Amplifiers 8.1 Introduction An amplifier is an electronic circuit that amplifies (magnifies) small input signal without any distortion. An amplifier is used to increase the signal level; ie. to get a large signal output from a small signal input. Let us assume a small sinusoidal signal is applied at the input of an amplifier. At the output, signal must remain sinusoidal in waveform, with frequency same as that at the input. The ratio of output quantity to input quantity is called gain of the amplifier. Thus the ratio of output voltage to input voltage will be the voltage gain of the amplifier, usually denoted by ‘Ay’. Similarly, the ratio of output current to input current will be “current gain”, A,, of the amplifier. ‘An ideal amplifier provides as large a voltage gain and current gain, as practicable. The other two parameters of the amplifier are its input resistance, R, and the output resistance R,. The input resistance is the resistance seen looking into amplifier input terminals; while, the output resistance is the resistance between output terminals looking back into amplifier with input signal voltage source short-circuited and the output terminals open-circuited. Fig. 8.1 Basic parameters of the amplifier The basic parameters of the amplifier are illustrated in Fig. 8.1. The current gain of the amplifier will beBasic Electronics 8-2 Amplifiers And the voltage gain is Ay = " Ay = Since Power = Voltage x Current then Power gain = Voltage gain x Current gain 8.2 Decibels and Half Power Points 8.2.1 Gain in Decibels In many situations it is found very convenient to compare two powers on a logarithmic scale rather than on a linear scale. The unit of this logarithmic scale is called decibel (abbreviated dB). The number N decibels by which a power P; exceeds the power P, is defined by, = Pa -Ap= Bb N = 10 logio 5 & Ap = 10 logins att) Decibel, dB denotes power ratio. Negative values of number of dB means that the power P, is less than the reference power P, and positive value of number of dB means that the power P» is greater than the reference power Pj. For an amplifier, P, may represent input power, and P, may represent output power. Both can be given as vi a R= Rr and P, = Re where Rj and R, are the input and output impedances of the amplifier respectively. Then equation (1) can be written as, V2 /Ro Ap = 10k ~ P en VER, If the input and output impedances of the amplifier are equal ie. R, = then equation (2) simplifies to v2 v3 Ap = 10 log o5 = 10 wo ($8 } = 10x 2 logio * = 20 logia ve .. @)Basic Electronics 8-3 Amplifiers mm Example 8.1: If the voltage gain of the amplifier is 100, calculate its gain on dB scale. Solution : Gain in dB = 20 logy 100 =20x2 = 40 dB 8.2.1.1 Gain of Multistage Amplifier in dB The gain of a multistage amplifier can be easily calculated if the gain of the individual stages are known in dB, as shown below. 20 logio Ay = 20 login Avi + 20 logio Avz + + 20 logio Avy ..(4) Thus, the overall voltage gain in dB of a multistage amplifier is the sum of the decibel voltage gains of the individual stages. It can be given as, Avs = Avign + Avan + +. + Aynas ++ 6) 8.2.4.2 Advantages of Representation of Gain in Decibels Logarithmic scale is preferred over linear scale to represent voltage and power gains because of the following reasons * In multistage amplifiers, it permits to add individual gains of the stages to calculate overall gain. (Use of logarithms changes multiplication into an addition). + It allows us to denote, both very small as well as very large quantities of linear scale by considerably small figures. For example, voltage gain of 0.0000001 can be represented as -140 dB and voltage gain of 1,00,000 can be represented as 100 dB. Many times output of the amplifier is fed to loudspeakers to produce sound which is received by the human ear. It is important to note that the ear responds to the sound intensities on a proportional or logarithmic scale rather than linear scale. Thus use of dB unit is more appropriate for representation of amplifier gains. 