JZsp20 Math 1920 Name: ___________________

McLaurin Series and Taylor Series

Show all pertinent work to receive credit. Label and scale the axes of all your graphs.
*
: circle your choice

DEFINITION: A McLaurin Series for a function f(x) is a power series M(x) with center 0:

f ( n) ( 0 )
f ( x)  M( x)   c n x , with coefficients c n 
n

n 0
n!
The coefficients arise from matching the derivatives of all orders for the function and the series:
f ( n) ( 0 )
M ( n) ( x )  f ( n ) ( x )  cn  n  0, 1, 2, .....
n!
Some famous MacLaurin series are:

xn x 2 x3 x 4
ex  
n  0 n!
 1  x   
2! 3! 4 !



(  1) n x 3 x 5 x7 x 9
sin x   x 2 n 1
 x    
n 0  2n  1 ! 3! 5! 7 ! 9 !

(  1) n 2n

x 2 x 4 x6 x8
cos x   x  1    
n 0  2n ! 2! 4 ! 6 ! 8 !

EXAMPLE: The value of Euler’s number, e, can be approximated using the McLaurin series
for ex, evaluated at 1:
1n 
1 1 1
e e  1
 1 1   
n 0 n ! 2! 3 ! 4 !
The partial sums of this series approximate e with increasing precision:
S   1, 2, 2.5, 27. , 271
N . , 272
. , 27
. , 2718
. , 

Series can be integrated term-by-term to approximate integrals:

EXAMPLE: Approximate the value of the integral

2
ex
1 x dx
using a third degree MacLaurin polynomial for ex
Solution:
 x 2 x3 
2 x 2  1 x    2
x2
e 2! 3 !  dx  1 x 77
1 x dx  1  x 
 x  1 2  6
dx  ln 2 
36
 2.8320
 1
 
Compared to the calculator value:
2 x
e
1 x dx  3.0591
the series estimate is off by -7.4 %.
Use of a fifth degree MacLaurin polynomial for ex reduces the error to -0.6 %
Translation of the McLaurin series results in a power series with center x0 , the Taylor Series for f(x):

DEFINITION: A Taylor Series for a function f(x) is a power series T(x) with center x0:
 f ( n) ( x 0 )
f ( x)  T ( x)   c n ( x  x 0 ) , with coefficients c n 
n

n 0
n!
The interval of convergence of the series is often determined by applying the Ratio Test or the Root
Test to the series. These tests may fail at the endpoint of the intervals - often, we have to test these
points separately using other techniques, e.g. the Alternating Series Theorem.

The TRUNCATED TAYLOR SERIES TN(x) has REMAINDER RN(x):

 N 
T ( x)  c
n 0
n ( x  x0 ) n
c
n 0
( x  x 0 )   c n ( x  x 0 ) n  TN ( x)  R N ( x)
n
 N1
n

   n 
TN ( x ) RN ( x )

Applying the Mean Value Theorem leads to a useful sum-less expression for the remainder:

THEOREM: (Cauchy’s form of the remainder)

f ( N  1) ( c )
R N ( x)  ( x  x 0 ) N  1 , for some number c between x and a
( N  1)!
This fact immediately leads to an error bound for the approximation of a function by its Taylor series
at a point x:
f ( x)  TN ( x)   where   max R N ( x)
c
EXAMPLE:
Compute T5(x), the Taylor polynomial of degree 5 for the function f(x) = cos x around x0 = B/2.

Using a table to collect the results for the terms of the Taylor Series for the function f(x) = cos x
around x0 = B/2:
n f(n)(x) f(n)(B/2) cn

0 cos x 0 0

1 - sin x -1 -1

2 - cos x 0 0

3 sin x 1 1/6

4 cos x 0 0

5 - sin x -1 -1/120


Thus: T5 ( x)   x   2 
1
 
x 2  1
x 2  
3 5

6 120

b. Use T5(x) to approximate the value of cos(1):

 1
 
cos(1)  T5 (1)   1   2  1   2 
1
1  2   
3 5
 0.5403023
6 120

c. What is the relative error of the estimate?

Comparing our estimate of 0.5403062 for cos 1 with the calculator value of 0.5403023:
Estimate - Actual Value T (1)  cos(1)
rel   100(%)  5 100%  7  10 6 % .
Actual Value cos(1)
We may report our estimate up to 5 decimal values.
EXERCISES:

1. a. Determine the first 3 nonzero terms of the McLaurin Series for the function
f ( x)  cos x using the table below:

n f(n)(x) f(n)(x0) cn

0 cos x

cos x.

b. Use the series under (a) to approximate the value of cos1 / 2 :

cos1 / 2 

c. What is the relative error of the estimate?

2. a. Determine the first 3 nonzero terms of the McLaurin Series for the function
f ( x)  sin x using the table below:

n f(n)(x) f(n)(x0) cn

0 sin x

sin x.

b. Use the series under (a) to approximate the value of sin1 :

sin1 

c. What is the relative error of the estimate?

3. Determine the first 4 terms of the McLaurin Series for the function
f ( x)  e  x using the table below:

n f(n)(x) f(n)(x0) cn

0 e-x

e-x.


In summation form: e  x   n
(complete the expression).

 x2
Substitute x2 for x to get a series expression for the function e

2
ex 

In summation form: e
 x2
 (complete the expression).
n
Use the four terms of the series to approximate the integral :

e
0
 x2
dx 

What is the error of your estimate relative to the calculator value for this integral?

4. Use the McLaurin Polynomial of degree 5 for sin x to approximate the integral

1
sin x

0
x
dx 

What is the error of your estimate relative to the calculator value for this integral?
5. a. Determine the first 3 nonzero terms of the Taylor Series for the function

f ( x)  sin x evaluated at x0 
2 using the table below:

n f(n)(x) f(n)(x0) cn

0 sin x

sin x.

b. Use the series under (a) to approximate the value of sin1 :

sin1 

c. What is the relative error of the estimate?

6. a. Determine the first 3 nonzero terms of the Taylor Series for the function

f ( x)  cos x evaluated at x 0 
6 using the table below:

n f(n)(x) f(n)(x0) cn

0 cos x

cos x.

Use the Taylor Polynomial of degree 3 about x 0   6 for cos x to approximate the integral

1
cos x

1 x
dx 
2

What is the error of your estimate relative to the calculator value for this integral?
7. a. Determine the first 6 terms of the Taylor Series for the function
f ( x)  ln x around x0 = 1, using the table below:

n f(n)(x) f(n)(1) cn

0 ln x

ln x.


In summation form: ln x   (complete the expression).
n

b. Based on your result under (a), find a series for ln2 (substitute x=2 into your answer)

ln 2.

1 1 1 1
Thus, the alternating harmonic series 1      converges to
2 3 4 5
_______________.

c. Using the Remainder theorem for Alternating Series,

how many terms are needed to estimate the value of ln 2 to two decimals?

Use your calculator to find the value of ln 2 to two decimals using the series:
8. Euler’s Formula.

a. Using the MacLaurin series for f ( x)  e we can show:

x

EULER’S FORMULA: e i  cos   i sin 

x  i 
 i  n  i  2 n 1

 i  2 n
Proof: e  e 
x i
 n!

2n
n 0   !
1

2n!

n 0 
odd terms even terms

(Distribute the powers to complete the proof)

b. Use EULER’S FORMULA to rewrite (simplify your answer)

e i =