Energy Conversion and Management 99 (2015) 1–7

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Experimental studies on a micro power generator using thermo-electric

modules mounted on a micro-combustor
Shambhoo Yadav a, Prathima Yamasani b, Sudarshan Kumar a,⇑
a
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
b
Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Institute of Aeronautical Engineering, Hyderabad, AP, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, experimental investigations on micro power generation using thermoelectric modules
Received 30 January 2015 installed around a microcombustor are studied. The work is aimed at developing a combustion based
Accepted 7 April 2015 micro power generator as an alternative to low power density electrochemical batteries. A three step
Available online 21 April 2015
micro-combustor is fabricated with mild-steel as the material. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)–air mixture
is used as fuel–air mixture to operate the microcombustor. A heating cup is used to increase the heat
Keywords: recirculation from hot combustion products thereby enhancing the flame stability limits. The heating
Heat recirculation
cup is fabricated using aluminum material to obtain uniform temperature distribution for improved
Micro-combustion
Micropower generation
power generation at smallest scales. The overall conversion efficiency of the micro power generator
Step combustor has been observed to increase with the number of modules mounted on the micro-combustor system
Thermoelectric module as compared to two and one modules. An overall conversion efficiency of 1.2% for one module, 2.56%
for two modules and 4.6% for four module configuration was achieved. The overall conversion efficiency
reported in the present work is highest for such small scale combustion based micro power generators in
comparison to earlier work reported in the literature. A maximum power of 1.56 and 2.35 W respectively
is obtained for two and four module configurations.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction micro power generator would be approximately six times higher

In the recent times, micro-combustion has attracted the atten-
tion of researchers due to various challenges involved in stabilizing
a flame at small scales. Recent advancements in the field of nano-
and micro-fabrication technologies have led to miniaturization of
various devices. Even the most efficient Li-ion electrochemical bat-
teries have very low power densities compared to hydrocarbon
fuels. Batteries require several hours of charging and their life is
limited to finite and limited rechargeable cycles. Battery disposal
after usage causes severe environmental issues.
Lithium-ion batteries have a power density of 0.2 kW h/kg,
almost 1/60th of the power density of fossil fuels (such as methane
and diesel). The power density of a Li-ion battery is approximately
1/20th of a typical diesel fuel based engine (200 kW power output
with approximately 400 kg weight of engine), and 1/8th of the
main engine of space shuttle (SSME, Thrust = 1.8 MN, with
730 tons of propellant weight and a jet exit velocity greater than
4000 m/s for over 500 s) [1,2]. It is clear from this comparison that
using either liquid or gaseous hydrocarbon fuels, even with a mere
10% of overall energy conversion efficiency, the power density of a
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sudar@aero.iitb.ac.in (S. Kumar).
than that of advanced Li-ion batteries [1–3]. Due to higher power
density of hydrocarbon fuels, combustion based devises are
expected to help overcome the difficulties of lower power density
and longer recharging times required by the electrochemical
batteries.
Park et al. [4] have experimentally reported an electric power
output of 2.35 W with an overall conversion efficiency of 2.12%
using the concept of thermophotovoltaics. They used a step com-
bustor with an internal diameter of 5 mm and a length of 42 mm
along with propane–air mixtures. Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) mod-
ules were used to convert the thermal energy to electric power. In
a similar work, Lee et al. [5] have reported an electric power output
of 4.4 W, with an overall conversion efficiency of 2.3% with pro-
pane–air mixtures and 5.2 W electric power output with an overall
conversion efficiency of 2.1% with NH3 + H2–air mixtures. They
used a microcombustor of 8 mm diameter and length of 70 mm.
Chan et al. [6] in MIT have used the thermophotovoltaic concept
and shown that an overall efficiency of 2.5% can be achieved with
such micro power generators. Li et al. [7] have used a TPV system
to produce electric power and reported an electric power output of
8.3 W with an overall conversion efficiency of 1.47%. They used liq-
uid n-heptane and pentane as fuels with a combustor diameter of
9.5 mm and length 60 mm. A recent work of Yadav et al. [8] has

