildings
 Types of development:
 Shops
 Local
 District
 Regional
 Offices
 CBD
 Sub-urban
 Business parks
 Showrooms
 Whitegoods
 Furniture
 Household fittings
 Mixed
 residential/commercial Source: Authors own image
 office/showrooms

34
 Differences between commercial
buildings and residential buildings
 Aren’t they just bigger?
 Generally the materials which are used in the construction
of commercial buildings are very different to those in
cottage building. Best example, Bricks.
 In Highrise buildings, special pressed bricks may be required for
larger structures.
 The thickness of walls is really important to reduce wastage of
internal space. If space is being rented then every square meter is
important. Think of a multistorey apartment building and the
wastage which may occur.
 As a result brick construction is no longer cost effective for large
high rise structures
 Preferable for “Cottage buildings” as;
 Variety of bricks able to be used. Walls joined with ties.
 In WA especially we have affordable bricks for construction.

35
 Commercial Buildings
 Low-rise
 Masonry construction
 Pre-cast concrete panels
 Steel frame & infill cladding
 High-rise
 Load bearing masonry
 Reinforced concrete
column/beam
 Pre-cast concrete structures
 Structural steel frame and
infill panels

36
 Building Concepts
 Organisational
 Planning
 Design

 Construction

 Technological
 Materials
 Construction methods
 Performance standards

 Structural
Source: Authors own image
 Sub-structure
 Beams and columns
 Walls and floors
 Frames and trusses

37
 Structural Principles
 Structural requirements
 Strength
 Stability
 Forces
 Loading
 Dead loads
 Live loads
 Distributed loads
 Stress
 Strain
 Effects
 Movement
 Deformation

38
 Construction Methods
 Traditional
 Evolved over a long period
 Tried and tested
 Skilled labour intensive
 Many different trades involved
 Mainly on-site fabrication

 Post-traditional
 Mechanisation
 Pre-fabrication
 Systems building
 Computer aided design and
scheduling
 Reduction of on-site skilled labour
Source: Authors own images

39
 Concrete Construction
 Pre-cast concrete
 Benefits
 Efficiency
 Cost effective
 Reduced on-site labour
 Timely manufacture
 Rapid construction
 Reduced delays due to weather
 Environmental
 Reduce waste
 Reduce site noise
 Engineering
 Controlled manufacturing conditions Source: Authors own image

 Tight dimensional tolerances

 Good sound, thermal and fire resistance
 Variety of shapes, sizes and surface finishes possible

40
 Concrete Construction
 Pre-cast concrete
 Disadvantages
 Design needs to be
complete before
casting commences
 Unsuitable if structural
alterations needed in
the future
 Damage to a pre-cast
panel can upset the Source: Authors own image

erection sequence
 Panels can distort
during curing period
41
 Concrete Construction
 Reinforced concrete columns and beams
 Structural frame
 Site conditions
 Type and use of building

 Span and spacing of beams

 Reinforced suspended floors

 External cladding
 Multiple choices
 Roof structure
 Steel frame and cladding
 Timber and tiles

 Flat roof – metal or concrete

42
 Steel Construction
 Structural frame
 Foundations
 Columns (stanchions)
 Beams and girders
 Floors
 In-situ concrete
 Precast concrete

 Steel floor sections

 External cladding
 Multi-choice
 Roof structure
 Multi choice

43
 Steel Construction
 Advantages
 Can be totally pre-fabricated
 Not subject to handling and
transport damage
 Easily and quickly erected
 Easy to alter and extend
 Long term retention of strength
 Disadvantages
 Steel sections need to be
protected against fire
 Rust proofing needed in
exposed humid and salty
environments
 Great accuracy needed
where pre-cast panels
are used for infill cladding
44
 Load Bearing Masonry

 Walls
 Load bearing masonry
 Strength and stability
 Weather and fire resistance
 Thermal and sound
insulation
 May require special pressed
bricks for large structures
 Thickness of walls reduce
internal space
 No longer cost effective for Source: Authors own image
large high rise structures

45
Study Guide

 Read: Sections 4,5,7,9,11,12

Building Design and
Construction Handbook (available
from e-library)

46
Examples

Source: Authors own images

47
 Construction Economics
Construction Economics is the study of
the Construction Project to study how individuals and
groups make decisions with limited resources as to
best satisfy client’s wants, needs, and desires.

