Julius - Caesar PT 2

Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (Latin: [ˈɡaːiʊs ˈjuːliʊs ˈkae̯ sar]; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March
44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in the events
Gaius Julius Caesar
that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire.
In 60 BC, Caesar, Crassus and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate, a political
alliance that dominated Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to amass
power as Populares were opposed by the Optimates within the Roman Senate,
among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar rose to
become one of the most powerful politicians in the Roman Republic through a string
of military victories in the Gallic Wars, completed by 51 BC, which greatly
extended Roman territory. During this time he both invaded Britain and built a
bridge across the Rhine river. These achievements and the support of his veteran
army threatened to eclipse the standing of Pompey, who had realigned himself with
the Senate after the death of Crassus in 53 BC. With the Gallic Wars concluded, the
Senate ordered Caesar to step down from his military command and return to Rome.
Leaving his command in Gaul would mean losing his immunity to criminal
prosecution by his enemies; knowing this, Caesar openly defied the Senate's
authority by crossing the Rubicon and marching towards Rome at the head of an
army.[2] This began Caesar's civil war, which he won, leaving him in a position of The Tusculum portrait, possibly the
near unchallenged power and influence. only surviving sculpture of Caesar
made during his lifetime.
After assuming control of government, Caesar began a program of social and Archaeological Museum, Turin, Italy.
governmental reforms, including the creation of the Julian calendar. He gave
citizenship to many residents of far regions of the Roman Republic. He initiated land Born 12 July 100 BC[1]
reform and support for veterans. He centralized the bureaucracy of the Republic and Rome, Italy, Roman
was eventually proclaimed "dictator for life" (dictator perpetuo). His populist and Republic
authoritarian reforms angered the elites, who began to conspire against him. On the Died 15 March 44 BC
Ides of March (15 March), 44 BC, Caesar was assassinated by a group of rebellious (aged 55)
senators led by Brutus and Cassius, who stabbed him to death.[3][4] A new series of Rome, Italy
civil wars broke out and the constitutional government of the Republic was never
fully restored. Caesar's great-nephew and adopted heir Octavian, later known as Cause of Assassination (stab
Augustus, rose to sole power after defeating his opponents in a civil war. Octavian death wounds)
set about solidifying his power, and the era of the Roman Empire began. Resting Temple of Caesar,
place Rome
Caesar was an accomplished author and historian as well as a statesman; much of
41.891943°N
his life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns. Other
contemporary sources include the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical 12.486246°E
writings of Sallust. Later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also Notable work Bellum Gallicum
important sources. Caesar is considered by many historians to be one of the greatest
Bellum Civile
military commanders in history.[5] His cognomen was subsequently adopted as a
synonym for "Emperor"; the title "Caesar" was used throughout the Roman Empire, Office Dictator (49–44 BC)
giving rise to modern cognates such as Kaiser and Tsar. He has frequently appeared Consul (59, 48, 46–
in literary and artistic works, and his political philosophy, known as Caesarism,
45, 44 BC)
inspired politicians into the modern era.
Spouse(s) Cossutia (disputed)
Cornelia (84–69 BC;
Contents her death)
Pompeia (67–61 BC;
Early life and career
divorced)
Consulship and military campaigns
Calpurnia (59–44 BC;
Conquest of Gaul
his death)
Civil war
Children Julia
Dictatorship and assassination
Dictatorship Caesarion
Political reforms (unacknowledged)
Assassination Augustus (adoptive)
Aftermath of the assassination
Parent(s) Gaius Julius Caesar
Deification
and Aurelia
Personal life
Military career
Health and physical appearance
Name and family Years 81–45 BC
The name Gaius Julius Caesar Conflicts Siege of Mytilene
Family Gallic Wars
Rumors of passive homosexuality Caesar's civil war
Literary works Alexandrine war
Memoirs
Awards Civic Crown
Legacy
Historiography
Politics
Depictions
Battle record
Chronology
See also
References
Sources
Primary sources
Own writings
Ancient historians' writings
Secondary sources
External links
Early life and career

Gaius Julius Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia, which claimed descent
from Julus, son of the legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess
Venus.[6] The Julii were of Alban origin, mentioned as one of the leading Alban houses,
which settled in Rome around the mid-7th century BC, following the destruction of Alba
Longa. They were granted patrician status, along with other noble Alban families.[7] The Julii
also existed at an early period at Bovillae, evidenced by a very ancient inscription on an altar
in the theatre of that town, which speaks of their offering sacrifices according to the lege
Albana, or Alban rites.[8][9][10] The cognomen "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the
Elder, with an ancestor who was born by Caesarean section (from the Latin verb "to cut",
caedere, caes-).[11] The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations: that the first
Caesar had a thick head of hair ("caesaries"); that he had bright grey eyes ("oculis caesiis");
or that he killed an elephant during the Punic Wars ("caesai" in Moorish) in battle.[12] Caesar
issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favored the latter interpretation
of his name.