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.04.019
0196-8904/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 S. Yadav et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 99 (2015) 1–7
shown that by combining four thermoelectric modules in such a
configuration, the overall conversion efficiency can be further
improved.
To improve the overall thermal efficiency and flame stability
limits in micro-combustors, various efforts were made toward
the optimization of micro-combustion systems and thermal man-
agement through heat recirculation or use of a catalyst to sustain
the combustion reaction at smallest scales [9–25]. The excess
enthalpy based concept has been widely used in the design and
development of micro-combustors. In one such concept, Swiss roll
combustors were proposed [2,9–14] where a significant heat from
hot combustion products is recirculated to unburned fuel–air mix-
ture through solid walls. This results in increased flame tempera-
ture and enhanced flame stability limits as compared to those
achieved with standard operating conditions.
Yang et al. [20,23] and Khandelwal et al. [26] have reported
detailed studies on flame stabilization in micro-scale cylindrical
combustors with and without backward facing step microcombus-
tor configurations. Their work showed that a significant improve-
ment in the flame stability limits can be achieved by introducing
a backward facing step as this helped in rearrangement of flow
near the step and enhanced mixing of hot combustion products
with fresh mixture due to the formation of a recirculation zone
at the step. Significant amount of work on flame stabilization using
these multi-step microcombustor configurations have been
reported by Khandelwal and coworkers [26–29]. They have
reported detailed investigations to understand on the effect of vari-
ous parameters on flame stability limits and wall temperature
profiles.
The objective of the present work is to develop a microcombus-
tor based micro power generator system to produce electric power
from the heat released due to combustion of the fuel–air mixtures
in these microcombustors. Detailed investigations have been car-
ried out for one and two module configurations to understand
the effect of various operating parameters on flame stability limits,
temperature distribution on heat recirculating cup, overall conver-
sion efficiency, and heat losses to the surroundings from these con-
figurations. These investigations on one and two module
configuration would help in understanding various important
issues related to the development of optimized configurations with
higher number of modules more clearly in such micro power
generators as reported in the present work. Thermoelectric mod-
ules have been identified as one of the possible options to convert
the heat energy from combustion to electric power with improved
overall conversion efficiency. Thermoelectric modules work on the
principle of Seebeck effect that convert the heat transferred
through these modules due to temperature difference into an elec-
tro-motive force. A heating cup is placed on the outer side of the
combustor to maximize the recirculation of heat from hot combus-
tion products to reactants, thus helping in enhancing the limits of
flame stabilization. On the cold side, a water jacket based cooling
system is placed to maintain uniform and low temperature of the
module. A three step backward facing microcombustor is used
for carrying out the experiment. Pre-determined flow rates of fuel
and air are given to the combustor and ignited with the help of an
igniter. After the flame stabilizes, a recirculation cup is placed
around the micro-combustor.
2. Experimental set-up
2.1. Micro-combustor configurations
Fig. 1 shows the dimensional details and photograph of an
actual micro-combustor used for present investigations. The
micro-combustor is designed from previous work reported by the
Fig. 1. (a) Dimensional details (mm) of a three step cylindrical micro-combustor
considered for experimental investigations in the present work and (b) actual
photographs of the combustor.
author’s research group earlier [26–28]. In their earlier work,
Taywade et al. [29], have investigated the effect of various dimen-
sions of heating cup on wall temperature and it was observed that
an optimum sized heating cup achieves maximum temperature. A
sudden expansion in backward step microcombustor creates a
recirculation zone that helps in enhancing the flame stability lim-
its. A premixed fuel–air mixture is ignited at the exit plane of the
combustor.
2.2. Details of the experimental method
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup employed for
present investigations is shown in Fig. 2. During the experiments,
air and fuel are supplied from pressurized fuel and air storage
tanks through fuel and air feed systems. The experimental setup
consists of a computerized mass flow control system, command
module, valves, regulator and a backward facing micro-combustor.
The mass flow rates of fuel and air are controlled using electric
mass flow controllers (AALBORG-GFC) connected to a computer
through a command module. The maximum flow capacity of the
air and fuel MFCs (mass flow controller) is 1 SLPM and 500
MLPM respectively. The accuracy of the measured mass flow rates
is within ±1.5% of the full scale. Soap bubble based method is used
to calibrate the mass flow controllers. The required flow rates of
the air and fuel are used to achieve different flow velocities at dif-
ferent mixture equivalence ratios.
An aluminum cup of dimensions 45 mm  30 mm  16 mm is
used to ensure increased heat recirculation from hot combustion
products to the heating cup. Part of the heat is transferred to the
unburned mixture through solid walls of microcombustor (as
shown in Fig. 3). The temperature on the outer walls of the cup
is measured with k-type thermocouples of 0.5 mm bead diameter
connected to a digital temperature indicator.
2.3. Details of the thermoelectric modules (TEM)
A thermoelectric module (HZ-2) (photograph shown in Fig. 4)
works on the principle of Seebeck effect which converts heat into
electricity. A thermoelectric module consists of many elements of
p- and n-type doped semiconductor materials connected thermally
in parallel and electrically in series. A thermoelectric module is a
solid state device without any moving parts; hence it is extremely
reliable power generation source. The electrical interconnects of
these thermoelectric modules are mounted between two ceramic
wafers. The thickness of the ceramic wafer is 0.25 mm. The pur-
pose of these wafers is to hold the overall mechanical structure
together and electrically insulate individual elements from one
another as well as from external mounting surfaces. A schematic
of the arrangement of thermoelectric module for two module
 S. Yadav et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 99 (2015) 1–7 3

