MODULE I There are two criteria for mental process to be

Introduction to Logic & Critical Thinking considered thinking:

Rational 1. when the objective is the truth

• Humans have the ability to reason toward sound
conclusions based on facts and evidence,
• Humans draw inferences from situations and
circumstances,
• We as humans, make sound well-reasoned
judgements based on information.
“Human are rational beings.”
Logic
Branch of philosophy that studies the reasoning process and
seeks to under-stand the differences between good and bad
reasoning.
Critical thinking
• Critical thinking is a means for separating truth
from falsehood and reasonable from unreasonable
beliefs.
• It frequently involves finding flaws in the
arguments of others, but that's not all that it's about.
• It's not simply about criticizing ideas, it is about
developing the ability to think about ideas with greater
critical distance.
• analysis
• definition
• classification
• literary or scientific creativity
2. when the truth we already have is the nucleus of further
knowledge
• criticism (as of books, movies, people)
• comparison and contrast (as between Jose Rizal,
with whom we are familiar and another country’s
hero)
LOGIC
1. is concern with Validity
2. Concern if the premises necessarily and inevitably
lead into the conclusion
Example:
All orchids are flowers,
But the waling waling is an orchid,
Therefore, I shall give you a waling waling corsage on your
birthday
(is this a correct conclusion? Nope because it should be
“Therefore waling waling is a flower”)
3. It leads man, in his search for truth, from the known
towards the unknown, from the easiest towards the
most difficult.
4. Specifically guides and directs man to form correct
ideas or concepts, to unite concepts to form
propositions and to correlate propositions into correct
premises to form valid conclusions
TYPES OF LOGIC
1. Based on Form & Content
2. Based on Process of thinking

Based on Form & Content:

1. Formal logic – is concerned with the aspect of form which
has to do with correctness or sequence or the following of
rules.

“All men are mortal

Correct
But Pedro is a man
Therefore Pedro is mortal”
  
MODULE II But if we say:
LOGIC & CORRECT THINKING “All men are mortal Wrong, because Pedro is not
• “Correct” - means conforms to a pattern or to but Pedro is a man Pablo
rules. Therefore Pablo is mortal”
• When the premises have sufficient grounds for the
conclusion, we call the argument “correct”.
• Thinking is a mental process 2. Material logic is concerned with the aspect of subject
matter, or content or truth
“Thinking is a mental process” “All men are mortal
But Pedro is a man
4 levels of mental process Therefore, Pedro is mortal”
 Memorizing -In the first example above, all the statements are true
 Recall (unless Pedro for you is the name of the dog or a horse) and
 Imagining is what Material Logic is all about: that content is true.
 Daydreaming Based on Thinking Process:
1. Deductive Logic
The arguments flow logically and correctly into the Judgment is the process through which an argument may
conclusion. It is also called FORMAL DEDUCTIVE LOGIC. assert or deny something.

It is from universal to the particular The process of knowing whether it is assertive or denial, not
assertive and denial. The expression of judgment is also
called as proposition.
:All men are mortal
but Pedro is a man
3. Reasoning
Therefore Pablo is mortal”
It is the process through which the mind or the capability of
thinking arrives at the conclusion from the previously
possessed judgment.
2. Inductive Logic
Statement flows logically from particular to general or
It tells us how to form a new proposition from the premises
universal. It implies the sense of probability and closely
and it is also called INFERENCE , otherwise known as the
related to the scientific method of inquiry which flows from
process to arrive in a certain conclusion.
specific to universal.
Inference is usually expressed in syllogisms.
Arrives at a conclusion but with less certainty than Deductive
logic.
Example
Joseph is with Mary
“Glenn was absent probably because he was sick “
But, Peter is with Joseph
* there was an implication that he could be absent due to
Therefore , Peter is with Mary
some other reasons

“This man talks. This grandfather…

This wife…
This son or daughter….
Therefore, all given subjects talks”
*Inductive Logic implies sense of probability

“Argument is the heart of Logic”

Arguments
 Are made of propositions which are called
premises and conclusions.
• It consists of at least two propositions.
• All arguments are either deductive or inductive,
Propositions
and an understanding of this distinction is required
It is a claim or assertion that affirms or denies that something
for criticism.
is the case.

All propositions are either true or false, and no proposition

THREE MAIN DIVISIONS OF LOGIC
can be both true and false.
 Simple Apprehension
 Judgement Furthermore, they are the only sort of thing that can properly
 Reasoning be called true or false.