8.2.2 Half Power Points Over the range of frequencies at which it is to be used, an amplifier should ideally provide the same amplification for all frequencies.. The degree to which this is done is usually indicated by a curve, known as frequency response curve of the amplifier. This curve is a plot of the voltage gain of an amplifier against the frequency of input signal. A typical frequency response of an RC coupled amplifier is illustrated in Fig. 8.2. (Please refer Fig. 8.2 on next page). To plot this curve, input voltage to the amplifier is kept constant and frequency of input signal is continuously varied. The output voltage at each frequency of input signal is noted; and the gain of the amplifier is calculated. The output voltage or the voltage gain of the amplifier is then plotted against frequency. For an A.F. amplifier, the frequency range of interest is quite large, from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Hence to showBasic Electronics 8-4 Amplifiers clearly the voltage gain over such a wide frequency range, the frequency of input signal is plotted on x-axis using log, scale (instead of usual linear scale). However the output voltage or voltage gain of the amplifier is plotted on y-axis with linear scale. Vout or Vortage| gain (Ay) iD 1 +. Ideal frequency response =— Frequency response of a practical amplifier Frequency Low High frequency trequency region gain Fig. 8.2 A typical frequency response of an amplifier It is seen from the frequency response curve of an audio frequency amplifier that the gain of the amplifier remains fairly constant in the mid-frequency range, while the gain varies with frequency in low and high frequency regions of the curve. The frequency response is nearly ideal over a wide range of mid-frequency. Only at low and high frequency ends, the gain deviates from ideal characteristics. 8.2.3 Bandwidth of an Amplifier To indicate how constant an amplifiers’s gain is with frequency variation, we may specify the range of frequencies over which the gain does not deviate more than 70.7% of the maximum gain at some reference mid-frequency. This is shown in Fig. 83 where these two frequencies are indicated by f, and fy. Bandwidth of the amplifier is defined as the difference between f, and f,; Le. Bandwidth of the amplifier = f, ~ f,. The frequency f, is an high frequency region, while the frequency f; lies in low frequency region. These two frequencies are also referred to as half-power frequencies or half power points since gain or output voltage drops to 70.7 % of maximum value and this represents a power level of one-half the power at the reference frequency in mid-frequency region. Although this drop form maximum value to 70.7% may seem to be large drop, the change is not easily noticeable to the listener, so that an amplifier may be considered to have a flat response from f, and f,.Basic Electronics 8-5 Amplifiers Voltage gain —+} Mid frequency region j-— Aymid) |. 0.707 Ayimid) |. 0 4 f Fig. 8.3 Frequency response, half power frequencies and bandwidth of an RC coupled amplifier mp Example 8.2 : The voltage amplifier has voltage gain = 200 at cut-off frequencies. Find the maximum voltage gain. Solution :_ We know that maximum voltage gain of voltage amplifier is given as Maximum voltage gain = Gain at cut-off xV2 = 200 x/2 = 282.84 Usually the gain of the amplifier is represented in decibels (dBs). It is given as Gain in dB = 20 log Ay At half power frequencies, ie. at f, and f, the gain is 34B less than the maximum amplifier gain in dB. Let us assume that Ay = 100, then Gain in dB = 20 log 100 = 20x2 = 40 At f, and f, Ay = - = 707 Gain in dB at f, and f; = 20 log 70.7 = 37 <. Maximum power gain - Gain at f, and f,= 40 - 37 = 3 dB. The power gain at f, and f, is less than 3 dB of the maximum power gain. Due to this frequencies f, and f, are also called 3 dB frequencies. f, = Lower 3 dB frequency f, = Upper 3 dB frequencyBasic Electronics . 8-6 Amplifiers. For all frequencies within the bandwidth (BW = f, - f,) amplifier power gain is at least half of the maximum power gain. Thus this bandwidth is also referred to as 3-dB bandwidth. 8.2.3.1 Midband Gain (Amis) We define the midband of an amplifier as the band of frequencies between 10 f, and 0.1 f;. As shown in the Fig. 8.3, in the midband, the voltage gain of the amplifier is approximately maximum. It is designated as midband gain or Agus. Although an amplifier normally operates in the midband, there are times when we want to know what the voltage gain is outside of the midband. The voltage gain of the amplifier outside the midband is approximately given as the pce In the midband, f,/f ~ 0 and f/f, ~ 0. Therefore, Midband : A = Ang Below the midband, f/f, ~ 0. As a result, the equation becomes Below Midband : A = Ama * fie / Above Midband, f,/f = 0. As a result, the equation becomes Above Midband : A = —Ania vi+ (2)? ‘> Example 8.3: For an amplifier, midband gain = 100 and lower cutoff frequency is 1 kHz. Find the gain of an amplifier at frequency = 20 Hz. Solution : We know that, Below Midband : A = —Anid__ vis 6/5 eeBasic Electronics 8-7 Amplifiers vm Example 8.4 : For an amplifier, 3-dB gain is 200 and higher cut-off frequency is 20 kHz, Find the gain of an amplifier at frequency = 100 kHz. Solution : We know that " 3. dB gain x2 = 200 x2 = 282.84 axia and Above midband : A = Ania vie He 282.84 (1 10° J 1+ 20x10 115.47 Section at a Glance * The gain of the cascaded or multistage amplifier is the product of voltage gains of the individual stages. * Voltage Gain in dB = 20 logy, AV. Ap = 10 logo 7 Vo Ap = 20logwy? a FR, = Ro © Frequency response curve is a graphical representation of voltage gain provided by the amplifier for all frequencies. * It is seen froin the frequency response curve of an audio frequency amplifier that the gain of the amplifier remains fairly constant in the mid-frequency range, while the gain varies with frequency in low and high frequency regions of the curve. © Bandwidth of the amplifier is defined as the difference between lower 3 dB and upper 3 dB frequencies. Sectional Review Questions . Write a equation for power gain in decibels. Explain the advantages of representing gain in decibels. 2. Draw and explain the frequency response of RC coupled amplifier. Clearly indicate various regions on it. . Define lower 3aB and upper 34B frequencies of an amplifier. L Define bandtoidth of an amplifier. AwBasic Electronics 8-8 Amplifiers 8.3 Single Stage CE Amplifier The Fig. 8.4 shows the RC coupled single stage (Audio frequency) AF amplifier. Let us'gee the function of each component in the amplifier circuit +*Vec Fig. 8.4 RC coupled single stage AF amplifier 1. Biasing Circuit The resistances R,, R, and Re forms the voltage divider biasing circuit for the CE amplifier. It sets the proper operating point for the CE amplifier. 2. Input Capacitor C, This capacitor couples the signal to the base of the transistor. It blocks any de component present in the signal and passes only ac signal for amplification. Because of this biasing conditions are maintained constant. 3. Emitter Bypass Capacitor Ce An emitter bypass capacitor C; is connected in parallel with the emitter resistance, R, to provide a low reactance path to the amplified ac signal. If it is not inserted, the amplified ac signal passing through R, will cause a voltage drop across it. This will reduce the output voltage, reducing the gain of the amplifier. 4, Output Coupling Capacitor C2 The coupling capacitor C, couples the output of the amplifier to the load or to the next stage of the amplifier. It blocks de and passes only ac part of the amplified signal.Basic Electronics: 8-9 Amplifiers 8.3.1 Need for C;,C, and Ce We know that, the impedance of capacitor is given as Veo Thus, at signal frequencies all the capacitors have extremely small impedance and it can be treated as an ac short circuit. For bias/de conditions of thé transistor all the capacitors act as a de open circuit. With this knowledge we will see the importance of C,, C2 and Ce. Consider that the signal source is connected directly to the base of the transistor as shown in Fig. 85. Looking at the Fig, 8.5 we can immediately Fig. 8.5 notice that source resistance R, is in parallel with R2. This will reduce the bias voltage at the transistor base and, consequently alter the collector current, which is not desired. Similarly, by connecting R,, directly, the de levels of Ve and Vee will change. To avoid this and maintain the stability of bias condition coupling capacitors are connected. As mentioned earlier, coupling capacitors act as open circuits to dc, maintain stable biasing conditions even after connection of R, and R,. Another advantage of connecting C; is that any de component in the signal is opposed and only ac signal is routed to the transistor amplifier. The emitter resistance Re is one of the component which provides bias stabilization. But it also reduces the voltage swing at the output. The emitter bypass capacitor Ce provides a low reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal increasing the output voltage swing. For the proper operation of the circuit, polarities of the capacitors must be connected correctly. The curve bar which indicates negative terminal must always be connected at a de voltage level lower than (or equal to) the de level of the positive terminal (straight bar). For example, C; in Fig. 8.4 has its negative terminal at de ground level, because it is grounded through the signal source resistance Ry. The positive terminal of C; is at + Va with respect to ground. 