48
 Construction Economics
 Construction/Cost planning
 Site considerations – which size/shape of site is optimal for
construction
 Plan shape – How will this affect the cost of building
 Floor area – Is the floor area suitable for construction and the
‘finished product’
 Building height – Will the building height allow for an economical
build?

 Building costs
 Labour – What is the current state of the market?
 Materials – Are there any ‘flagged’ shortages at present?
 Finishes – Has the building being ‘over specked’?

49
 Construction Economics
 Production
 Building methods – venetian plastering???
 Economy of scale – many - less
 Pre-fabrication – constructed off site and brought
onto site

 Look for:
 Standardisation; specialisation; simplification

50
 Time Planning
 Analysis of construction method
 Materials and labour requirements
 Activity sequence
 Time allocation for activities
 Quantity of work
 Time span

 Critical path programming

 Operations in strict sequence
 Concurrent operations

 Scheduling
 Subcontractors
 Material procurement
 Labour procurement

51
Basics of Bar Charts
 The typical layout for a bar chart is to have one activity
per line. A small sample is shown below. Activities are
listed down the left hand column and the time periods
are listed across the top row. The bars that represent
when the actual work will be accomplished are created
by colouring in or drawing bars under the appropriate
time periods.

Activities/Calendar Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6

Activity 1

Activity 2

Activity 3

Activity 4

Activity 5

Activity 6

52
Summary Chart

Month 1 Month 2 Month 3

Activities/Calendar Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 12

Sitework

Foundation

Framing of House

Exterior Finishes

Interior Rough-In

Sheetrock

Interior Finishes

Driveways & Laneways

53
 Critical Path Analysis
 Critical Path
 Activities down the centre of the building program are sequential
 Any delay with any of these activities will affect the following
activities, hence the whole project will be delayed unless the time of
the following activities can be shorten.
 Therefore the timing of the sequential activities are “critical”
 Activities shown to either side of the centre are not “critical”. There is
some flexibility in the timing without affecting other activities.

54
 Gantt Chart
ACTIVITY DURATION Week Week Week Week Week Week Week Week
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Site-works 2 xx
Footings 1 x
Plumber 1 x
Floor Slab 7 x xxxxx x
Brickwork 17 xxxx xxxxx xxxxx xxx
Roof Carpenter 8 xxxx xxxx
Roof Plumbing 1
Electrician 2
Plumbing 2
Roof Tiler 4
Plasterer(float) 5
Ceilings 4
Plasterer(set) 5

55
Gantt Chart

Source: http://www.vertex42.com/ExcelTemplates/Images/ganttchart/sample-gantt-chart_construction-schedule.gif Downloaded 10/05/2013

56
Gantt Chart

Source: http://www.virtualboss.net/screenshots/images/ganttchart.gif. Downloaded 10/05/2020

57
 Cost Planning
 Aim
 Design, plan and build within budget
 Obtain best value and quality within budget
 Procedure
 Schematic design
 Design development
 Contract document
 Outcome
 Tenders within budget
 Project proceed

58
Cost Planning

 Cost planning procedure

 Cost breakdown of main construction
elements
 Construction methods
 Resource costs
 Cost charts
 Cash flow charts

59
We have discussed/learned:
Structural Theory
 Structural forms
 Design loads
 Soil compaction
Defects
 Types of defects
 Reasons for defects
Commercial Buildings
 Overview
 Building concepts
 Structural principles
 Construction methods
 Concrete construction
 Steel construction
 Load bearing masonry
Construction Economics
 Overview

60