1. Simple Apprehension Here are some examples of propositions.

Simple denotes an act that cannot be resolved to another • All triangles have three sides.
form and Apprehension denotes an act of conceiving an • Either Donald Trump won the U.S. election, or Joe
object. Biden won it.
• People ought not to lie.
Therefore, Simple apprehension is the process through • If today is Friday, then tomorrow is Saturday.
which the capability of thinking comprehends the objective • All circles are squares
reality as it is outside the mind.
The majority of propositions that one encounters come
Example: in the form of a declarative sentence, but it is important
• man to note that a proposition is not identical to the sentence
• Mortal that expresses it. A proposition is that to which a
• John Dewee declarative sentence refers.

2. Judgement
It came from the latin word “iudicare” which means to
pronounce regarding the agreement or disagreement
between two concepts is made.
For this reason, multiple sentences may express or refer to
the same proposition:
• George W. Bush won the U.S. election.
• The U.S. election was won by George W. Bush.
 • George W. Bush was the winner of the U.S.
election
Non-propositional language: exclamations, commands,
and questions
• What are we doing here?
• It is the case that, “what are we doing here.”
• “It is the case that, “all triangles have three sides.
• ”It is the case that, “either George W. Bush won
the U.S. election, or John Kerry won it.
• ”It is the case that, “people ought not to lie.
• ”It is the case that, “if today is Wednesday, then
tomorrow is Thursday.”
MODULE III
PROPOSITIONS:
OVERVIEW OF PROPOSITIONS
Judgement and Proposition
HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
• It expresses a tentative relationship between two or more
ideas. Expressed in an indirect manner.
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
Absolute or straight forward manner in affirming or denying a
relationship between two ideas.
Ex. Philippine Eagle is an
endangered species.
3 Elements in Categorical Proposition
•Subject (S) - a term which is to be affirmed or denied
•Copula (C) - one who joins the subject and predicate
•Predicate (P) - is that which is to be affirmed or denied of
the subject.
Ex: Logic is a philosophy subject.
S C P

Judgment * Note the logical structure

• It is the second division in logic.
• It comes from the infinitive verb of the Latin word “iudicare’ Categorical proposition
which means a mental act which affirms or denies Two Properties: Quality and Quantity
something.
Quality
• Therefore, a proposition is a sentence that affirms or Refers to the relationship between the subject and the
denies predicate terms
Something
When the subject and predicate terms are in agreement or
• It is assertive or denial identical, the predicate affirms the subject
• It is positive or negative through the copula
• It is true or false
When the two terms disagree or are non-identical, the
Proposition predicate, through the copula, denied the
• An external sign of judgment subject.
• It affirms or denies something about a certainty, reality or
object. can be classified only as affirmative proposition
• Generally, a proposition is a declarative sentence or negative proposition .

Kinds of Sentences * The quality is manifested by the copula verb-to-be

1. Declarative or proposition – it is one that states a fact. It
asserts or denies something. Affirmative:
Ex: Logic is the science of correct reasoning • Philosophy is the study of correct
reasoning.
2. Imperative –It is one that gives a command or one which • Philippine Eagle is an endangered
makes a request. species.
Ex: Please close the door gently. • Every natural environment is
important for human survival.
3. Interrogative – It is one that asks a question. • Many professionals are teachers.
Ex. When is your birthday?
4. Exclamatory- It is one that expresses a strong feeling
Ex: What an awesome God we have!

