Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 1238–1244

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Experimental study of micro-thermophotovoltaic systems

with different combustor configurations
W.M. Yang a, S.K. Chou a,*
, C. Shu a, Z.W. Li a, H. Xue b

a
MSTI, Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 10 Kent Ridge Crescent, S119260, Singapore
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, California State Polytechnic University, 3801 West Temple Avenue, Pomona, CA 91768, USA

Received 15 March 2005; accepted 8 October 2006

Available online 27 November 2006

Abstract

The effects of combustor configuration on the performance of micro-thermophotovoltaic (micro-TPV) power generators are described
in this paper. The micro-TPV system is made of a silicon carbide (SiC) emitter, a simple nine layer dielectric filter and a gallium antimony
(GaSb) photovoltaic (PV) cell array. Properly increasing the backward facing step height of the micro-combustor can increase the short
circuit current and the maximum output power of the system. Combustion chamber diameter is a very important factor affecting the
performance of micro-TPV systems. Properly decreasing the combustion chamber diameter can significantly increase the short circuit
current and maximum output power of the system. Both the short circuit current and the maximum electrical power output increase
with increases of the flow rate and the H2/air ratio. When the flow rate of H2 is 1.17 · 10 3 g/s and the H2/air ratio is 0.9, the micro-
TPV system with a micro-combustor of 3.0 mm diameter is able to deliver an electrical power output of 0.92 W.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Micro-TPV power generator; Filter; SiC emitter; GaSb PV cells

1. Introduction energy conversion devices. Solid propellant micro-rockets

Interest in micro-power generators is fueled by both a
technology push and a user pull. The technology push is
the development of micro-machining capability based on
semiconductor manufacturing techniques. This enables
the fabrication of complex small parts and assemblies –
devices with submicron precision. User pull is the prolifera-
tion of small, portable electronics such as laptop computers,
micro-rovers, micro-aircrafts and micro-robots, which
require compact energy supplies whose energy and power
density exceed that of the best batteries available today.
To utilize the high specific energy of hydrocarbon fuels in
combustion driven micro-devices to generate power is
behind the development of micro-power generators.
Generally, micro-devices can be grouped into three cate-
gories: rockets, direct energy conversion devices and indirect
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +6568742215.
E-mail address: mpecsk@nus.edu.sg (S.K. Chou).
and bi-propellant micro-rockets are typical micro-rockets
being developed [1,2]. Micro-rockets do not produce electri-
cal power, only thrust. They are mainly used in micro-space-
craft for station keeping, attitude control, gravitation
compensation and orbit adjustment. Micro-turbine engines,
micro-rotary engines, micro-free piston ‘‘knock’’ engines
and P3 micro-heat engines are typical indirect energy con-
version devices [3–6]. The basic principle of these kinds of
micro-devices is: the conversion of thermal power to
mechanical power through a proper thermodynamic cycle
followed by conversion of the mechanical power to electrical
power by an electrical generator. These micro-power devices
feature a high speed moving part and are able to produce
higher power density. However, the existence of the high
speed moving parts significantly increases the difficulty of
fabrication and assembly.
Micro-thermoelectric power generators and micro-TPV
systems are typical direct energy conversion devices [7–
10]. They do not have any moving parts, and they convert