8.3.2 Phase Reversal The phase relationship between the input and output voltages can be determined by considering the effect of a positive half cycle and negative half cycle separately. Consider the positive half cycle of input signal in which terminal A is positive w.r.t. B. Due to this, two voltages, ac and de will be adding each other, increasing forward biasBasic Electronics 8-10 Amplifiers on base emitter junction. This increases base current. The collector current is B times the base current, hence the collector current will also increase. This increases the voltage drop across Re. Since Ve = Vee -Ic Re, the increase in Ic results in a drop in collector voltage Vc, as Vec is constant. Thus, as Vj; increases in a positive direction, Vo goes in a negative direction and we get negative half cycle of output voltage for positive half cycle at the input. In the negative half cycle of input, in which terminal A becomes negative w.xr.t. terminal B, the ac and dc voltages will oppose each other, reducing forward bias on base-emitter p-n junction. This reduces base current. Accordingly collector current and drop across Rc both reduce, increasing the output voltage. Thus, we get positive half cycle at the output for negative half cycle at the input. Therefore, we can say that there is a phase shift of 180° between input and output voltages for a common emitter amplifier. Effect of Coupling Capacitors Recall that the reactance of a capacitor is Xo = 1/2nfC. At medium and high frequencies the factor f makes X¢ very small, so that all coupling capacitors behave as short circuits. At low frequencies, X¢ increases. This increase in X¢ drops the signal voltage across the capacitor and reduces the circuit gain. As signal frequencies decreases, the capacitor reactances increase and circuit gain continues to fall, reducing the output voltage. Effect of Bypass Capacitor We have seen that resistance Ry in the voltage divider bias is useful to ‘obtain stable biasing (de) conditions. However, Nec when unbypassed drop across it reduces the voltage gain of the amplifier. This Re problem can be solved by connecting bypass capacitor across R,. The bypass capacitor acts as a short circuit for ac signals and allows us to create an ac ground in an amplifier without disturbing its Q point. Z4= Re ll Xe | Re Ce x40 At lower frequencies, the bypass capacitor C, is not a short. So, the emitter = is not at ac ground. X¢ in parallel with Re - creates an impedance. The signal voltage Fig. 8.6 At low frequencies emitter is not drops across this impedance reducing the at ac ground circuit gain. This is illustrated in Fig. 8.6.Basic Electronics 8-11 Amplifiers Effect of internal Transistor Capacitances At higher frequencies, the coupling and bypass capacitors act as a short circuit and do not affect the amplifier frequency response. However, at high frequencies, the internal capacitances, commonly known as junction capacitances do come into play, reducing the circuit gain. Fig. 8.7 shows the junction capacitances for BJT. In case of the BJT, C,, is the base emitter junction capacitance and C,. is the base collector junction capacitance Cre Coe E Fig. 8.7 Internal transistor capacitances for BJT At higher frequencies, the reactances of the junction capacitances are low. As frequency increases, the reactances of junction capacitances fall. When these reactances become small enough, they provide shunting effect as they are in parallel with junction. This reduces the circuit gain and hence the output voltage. Section at a Glance In CE amplifier R,, R, and Ry forms a self bias circuit CE is connected across Ry to provide low resistance path to the amplified ac signal. C, and C, are the input and output coupling capacitors, respectively. They block de component present in the signal. The Re provides bias stabilization. But also reduces the output voltage. There is phase shift of 180° between input and output voltages. Sectional Review Questions 1. Draw the circuit diagram of a common emitter amplifier. State the function of each component used in the above circuit, 2. Explain how phase reversal of the signal takes place when it is amplified using common emitter amplifier.