Fig. 2. Details of the experimental setup.

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic diagram of the cylindrical combustor inside the heating cup and (b) schematic of two module setup without micro-combustor.

Fig. 5. (a) Schematic diagram of hot and cold side of the module and (b) details of
the electrical circuit diagram.

Fig. 4. Details of HZ-2 thermoelectric module used in present experiments (hot
side: left and cold side: right).
configuration is shown in Fig. 5a. The electric power output from a
thermoelectric module increases with an increase in the tempera-
ture difference across the hot and cold junctions. The modules are
held tightly against the heating cup to facilitate increased heat
transfer between the hot side and cold side of the module.
Various configurations with one, two and four modules are used
in the present experiments to understand the behavior of these
module configurations on electric power output from the system.
The two ends of the thermoelectric module are connected with dif-
ferent resistors and the generated current and voltages are mea-
sured using a data acquisition system. A schematic diagram of
the electrical circuit used for the measurement of the voltage and
current is shown in Fig. 5b. The current and voltages are measured
for a range of resistances as reported in this paper and maximum
power is determined.
4 S. Yadav et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 99 (2015) 1–7

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Preliminary observations

Preliminary investigations were carried out initially to obtain

the flame positions for various mixture flow rates and mixture
equivalence ratios. It is observed that the flame is anchored at
the steps due to the formation of recirculation zones. This increases
the limits of flame stabilization by reducing the local flow veloci-
ties at the recirculation zone. The flame is anchored at the first step
for very low velocities. As the mixture flow velocity is increased,
the flame gets anchored at the second step and for very high mix-
ture velocities; the flame is anchored at the lip of the combustor. If
the velocity is increased further then flame blow-off occurs. A
recirculation cup of aluminum material is placed around the com- Fig. 7. Variation of outer wall temperature with mixture velocity for single module
bustor when the flame is stabilized within the combustor. The configuration.
variation of the lower flame stability limits with equivalence ratio
is shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen from the figure that a stable can be
obtain even at very low thermal inputs for both lean and stoichio- expect that a stoichiometric mixture (U = 1.0) would result in
metric mixtures. The typical minimum thermal input is approxi- higher wall temperatures. For U = 0.8 mixtures, the flame is
mately 1.0 W. Experiments were conducted for a range of located comparatively at a downstream location, near the exit
mixture equivalence ratios at higher flow velocities. The occur- plane of combustor. Due to this, increased amount of heat is trans-
rence of flame blow-off at higher mixture velocities was observed ferred to the recirculation cup as compared to the solid walls of the
to be a function of mixture equivalence ratio, size of the heating combustor resulting in higher wall temperature. Similar observa-
cup and micro combustor configuration [15,18,26,29]. tions of higher walls temperatures at U = 0.9 were also made by
Pan et al. [21] for H2–O2 mixtures and Li et al. [16] for H2–air, at
U = 0.8.
3.2. Temperature profiles
Stable flames were observed inside the combustor for higher
mixture velocities. This is because of increase in the heat recircula-
Fig. 7 shows the variation of maximum temperature on the
tion from reverse flow of hot gas in post combustion zone on the
outer side of the heating cup for different equivalence ratios with
outer walls of the combustor. Reverse flow over the outer walls
mixture flow velocities. The temperature measurements reported
of the combustor increases the heat transfer from hot combustion
in this figure correspond to a condition without any module
products to the fresh reactants and reduces the heat loss as a large
mounted on the heating cup. For mixture velocities greater than
part of heat is supplied to the unburnt mixture through solid walls
2.5 m/s, the measured temperatures are higher than the safe
of the combustor. The preheating of the mixture through recircula-
operating limit of the modules, 250 °C. However, when modules
tion helps improving the flame stability limits [29]. The outer wall
are mounted on the heating cup, the wall temperature drops to
temperatures obtained in the present work are significantly lower
lower values due to increased heat transfer to the modules. This
than those reported in earlier work [29] with quartz walls because
final wall temperature is well within the safe operating limits of
for such micro combustors, the wall temperature is a strong func-
the thermoelectric module. Mixture flow velocities lower than
tion of the thermal conductivity of solid walls. High thermal con-
2.0 m/s are not considered here as they result in relatively lower
ductivity of the walls results in increased heat loss from flame to
wall temperatures leading to very small power output from the
solid walls of the recirculating cup. This increases the overall heat
modules as discussed later. It is observed that the maximum tem-
loss to the surroundings [30]. Detailed energy balance of the sys-
perature is obtained for U = 0.8 as compared to U = 0.9 and 1.0. A
tem showed that majority of energy released during the combus-
higher temperature for U = 0.8 is perhaps due to the position of the
tion is lost to the exhaust gases. Some part of the energy is
stabilized flame at a downstream location of the combustor as
transferred to inner walls of the heating cup through convection
compared to higher equivalence ratios. The stabilization of the
and then to the outer walls of the heating cup through conduction.
flame at a downstream location results in higher temperature
The overall conversion efficiency can be further improved by fur-
due to increased heat recirculation through the reverse flow con-
ther improving the recirculation of heat from hot combustion
figuration of the heating cup. This seems interesting as one would
products to recirculating cup and minimizing the heat losses
through hot exhaust gases.