0196-8904/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2006.10.002
 W.M. Yang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 1238–1244
the thermal power to electrical power directly. There are
very limited reports on the study of small TPV systems
and micro-TPV systems. In 2001, Bitnar et al. [11] reported
a small grid connected TPV system consisting of an ytter-
bia mantle emitter and silicon solar cells with a 15 W elec-
trical power output at an efficiency of 1.1%. In a later paper
by Durisch et al. [12], a system efficiency of 2.8% was
reported by using preheated air for combustion. However,
the volume of the system is still on the order of 100 cm3 or
more. At the micro-scale, the system will experience more
challenges in combustion management, heat recirculation
and assembly. In 2003, Neilsen et al. [10] reported a MEMS
based flat structure micro-TPV system with an efficiency of
0.08%. In 2001, we initiated study on a micro-cylindrical
TPV power generator on the order of a few cubic centime-
ters in volume [8,9]. A prototype micro-TPV power gener-
ator has been assembled and tested, and an efficiency of
0.72% has been achieved. In this paper, we further disclose
the effects of the diameter of the micro-cylindrical combus-
tor and the height of the backward facing step on the per-
formance of micro-TPV power generators.
2. Structure of micro-thermophotovoltaic systems
Micro-TPV power generators use PV cells to convert
heat radiation, e.g. from the combustion of fossil fuels into
electricity. Therefore, for micro-TPV applications, the
desired output of the micro-combustor is a high and uni-
form temperature along its wall. Compared to macro-
TPV systems, the micro-TPV systems feature a much
higher power density per unit volume due to the high sur-
face to volume ratio, which makes the study of micro-TPV
systems particularly attractive.
A micro-TPV system has been assembled in the
National University of singapore (NUS). Fig. 1 shows
the schematic of the micro-TPV system. The system con-
sists mainly of a micro-cylindrical SiC combustor, a nine
layer dielectric filter and a GaSb photovoltaic cell array.
A H2/air mixture is combusted in the micro-cylindrical
SiC combustor. As the wall of the micro-combustor (i.e.
the SiC emitter) is heated to a high enough temperature,
it emits many photons. When they impinge on the PV cell
Micro
mixer
Fig. 1. The schematic of the micro-TPV system.
1239
array, they generate free electrons and produce an electrical
power output under the function of the p/n junction. SiC is
selected as the emitter (combustor) material because of its
good emissivity and high temperature reliability. A GaSb
PV cell array is employed because it is the only available
commercial low band gap PV cells responding up to
1.8 lm. Fig. 2 shows the quantum efficiency of the GaSb
PV cells. The process being used to fabricate GaSb PV cells
replicates the silicon solar cell fabrication process, using
inexpensive diffusion steps with no toxic gases [13]. SiC is
a typical broadband emitter. The spectra of broadband
emitters operating at temperatures 1000–1600 K contain
significant proportions of sub-band gap photons with ener-
gies not sufficient to generate charge carriers in the PV
cells. This portion of energy will be absorbed by the PV
cells and will result in a destructive heat load on the gener-
ator components, subsequently lowering the conversion
efficiency of the system. So, a filter should be employed
in the micro-TPV system. Ideally, the filter should be able
to reflect all non-convertible photons back to the emitter
and transmit all convertible photons to the PV cell array.
However, in practice, it is very hard to achieve this. In
our study, a nine layer dielectric filter is employed in the
Fig. 2. The quantum efficiency of GaSb PV cells.
Cooling fins
PV cells covered
with filters
SiC emitter
Combustion chamber
1240 W.M. Yang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 1238–1244
micro-TPV system to recycle this portion of energy. The fil-
ter is fabricated with alternating layers of silicon and sili-
con dioxide and is deposited on a glass slide and bonded
on top of the GaSb PV cells with silicone. The filter is able
to recycle the photons emitted in the 1.8–3.5 lm mid-wave-
length band [14], a large part of the unusable photons with
energy lower than the band gap of GaSb PV cells. Fig. 3
shows the reflectance of the filter.
The micro-combustor is one of the most important com-
ponents of the micro-TPV system. The desired output is a
high and uniform temperature along the wall of the micro-
combustor. Early studies indicated that a micro-cylindrical
combustor with a backward facing step is one of the sim-
plest but effective structures for micro-TPV applications
[15]. Here, we will study further the effects of configura-
tions of the micro-combustor on the performance of
micro-TPV power generators.
To study the effect of the backward facing step of a
micro-combustor on the performance of the micro-TPV
system, three kinds of micro-combustors with different
backward facing steps are designed, see Fig. 4. The inner
diameters at the entrance, i.e. d1, are 2.3 mm, 2.5 mm
and 2.7 mm, forming three step heights of 0.6 mm,
0.5 mm and 0.4 mm, respectively. The temperature along
the wall of the micro-combustor is measured by an inte-
grated high performance infrared thermometer, Marathon
Fig. 3. The reflectance of a simple nine layer dielectric filter.
Fig. 4. Micro-combustor with different backward facing steps.
MA2SCCF, with an accuracy of 1%. Fig. 4 shows the mea-
suring point.
Another micro-combustor with a different combustion
chamber diameter is also designed to study the effect of
the diameter on the performance of micro-TPV system.
Fig. 5 shows the specifications of the micro-combustor
and wall temperature measuring position. The diameter
of the combustion chamber is changed to 3.0 mm, but
the length of the combustion chamber and the wall thick-
ness are the same as that of the other combustors.
The experimental rig is shown in Fig. 6. It includes: (i) a
micro-TPV system, (ii) a connection tube with four 0.2 mm
diameter orifices, distributed equally around the perimeter,
through which high pressure hydrogen and air are mixed
evenly, (iii) a plenum filled with high pressure and uniform
hydrogen, (iv) two sets of electronic mass flow controllers
(Brooks, 5850E), one for hydrogen with a capacity of
1000 SCCM and the other for air with a capacity of 5000
SCCM. The two controllers are capable of controlling flow
rates accurately to 1% of full scale, through which the H2/
air ratio can be accurately controlled. Two electronic mul-
timeters with an accuracy of 0.5% are employed to measure
the open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the
micro-TPV system under different flow rates and H2/air
ratios.
3. Experimental results and discussion
The experiments are first conducted in a micro-TPV
power generator with a combustor of 3.5 mm diameter to
study the effect of backward facing step height on the per-
formance of the system. It was found that flame flows back
upstream of the backward facing step when the step height
is 0.4 mm, while combustion only takes place in the com-
bustion chamber when the step heights are 0.5 mm and
0.6 mm. The results indicate that the backward facing step
should be high enough to avoid back flow of the flame.
Fig. 7 shows the performance curve of the micro-TPV sys-
tem with different backward facing steps when the flow rate
at the inlet is 0.0476 l/s. From the figure, we can see that
the open circuit voltage of the system is almost identical
 W.M. Yang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 1238–1244 1241