KINDS OF PROPOSITION
SIMPLE PROPOSITION
• Makes only one claim or assertion

COMPOUND PROPOSITION
• Contains two or more simple propositions

CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
• It expresses an agreement or disagreement between two
ideas Absolute or straight forward manner
Negative:
•An idea is not an external being.
•All vehicles are not environment friendly.
•No priest is a politician.
•Not all cowards are losers.
•An idea is not an external being.
•All vehicles are not environment friendly.
Negative
Negative Prefixes on Categorical Proposition
The use of negative prefixes like
mal,un,mis,dis,ir,non, etc cannot determine the quality of
proposition.
Examples:
• Logging in the protected natural is illegal.
• Some politicians are dishonest.
• The shape of a rectangle is irregular.
• Government employees are non-partisan.
All the propositions are still affirmative!!
Quantity
Quantity of terms refers to the extension or quantity of the
subject.
Thus, the basis of the quantity of the proposition is the
quantity of the subject term as may also be modified by
quantifiers.
Singular Categorical Proposition
Lorenzo Ruiz is the first Filipino saint.
Particular Categorical Proposition
Several martyrs are Catholic saints.
Universal Categorical Proposition
All martyrs are Godly.
Singular Proposition
•She is a doctor
•That house us for sale
•The leader is reliable.
Particular Proposition
•Not all drivers are irresponsible
•Few people are involved in charitable work.
•Some workers are professionals
Universal Proposition
•All soldiers are loyal to the country.
•No priest is unholy.
•Every mother is dedicated to their children.
Symbols of Proposition
Since the quantity are properties found together,
categorical proposition can be classified according to quality
and quantity.
Each quality is represented by letters A,E,I,O which are
dummy symbol for they do not have significant idea
contributed to the propositions that they represent.
Affirmo and Nego
In this fashion, A and I statements are seen to be
affirmative; E and O are remembered as negative.
Proposition A Universal Affirmative
•All jeeps are vehicle
•Every student must wear his I.D.
Proposition I Particular Affirmative
•Some leaves are green
•Most teachers are underpaid.
•Many philosophers are atheists.
Proposition E Universal Negative
•None of you is from Mars.
•No Tamaraw is a furious animal.
Proposition O Particular Negative
•Many intelligent students are not scholars.
•Some politicians are not corrupt.
HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITION
It expresses a tentative relationship between two or more
ideas.
The assertion or denial is expressed in an indirect manner.
Ex. If a person has cancer, then he is seriously sick.
TYPES OF HYPOTHETICAL PROPOSITIONS
•Conditional proposition
•Conjunctive proposition
•Disjunctive proposition
1. Conditional proposition
Example:
If a person is seriously sick, then his life is endangered
Antecedent consequent
(condition clause) (conditioned clause)
The conditional proposition is a hypothetical proposition
which expresses a logical relationship between antecedent
(condition) and a consequent (result).
• “If” is regarded as the copula of the proposition and
together with “then” it expresses the necessary relationship
between the antecedent and consequent.
•A conditional proposition, though need not
always begin with “if”.
There are some expressions which can
substitute for it
•Examples:
provided that, on condition that & unless, which, in particular,
is used when the antecedent is a negative one .
“If I do not study, then I will fail.”
can be stated as:
“Unless I study, then I will fail”.
•The truth of the conditional proposition is based on the
necessary relationship of antecedent and consequent, or on
the real dependence of the consequent on its antecedent,
•i.e. if the antecedent is true, the consequent is also true.
Thus, the following propositions are true conditional
propositions.
•If it rains today, the streets will be wet.
•If a person has cancer, then he is seriously sick.
These examples are true because all the consequences are
the natural results of antecedents.
The following are false conditional propositions:
•If I pay taxes, I am a good citizen.
•Unless I review, I shall fail the examinations.
The examples are false for their consequent are doubtful.
Disjunctive proposition
It contains two or more propositions that are connected that
one of them must be true.
Example:
•An action is either good or not gold.
•A student is either neglectful or responsible.
•Water is either hot or cold or warm.
To ensure a true disjunctive proposition, the proposition
should exhaust all possible alternatives.
Example:
•Water is either hot or cold or warm.
(true proposition since it exhaust all possible alternatives
such as all the possible temperatures of water)
•A material substance is either solid or liquid.
(false proposition since a material substance may not be any
of solid or liquid but “gas”)
Conjunctive proposition
A hypothetical proposition which denies simultaneous
possibility of two alternatives.
Example:
• A person cannot be both walking and running.
• I cannot be asleep and awake at the same time.
• An object cannot be in two places simultaneously.
The conjunctive proposition may also be true or a false
one.
It is true if one of the alternatives is true, the rest would be
false.
The examples given are true conjunctive since their
alternatives exclude one another.
Example:
• A person cannot be both walking and running.
• I cannot be asleep and awake at the same time.
• An object cannot be in two places simultaneously.
The conjunctive proposition
“A book cannot be both new and expensive “
It is certainly a false proposition because it contains
alternatives which can be both true.
A new book can also be expensive .
MODULE IV
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inference
• Inference is the act or process of deriving a
conclusion based solely on what one already
knows.
Two Types of Inference
1. Deductive Inference (general to the particular)
2. Inductive Inference (wider in extent than the
premises)
Deductive inference
• Immediate Inference
In immediate inference there is one and only one premise
and from this sole premise conclusion is drawn. 
Immediate inference has two types:
1. Square of Opposition
2. Eduction
• Mediate Inference
Immediate Inference
• It develops facility in recognizing the quantity and
quality of propositions.
• It helps in recognizing and constructing the
equivalent propositions.
• It helps in the understanding of the relationship of
propositions with one another regarding their truth
and falsity.
Kinds of Immediate Inference:
Oppositional Inference or The Oppositional Square of
Proposition
• The relationship between propositions having the
same subject, the same predicate, but may be
different in quality, or in quantity or in both
quantity and quality.
Types of Opposition
1. Contradictories
2. Contraries
3. Sub-Contrary Opposition
4. Sub -Alterns
1. Contradictories
It is the relationship between propositions with same subject
and predicate but different in both quantity and quality (AO,
OA, EI, IE)
Example: I – Some politicians are corrupt.
E – No politicians is corrupt
Rule for Contradictories:
If a given proposition (1st proposition) is True, the true-life is
false; and if the given is false, the contradictory must be true