3.3. Power generation for different equivalence ratios

Fig. 8 shows the variation of open-circuit voltage developed

Fig. 6. Lower flame stability limits for the combustor with a heating cup.
across a thermoelectric module with the solid wall temperature
of the heating cup. The temperature on the cold side was main-
tained at 35 °C. The temperature on the hot side is raised by
increasing the mixture flow velocity. Due to this, the temperature
difference between two (hot and cold) sides of the module
increases resulting in an increase in the open circuit voltage devel-
oped by thermoelectric module (TEM). It is to be noted that the
temperature on the hotter side of the module remains well within
the safe operating limits.
Fig. 9 shows the variation of electrical power output for various
resistive loads with mixture flow velocities and module
 S. Yadav et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 99 (2015) 1–7
Fig. 8. Open circuit voltage characteristics of the thermo-electric module.
configurations. It is clear from Fig. 9a–c the electrical power output
is a strong function of resistive load across the circuit for different
mixture velocities. The power output from various module config-
urations varies significantly with both mixture velocities and resis-
tive loads. For instance, at a mixture velocity of 4.5 m/s, an electric
power output of 0.22 W is obtained at a resistive load of 1 X. The
power output initially increases with resistive load and a maxi-
mum power output of 0.28 W is obtained for 4 X resistive load
and then decreases for higher resistive loads. A maximum power
Fig. 9. Variation of power with load resistance for (a) one module configuration, (b)
two module configuration, and (c) four module configuration for different flow
velocities at U = 0.8.
5
output is achieved for a condition where the internal resistance
of the module matches with the external resistive load. An increase
in mixture flow velocity increases the fuel flow rate and total ther-
mal input to the system. The rate of heat release increases resulting
in increased wall temperature and hence increased electrical
power output from the given module configuration. Maximum
power output of 0.28 W is obtained from one module configuration
at a mixture velocity of 4.5 m/s and it reduces to 0.1 W at a mixture
velocity of 3.0 m/s. Similarly, a maximum power output of 1.2 W is
obtained from a two module configuration at a mixture velocity of
5.5 m/s. Four module configuration shows a significant improve-
ment with a maximum power output of 2.35 W at a resistive load
of 2 X from this configuration as shown in Fig. 9c. The power out-
put from a double and single module configuration is relatively
much lower due to increased heat loss from the bare area of the
heating cup to surroundings.
Fig. 10 shows the variation of the maximum electrical power
generated by various module configurations for different operating
conditions. It can be seen in Fig. 10a–c that the electric power out-
put increases with an increase in the mixture velocity. An increase
in the fuel–air mixture flow rate increases the total heat input to
the system during the combustion. This increases the wall tem-
perature of heating cup leading to increased temperature differ-
ence between hot and cold sides of modules and hence increased
power output.
Fig. 10. Variation of maximum power with mixture flow velocity for (a) one
module, (b) two module, and (c) four module configuration.
6 S. Yadav et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 99 (2015) 1–7
3.4. Overall conversions efficiency of the modules
The overall energy conversion efficiency of thermoelectric
modules is calculated as follows:
Electric power delivered
gth ¼
Thermal input supplied
The efficiency of a thermoelectric module configuration is calcu-
lated from this relation and it is found to be 1.2% for single module
at U = 0.8 and a flow velocity of 4.5 m/s. Higher conversion effi-
ciency has been observed for a lower equivalence ratio of U = 0.8
as compared to U = 0.9. The module efficiency depends on tempera-
ture difference across the hot and cold sides. Therefore, the overall
energy conversion efficiency is higher for U = 0.8 condition because
the flame is stabilized at a location which results in higher wall
temperatures. Fig. 11 shows the variation of the conversion effi-
ciency for different operating conditions with mixture flow velocity
for various module configurations.