Fig. 5. Micro-combustor with a combustion chamber diameter of 3 mm.

2.5 0.7

0.6

Current (A) / Power (W)

2
0.5

Voltage (V)
1.5 0.4

1 0.3

0.2
0.5
0.1

0 0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
H2/air ratio
Open-circuit voltage, step height 0.5 mm
Short-circuit current, step height 0.5 mm
Maximum output power, step height 0.5 mm
Open-circuit voltage, step height 0.6 mm
Short-circuit current, step height 0.6 mm
Maximum output power, step height 0.6 mm

Fig. 7. The performance of the micro-TPV system under different

backward facing step at flow rate of 0.0476 l/s.

0.6
Maximum power output (W)

0.4
Fig. 6. Schematic of experimental set-up.

for the two step heights of 0.5 mm and 0.6 mm. However,
there is a slight increase for the short circuit current and
the maximum output power when the step height increases
from 0.5 mm to 0.6 mm, especially at high H2/air ratios.
When the H2/air ratio is 1.0, the increases are 6.2% and
6.7% for short circuit current and maximum power output,
respectively. Fig. 8 shows the maximum output power of
the micro-TPV system with different step heights as the
flow rate changes from 0.0366 l/s to 0.047 6 l/s. From this
figure, we can observe the same effect of step height on
the performance of the micro-TPV system under other flow
rates. It is noted that an appropriate increase of the step
height can facilitate recirculation of combustion mixture
near the wall, enhancing the mixing process of combustion
around the rim of the tube and ensuring a complete and
stable combustion. So, a higher temperature can be
achieved along the wall, thereby increasing the radiation
0.2
0
0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Flow rate at the inlet (l/s)
Fig. 8. The performance of the micro-TPV system with different steps
under different flow rates, H2/air ratio is 0.9. The solid line presents the
step height of 0.5 mm, the dash line presents the step height of 0.6 mm.
energy density and the electrical power output of the
micro-TPV system. A 5–10 K increase has been obtained
for the wall temperature when the step height increases
from 0.5 mm to 0.6 mm. It should be noted that the step
height cannot be increased too much, or a dead zone of
combustion will be created, which will decrease the perfor-
mance of the micro-TPV power generator.
1242 W.M. Yang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 1238–1244