2. Contraries
It is the relationship between propositions with the same
subject, same predicate, the same universal quantity but
different in quality. (AE, EA)
Example: A – All philosophers are lovers of wisdom.
E – No philosopher is a lover of wisdom.
Rule for Contraries:
If a universal proposition is True, the contrary is False; but if
a universal proposition is false, the contrary is doubtful.
i.e., it may either be true or false. Notice that contrary
propositions cannot be true at the same time, but maybe
simultaneously false
3. Sub-Contrary
It is the relationship between propositions with same subject,
the same predicate, the same particular quantity but different
in quality. (IO, OI)
Example: I – Some cops are good traffic enforcers.
O – Some cops are not good traffic enforcers.
4. Sub- Alterns
It is the relationship between propositions having the same
subject, the same predicate, the same quality but different in
quantity. (AI, IA, EO, OE)
Example: I – Some Filipinos are rebels.
A – All Filipinos are rebels.
E –No violent person is at peace to oneself.
O – Some violent persons are not at peace to
themselves.
Rule for Sub – Alterns:
a. If the universal proposition is true, the particular is
also true.
b. If the universal proposition is false, the particular is
doubtful.
c. If the particular proposition is true, the universal is
doubtful.
d. If the particular proposition is false, the universal is
false.
Kinds of Immediate Inference
Eduction or Inductive Inference of Proposition
• Propositions are formulated differently, but their
meanings are retained and equivalent from the
given proposition.
• Hence, it will develop facility in recognizing the
relationships of subject and predicate and
recognizing equivalent propositions which are
expressed in various forms.
4 Kinds of Equivalence
1. Conversion
2. Obversion
3. Contra-position
4. Inversion
1. Conversion
• The original proposition is reconstructed by
interchanging the subject and the predicate.
• The subject of the original proposition becomes
the predicate of the conclusions and the original
predicate becomes the new subject.
• The quality is unchanged.
• The original proposition is called coverntend,
while the new proposition is called converse
Example:
I – Some politicians are corrupt officials (covertend)
I – Some corrupt officials are politicians (converse)
Rules: Conversion
1. Interchange the subject and the predicate of the
convertend in the converse (the subject of the
given proposition becomes the predicate of the
resulting proposition while the predicate of the
given proposition becomes the subject of the
latter)
2. Retain the quality.
3. Do not extend any term.
2 Kinds of Conversion
1.Complete Conversion: I to I and E to E
I – Some writers are singers.
I – Some singers are writers.
E – No cow is a carabao.
E – No carabao is a cow
2. Partial Conversion: A to I and E to O
A – All capitalists are rich men;
I – Some rich men are capitalists.
E- No environmentalist is a miner;
O - Some miners are not environmentalists
Note on Conversion
On the other hand, not all conversion of a proposition with a
particular predicate is valid such as A to A, which may
commit error on illicit extension of terms.
A- Filipinos are Catholics.
A – Whoever is a Catholic is a Filipino
The conclusion manifest an illicit generalization It could be
correct to assume that Filipinos are Catholics, but it is a
fallacy to assume that whoever is necessary a Filipino.
However, an A proposition may be converted completely as
long as the subject is interchangeable with its predicate or
when it involves definition.
A- Water is the universal solvent.
A – The universal solvent is water
A- Logic is the science of correct reasoning.
A- The science of correct reasoning is logic.
Likewise an O proposition cannot be converted It always
involves the extension of terms false conclusion, and
violation of the principle of logical equivalence.
Obversion
This is the process of eduction where a new proposition is
formulated by changing the quality.
The original predicate is contraindicated in the conclusion
The original proposition is called obvertend, while the next
proposition is called obverse.
Example:
A – All flowers are attractive. (Obvertend)
E. - No flower is unattractive. (Obverse)
A – Every spring is a natural wealth.
E – No spring is non-natural wealth.
E – No mosquito is safe.
A- All mosquitoes are unsafe.
I- Some historical structures are condemned.
O – Some historical structures are not non-comdemned.
I – Some drugs are not prescription.
O – Some drugs are non-prescription.
Rules: Obversion
1. Retain the subject and its quantity.
2. Change the quality.
3. Use the contradictory of the original predicate in
the obverse.
Contraposition
• A form of logical equivalence that formulates new
propositions by transposing the subject of the
original proposition into a predicate in the new
proposition.
• It is a combination of conversion and obversion.
• It involves conversion in the sense that it includes
an interchange of the subject and predicate of the
original proposition in the new proposition.
• It also involves obversion since it includes the
addition of the contradictory term of the predicate
term in the new proposition or both the subject and
the predicate in the new proposition.
Example:
E – No communist is a capitalist.
I- Some Non-capitalists are communists.
Rules: Contraposition
1. Change the quality of the given and contradict the
original predicate
2. Transpose the subject and the predicate.
3. For complete contraposition, the transported
subject and predicate are both contraindicated.
Types of Contraposition
Partial Contraposition: A to E, E to I, O to I
Examples:
A –Fruits are rich in fibers.
E – No non-rich in fiber is a fruit.
E- No bad bacteria is healthy for the body.
I – Some non-healthy for the body is bad bacteria.
O- Some vegetables are not sources of vitamin.
I – Some non-sources of Vitamin A are vegetables.
Complete Contraposition : A to A, E to O, O to O
Examples:
A- Trees are protectors of land erosions.
A – Non-protectors of land erosions are no-trees.
E – No toxic waste is safe for our water resources.
I- Some non-safe materials for our water resources are non-
toxic wastes.
O – Some institutions are not exclusive;
O-Some non-exclusive places are not non-institutions.
Inversion
It is another method of constructing a new proposition
(Inverse) from a given proposition (Invertend).
Example:
A- All criminals are dangerous (Invertend)
O – Some non-criminals are not dangerous (Inverse)
Two types of Inversion
1.Simple
2. Complete
* Both the subject and predicate of the original proposition
are retained in the new proposition. However, the subject
term in the new proposition or both the subject term and
predicate term are contraindicated in the new proposition
1.Simple Inversion
Examples:
A- Every school is a transmitter of culture.
O – Some nonschools are not transmitters of culture.
E – No violent movie is morally appropriate to minors.
I – Many non-violent movies are morally appropriate to
minors.
Rules of Simple Inversion:
A to O and E to I
1. Retain the subject and predicate in their original
proposition.
2. Change the quality.
3. Contradict the original subject.
2.Complete Inversion
Examples:
A- Citrus fruits are rich in Vitamin C.
I – Some non-citrus fruits are non-rich in Vitamin C.