The conversion efficiency significantly increases when two and
four module configurations are used. The maximum efficiency
achieved using two modules is 2.56% at U = 0.8 with a mixture
velocity of 5.5 m/s. This is almost twice to that of single module
configuration. The conversion efficiency increases to 4.6% at a
mixture velocity of 6 m/s for four module configuration. It is inter-
esting to note that the addition of a second module in two module
configuration improves conversion efficiency at a flow velocity of
4.5 m/s by 1.3 times. Similarly, for four module configuration, the
conversion efficiency increases to 2.75% at 4.5 m/s, 2.29 times
higher than single module configuration. The limiting factor for
maximum efficiency is the higher flame stability limit and operat-
ing temperature limit of hot side of TEMs. Addition of new modules
reduces the wall temperature due to increased heat transfer to the
modules at a given mixture velocity, resulting in reduced electrical
power output. However, the setup can be operated at higher mix-
ture velocities, resulting in higher power output with improved
efficiency and higher flame stability limits being the only limiting
factor. The temperature across the hot and cold sides drops slightly
when two and four module configurations are used. A stable flame
was observed for higher mixture velocities due to increase in the
heat recirculation from hot combustion gases passing over the
outer combustor walls. Due to this, increased amount of heat is
transferred to fresh reactants. Total heat released from the com-
bustion of fresh reactants for U = 0.9 case is higher as compared
to U = 0.8 case. Therefore, the operating limits for U = 0.9 case
are relatively larger as compared to U = 0.8 case. For U = 0.8 case,
a stable flame is obtained for a maximum flow velocity of 5.0 m/
s and beyond that flame blow-off occurs due to increased heat loss
from the flame. Therefore, further experiments could not be carried
Fig. 11. Variation of conversion efficiency with mixture flow velocity for one and
two module configurations.
out for U = 0.8 case at higher mixture velocities (>5.0 m/s) despite
the fact that U = 0.8 gives higher temperature and higher overall
conversion efficiency.
4. Conclusions
In the present work, detailed investigations on various module
configurations to generate power at micro scales from thermoelec-
tric modules installed on the outer sides of the heating cup of a
microcombustor are reported. The investigations show that the
heating cup significantly enhances the heat recirculation from
hot combustion gases to the solid combustor walls, thus enhancing
the overall flame stability limits. An increase in mixture flow veloc-
ity results in increased wall temperature of the heating cup due to
higher heat release during the combustion process. The power out-
put for these module configurations directly depends on difference
in temperature between hot and cold sides. The temperature dif-
ference increases with an increase in the mixture flow rate because
this results in an increase in the thermal input to the micro com-
bustor and hence wall temperature of heating cup. An overall con-
version efficiency of 1.2% is achieved for one module configuration
at a mixture flow velocity of 4.5 m/s. A maximum power of 1.56 W
is obtained from two module configuration, when operated at a
mixture velocity of 7 m/s. A maximum conversion efficiency of
2.56% is achieved for two module configuration when operated at
a mixture flow velocity of 5.5 m/s and a mixture equivalence ratio
of U = 0.8. Similarly, an overall efficiency of 4.6% is achieved for
four module configuration when operated at 6 m/s mixture veloc-
ity. The various configurations reported in this paper show overall
conversion efficiencies higher than those reported in the existing
literature. Further optimization of the recirculation cup with multi-
ple module configurations is currently under progress and this is
expected to result in higher electrical power output with improved
efficiency. An electrical power generator using thermoelectric
modules will provide an alternative to replace electrochemical bat-
teries with these micro power based generators in various MEMS
devices in near future. This is expected to be an interesting config-
uration to further enhance the performance and conversion effi-
ciency of various micro power generating devices.
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