Furthermore, from Fig. 7, we can also see that for the
two step heights, with an increase in the H2/air ratio, both
the short circuit current and the maximum electrical power
output increase drastically. This is because more fuel takes
part in the combustion, subsequently increasing the tem-
perature along the wall of the micro-cylindrical combustor,
improving the spectral distribution and radiation energy
density and thereby generating higher current and electrical
power output. The open circuit voltage also increases
slightly due to higher energy density, which is consistent
with the results of James [16]. For the two step heights,
Fig. 8 shows that the maximum output power increases
fairly linearly with the increase of flow rate.
When the flow rate is kept at 0.0439 l/s, the perfor-
mance curves of the micro-TPV power generator with
different combustion chamber diameters are shown in
Fig. 9. The volumes of the two combustion chambers
are 0.154 cm3 and 0.113 cm3. It can be observed that
there is a significant increase both for the short circuit
current and the maximum output power of the micro-
TPV system as the combustion chamber decreases from
3.5 mm to 3.0 mm in diameter. When the H2/air ratio
is 1.0, the increases are 52% and 57% for the short circuit
current and the maximum output power, respectively. It
is believed that increasing combustion chamber volume
combustion chamber diameter increases from 3.0 mm to
3.5 mm, the mean flow speed decreases from 6.21 m/s
to 4.56 m/s, respectively. This represents a decrease of
26.6%, which decreases the heat exchange rate between
the high temperature gas and the combustor wall drasti-
cally, thus decreasing the temperature of the wall.
According to Planck’s rule, the radiation power density
is proportional to T4, and therefore, the decrease in wall
temperature will significantly decrease the performance of
the micro-TPV system.
Fig. 10 shows the temperature distribution along the
wall of the above two micro-combustors. The mean wall
temperature decreases about 80 K when the combustion
chamber increases from 3.0 mm to 3.5 mm in diameter
and the H2/air ratio is 0.9, which not only decreases the
radiation power density but also worsens the spectral dis-
tribution, thus decreasing the percentage of useful radia-
tion photons. Fig. 11 shows the spectral distribution of
the above two kinds of micro-combustors. We can see
from this figure that the emissive power from the combus-
tor with a diameter of 3 mm is much higher than that
1400
Temperature along the wall (K)

will increase the retention time of the fuel in the combus-

tor, thus improving the completeness of combustion. At
the same time, the surface of the combustor is also 1100
increased from 1.91 cm2 to 2.16 cm2, representing an
increase of 13%. Therefore, an increase in electrical
power output is initially expected. However, increasing 800
the combustion chamber volume also brings another
problem, that is, a decrease in the flow speed. As the
500
0 5 10 15 20

Distance from the step (mm)

2.5 1
Combustion chamber diameter is 3.0 mm
Current (A) / Power (W)

2 0.8 Combustion chamber diameter is 3.5 mm

Fig. 10. Temperature distribution along the wall of micro-combustor at

Voltage (V)

1.5 0.6
flow rate of 0.0439 l/s and H2/air ratio of 0.9.

1 0.4

0.5 0.2 4.00E+04

Emissive power (W/m2/μ m)

0 0 3.00E+04 d=3.5 mm
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
d=3.0 mm
H2/air ratio
2.00E+04
Open-circuit voltage, d=3.5 mm
Short-circuit current, d=3.5 mm 1.00E+04
Maximum output power, d=3.5 mm
Open-circuit voltage, d=3.0 mm 0.00E+00
Short-circuit current, d=3.0 mm 0 3 6 9 12
Maximum output power, d=3.0 mm Wavelength λ(μm)