E - Fatty foods are not safe to human body.

O – Several non-fatty foods are not non-safe to human body.

Rules of Complete Inversion:

A to I and E to O
1. Retain the subject and predicate and its quality in
the original proposition.
2. Change the quantity.
3. Contradict both the subject and predicate in the
new proposition.

Synopsis of Logical Equivalence

Conversion
1. Complete I to I and E to E (A to A)
Some S is P; Some P is S.
No S is P; No P is S.
Every S is P; Every P is S.

2. Partial A to I and E to O
Every S is P; Some P is S
No S is P; Some P is not S.

Obversion A to E, E to A, I to O, O to I
Every S is P, No S is Non-P.
No S is P, Every S is Non –P.
Some S is P, Some S is not Non-P.
Some S is not P, Some S is non-P.

Contraposition
1. Partial A to E, E to I and O to I
Every S is P; No non-P is S.
No S is P; Some non-P is S.
Some S is not P; Some non-P is S.

2. Complete A to A; E to O and O to O
Every S is P; Every non- P is a non-S.
No s is P; Some non-P is not non-S.
Some S is not P; some non – P is not
non-S.

Inversion
1. Simple Simple A to O and E to I
Every S is P; Some non-S is not P
No S is P Some non-S is P.

2. Complete A to I and E to O
Every S is P; Some non-S is a non –P.
No S is P; Some non-S is not non-P.