Gaius Marius, Caesar's
Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, uncle
although they had enjoyed some revival of their political fortunes in the early 1st century
BC.[13] Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, governed the province of Asia,[14]
and his sister Julia, Caesar's aunt, married Gaius Marius, one of the most prominent figures in the Republic.[15] His mother,
Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family. Little is recorded of Caesar's childhood.[16]
In 85 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly,[17] making Caesar the head of the family at the age of 16. His coming of age
coincided with a civil war between his uncle Gaius Marius and his rival Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Both sides carried out bloody
purges of their political opponents whenever they were in the ascendancy. Marius and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna were in
control of the city when Caesar was nominated as the new flamen dialis (high priest of Jupiter),[18] and he was married to
Cinna's daughter Cornelia.[19][20]
Following Sulla's final victory, however, Caesar's connections to the old regime made him a target for the new one. He was
stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry, and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was instead forced to
go into hiding.[21] The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of
Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar.[16]
The loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career, as the high priest of Jupiter was not permitted to touch a
horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army.[22]
Caesar felt that it would be much safer far away from Sulla should the dictator change his mind, so he left Rome and joined the
army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia and Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning
the Civic Crown for his part in the Siege of Mytilene. He went on a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King
Nicomedes's fleet, but he spent so long at Nicomedes' court that rumours arose of an affair with the king, which Caesar
vehemently denied for the rest of his life.[23]
Hearing of Sulla's death in 78 BC, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. He lacked means since his inheritance was
confiscated, but he acquired a modest house in Subura, a lower-class neighbourhood of Rome.[24] He turned to legal advocacy
and became known for his exceptional oratory accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless
prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption.
On the way across the Aegean Sea,[25] Caesar was kidnapped by pirates and held
prisoner.[26][27] He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. The pirates
demanded a ransom of 20 talents of silver, but he insisted that they ask for 50.[28][29] After the
ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates and imprisoned them.
He then had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised while in captivity[30]—a
promise that the pirates had taken as a joke. As a sign of leniency, he first had their throats cut.
He was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of auxiliaries to repel an
incursion from the east.[31]
On his return to Rome, he was elected military tribune, a first step in a political career. He was
elected quaestor in 69 BC,[32] and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his
aunt Julia, including images of her husband Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the
funeral procession. His wife Cornelia also died that year.[33] Caesar went to serve his
quaestorship in Hispania after his wife's funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC.[34]
Dictator Lucius Cornelius While there, he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with
Sulla stripped Caesar of the dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he
priesthood. had achieved comparatively little. On his return in 67 BC,[35] he married Pompeia, a
granddaughter of Sulla, whom he later divorced in 61 BC after her embroilment in the Bona
Dea scandal.[36] In 65 BC, he was elected curule aedile, and staged lavish games that won
him further attention and popular support.[37]
In 63 BC, he ran for election to the post of pontifex maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion. He ran against two
powerful senators. Accusations of bribery were made by all sides. Caesar won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater
experience and standing.[38] Cicero was consul that year, and he exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic;
several senators accused Caesar of involvement in the plot.[39]
After serving as praetor in 62 BC, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior (the western part of the Iberian
Peninsula) as propraetor,[40][41][42] though some sources suggest that he held proconsular powers.[43][44] He was still in
considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, the richest
man in Rome. Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others, in return for political support in his
opposition to the interests of Pompey. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and thus open to prosecution for his debts,
Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Hispania, he conquered two local tribes and was hailed as
imperator by his troops; he reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem.[45]
Caesar was acclaimed imperator in 60 BC (and again later in 45 BC). In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title
assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, army troops in the field would proclaim their
commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. However, Caesar also
wished to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to
remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command
and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the Senate for permission to stand in
absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the
consulship.[46]
Consulship and military campaigns

In 60 BC, Caesar sought election as consul for 59 BC, along with two other
candidates. The election was sordid—even Cato, with his reputation for
incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in favour of one of Caesar's