Fig. 9. The performance of the micro-TPV system with different Fig. 11. Spectral distribution of above two kinds of micro-combustors at
combustion chamber diameters at flow rate of 0.0439 l/s. flow rate of 0.0439 l/s and H2/air ratio of 0.9.
 W.M. Yang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 1238–1244
2.5 1 ture along the wall of the micro-combustor. For the
Current (A) / Power (W)
2 0.8
Voltage (V)
1.5 0.6
1 0.4
0.5 0.2
0 0
0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
FLow rate (l/s)
Open-circuit voltage, d=3.0 mm
Short-circuit current, d=3.0 mm
Short-circuit current, d=3.5 mm
Open-circuit voltage, d=3.5 mm
Maximum output power, d=3.0 mm
Maximum output power, d=3.5 mm
Fig. 12. Performance of the micro-TPV power generator with different
combustion chamber diameters under different flow rates, H2/air ratio is
0.9.
from the combustor with a diameter of 3.5 mm. Further-
more, because only radiation photons with energy greater
than the bandgap of the PV cells can evoke free electrons
and generate electricity (for the GaSb PV cells employed
here, the wavelength should be less than 1.8 lm), with a
decrease in radiation temperature, the peak of the spectral
distribution curve shifts to the longer wavelength region,
thus decreasing the percentage of useful radiation
photons.
The decrease in open circuit voltage is relatively small
when the combustion chamber diameter increases from
3.0 mm to 3.5 mm. This is because the open circuit voltage
is mainly determined by materials characteristics and the
operating temperature of the PV cells.
Fig. 12 shows the performance of the micro-TPV
power generator with different combustion chamber
diameters when the flow rate changes from 0.0366 l/s
to 0.0476 l/s, and the H2/air ratio is 0.9. We can see
from Fig. 12 that under different flow rates, there are sig-
nificant increases both for short circuit current and for
maximum output power of the micro-TPV system as
the combustion chamber diameter decreases from
3.5 mm to 3.0 mm, while the increase in open circuit
voltage is less significant. Similar increases can be
observed under other H2/air ratios. The results indicate
that there exists an optimal value for the diameter of
the micro-combustor.
Furthermore, from Fig. 12, we can also see the same
behaviour as is shown in Fig. 8. For the above two differ-
ent micro-combustors, both the short circuit current and
the maximum output power of the micro-TPV system
increase almost linearly with the increase of flow rate.
This is because an increase in flow rate means more fuel
is combusted in the same period, increasing the tempera-
1243
micro-TPV power generator with a combustion chamber
diameter of 3.0 mm, when the flow rate is 0.0476 l/s at
the H2/air ratio of 0.9 (corresponding to a H2 flow rate
of 1.17 · 10 3 g/s), the system is able to deliver an electri-
cal power output of 0.92 W, the open circuit voltage and
short circuit current are 2.32 V and 0.52 A, respectively.
Since the active area of the PV cells is 4.0 cm2, a power
density of 0.23 W/cm2 has been achieved, which is much
higher than that obtained by Nielson (0.032 mW/cm2)
[10].
However, just like the other micro-power generators
being developed around the world, the development of
the micro-TPV power generator is still at an early stage.
For example, to further increase the output electrical
power density and improve the efficiency of the micro-
TPV system, it is necessary to employ a selective emitter
instead of a SiC broadband emitter. This can improve the
emissive spectral distribution drastically. Selective emitting
materials include oxides of rare earth materials such as
erbia (Er2O3) and ytterbia (Yb2O3) [17], surface micro-
structuring tungsten [18] and Co/Ni doped MgO [19].
The clearance between the PV cells and the micro-combus-
tor is too big in the present design. A vacuum package can
be employed in a future design to reduce the heat loss by
natural convection considerably, thus minimizing the heat
load on the PV cells.
4. Conclusion
The results from an experimental study of a prototype
micro-TPV power generator with different combustor
configurations are described in this paper. The micro-
TPV system is made of a SiC emitter, a simple 9 layer
dielectric filter and a GaSb photovoltaic cell array. By
increasing the backward facing step height of the micro-
combustor, the short circuit current and the maximum
output power of the system can be raised. Combustion
chamber diameter is a very important factor affecting
the performance of a micro-TPV system. By decreasing
the combustion chamber diameter, we can significantly
increase the short circuit current and maximum output
power of the system, while the increase in the open circuit
voltage is less significant. Both the short circuit current
and the maximum electrical power output increase with
an increase in the flow rate and the H2/air ratio. When
the flow rate of H2 is 1.17 · 10 3 g/s and the H2/air ratio
is 0.9, the micro-TPV system with a micro-combustor of
3.0 mm in diameter is able to deliver an electrical power
output of 0.92 W; and the open circuit electrical voltage
and short circuit current are 2.32 V and 0.52 A,
respectively.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by a National University of
Singapore Grant No. R-265-000-114-112.
1244 W.M. Yang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2007) 1238–1244
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