opponents. Caesar won, along with conservative Marcus Bibulus.[47]
Caesar was already in Marcus Licinius Crassus' political debt, but he also made
overtures to Pompey. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds for a decade, so
Caesar tried to reconcile them. The three of them had enough money and political
A denarius depicting Julius Caesar, dated
influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First
to February–March 44 BC—the goddess
Triumvirate ("rule of three men"), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to
Venus is shown on the reverse, holding
Caesar's daughter Julia.[48] Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia, who Victoria and a scepter. Caption: CAESAR
was the daughter of another powerful senator.[49] IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA
Caesar proposed a law for redistributing public lands to the poor—by force of
arms, if need be—a proposal supported by Pompey and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with
soldiers, a move which intimidated the triumvirate's opponents. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus
void the new law, but he was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His lictors had their fasces broken, two
high magistrates accompanying him were wounded, and he had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he
retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts proved ineffective in
obstructing Caesar's legislation. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar."[50]
When Caesar was first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit his future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather
than the governorship of a province, as his military command duty after his year in office was over.[51] With the help of
political allies, Caesar secured passage of the lex Vatinia, granting him governorship over Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and
Illyricum (southeastern Europe).[52] At the instigation of Pompey and his father-in-law Piso, Transalpine Gaul (southern
France) was added later after the untimely death of its governor, giving him command of four legions.[52] The term of his
governorship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one.[53][54] When his
consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his
province.[55]
Conquest of Gaul
Caesar was still deeply in debt, but there was money to be made as a governor, whether by extortion[56] or by military
adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces bordered on unconquered territory, and parts of
Gaul were known to be unstable. Some of Rome's Gallic allies had been defeated by their rivals at the Battle of Magetobriga,
with the help of a contingent of Germanic tribes. The Romans feared these tribes were preparing to migrate south, closer to
Italy, and that they had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated these tribes.[57]
In response to Caesar's earlier activities, the tribes in the north-east began to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an
aggressive move and, after an inconclusive engagement against the united tribes, he conquered the tribes piecemeal.
Meanwhile, one of his legions began the conquest of the tribes in the far north, directly opposite Britain.[58] During the spring
of 56 BC, the Triumvirs held a conference, as Rome was in turmoil and Caesar's political alliance was coming undone. The
Lucca Conference renewed the First Triumvirate and extended Caesar's governorship for another five years.[59] The conquest
of the north was soon completed, while a few pockets of resistance remained.[60] Caesar now had a secure base from which to
launch an invasion of Britain.
In 55 BC, Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by two
Germanic tribes, and followed it up by building a bridge across
the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory,
before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer,
having subdued two other tribes, he crossed into Britain, claiming
that the Britons had aided one of his enemies the previous year,
possibly the Veneti of Brittany.[61] His knowledge of Britain was
poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the coast, he could
not advance further. He raided out from his beachhead and
destroyed some villages, then returned to Gaul for the winter.[62]
He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger
force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, and established a
few alliances, but poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul,
The extent of the Roman Republic in 40 BC after Caesar's forcing Caesar to leave Britain for the last time.[63]
conquests
While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in
childbirth. Caesar tried to re-secure Pompey's support by offering him his
great-niece in marriage, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed
leading a failed invasion of the east. Rome was on the brink of civil war.
Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married
the daughter of a political opponent of Caesar. The Triumvirate was
dead.[64]
Though the Gallic tribes were just as strong as the Romans militarily, the
internal division among the Gauls guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar. Vercingetorix throws down his arms at the feet
Vercingetorix's attempt in 52 BC to unite them against Roman invasion came of Julius Caesar, painting by Lionel Royer.
too late. [65][66] He proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar at the Musée Crozatier, Le Puy-en-Velay, France.
Battle of Gergovia, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia
finally forced his surrender.[67] Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the
following year,[68] Gaul was effectively conquered. Plutarch claimed that during the Gallic Wars the army had fought against
three million men (of whom one million died, and another million were enslaved), subjugated 300 tribes, and destroyed 800
cities.[69] The casualty figures are disputed by modern historians.[70]
Civil war
In 50 BC, the Senate (led by Pompey) ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor
had finished.[71] Caesar thought he would be prosecuted if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a magistrate.
Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On 10 January 49 BC, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier
boundary of Italy) with only a single legion, the Legio XIII Gemina, and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Caesar,
according to Plutarch and Suetonius, is supposed to have quoted the Athenian playwright Menander, in Greek, "the die is
cast".[72] Erasmus, however, notes that the more accurate Latin translation of the Greek imperative mood would be "alea iacta
esto", let the die be cast.[73] Pompey and many of the Senate fled to the south, having little confidence in Pompey's newly
raised troops. Pompey, despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Thirteenth Legion with him, did not intend to
fight. Caesar pursued Pompey, hoping to capture Pompey before his legions could escape.[74]
Pompey managed to escape before Caesar could capture him. Heading for Hispania, Caesar left Italy under the control of
Mark Antony. After an astonishing 27-day route-march, Caesar defeated Pompey's lieutenants, then returned east, to challenge
Pompey in Illyria, where, on 10 July 48 BC in the battle of Dyrrhachium, Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat. In an
exceedingly short engagement later that year, he decisively defeated Pompey at Pharsalus, in Greece on 9 August 48 BC.[75]
In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator,[78] with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse (second in command); Caesar
presided over his own election to a second consulship and then, after 11 days, resigned this dictatorship.[78][79] Caesar then
pursued Pompey to Egypt, arriving soon after the murder of the general. There, Caesar was presented with Pompey's severed
head and seal-ring, receiving these with tears.[80] He then had Pompey's assassins put to death.[81]
Caesar then became involved with an Egyptian civil war between the child pharaoh and his
sister, wife, and co-regent queen, Cleopatra. Perhaps as a result of the pharaoh's role in
Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra. He withstood the Siege of Alexandria and
later he defeated the pharaoh's forces at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC and installed Cleopatra
as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory with a triumphal procession on the Nile
in the spring of 47 BC. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, and Caesar
was introduced to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs.[82]
Caesar and Cleopatra were not married. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra
throughout his last marriage—in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery—and probably
fathered a son called Caesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing
in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber.[82]
Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed dictator, with a term of one year.[79] After
spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he
annihilated the king of Pontus; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked A Roman bust of Pompey
the Great made during the
Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies.[83] On his way to Pontus, Caesar visited
reign of Augustus (27 BC –
Tarsus from 27 to 29 May 47 BC (25–27 Maygreg.), where he met enthusiastic support, but
14 AD), a copy of an original
where, according to Cicero, Cassius was planning to kill him at this point.[84][85][86] Thence, bust from 70 to 60 BC,
he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He was Venice National
defeated by Titus Labienus at Ruspina on 4 January 46 BC but recovered to gain a significant Archaeological Museum,
victory at Thapsus on 6 April 46 BC over Cato, who then committed suicide.[87] Italy
After this victory, he was appointed dictator for 10 years.[88] Pompey's sons escaped to
Hispania; Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of
Munda in March 45 BC.[89] During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms
as consul in 46 BC and 45 BC (this last time without a colleague).
Dictatorship and assassination

While he was still campaigning in Hispania, the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar.
Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious
public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held in April to honour Caesar's
victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following
Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners,
but instead fellow Romans.[90] On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his
will, naming his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian, later known as Augustus Caesar) as
his principal heir, leaving his vast estate and property including his name. Caesar also wrote Cleopatra and Caesar, 1866
that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus would be the next painting by Jean-Léon
Gérôme
heir in succession.[91] In his will, he also left a substantial gift to the citizens of Rome.
Between his crossing of the Rubicon in 49 BC, and his assassination in 44 BC, Caesar
established a new constitution, which was intended to accomplish three separate goals.[92] First, he wanted to suppress all
armed resistance out in the provinces, and thus bring order back to the Republic. Second, he wanted to create a strong central
government in Rome. Finally, he wanted to knit together all of the provinces into a single cohesive unit.[92]
The first goal was accomplished when Caesar defeated Pompey and his supporters.[92] To accomplish the other two goals, he
needed to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed,[93] so he assumed these powers by increasing his own
authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions. Finally, he enacted a series of reforms that were
meant to address several long-neglected issues, the most important of which was his reform of the calendar.[94]
Dictatorship
When Caesar returned to Rome, the Senate granted him triumphs for his victories, ostensibly those over Gaul, Egypt,
Pharnaces, and Juba, rather than over his Roman opponents. When Arsinoe IV, Egypt's former queen, was paraded in chains,
the spectators admired her dignified bearing and were moved to pity.[95] Triumphal games were held, with beast-hunts
involving 400 lions, and gladiator contests. A naval battle was held on a flooded basin at the Field of Mars.[96] At the Circus
Maximus, two armies of war captives, — each of 2,000 people, 200 horses, and 20 elephants — fought to the death. Again,
some bystanders complained, this time at Caesar's wasteful extravagance. A riot
broke out, and only stopped when Caesar had two rioters sacrificed by the priests
on the Field of Mars.[96]
After the triumph, Caesar set out to pass an ambitious legislative agenda.[96] He
ordered a census be taken, which forced a reduction in the grain dole, and
decreed that jurors could only come from the Senate or the equestrian ranks. He
passed a sumptuary law that restricted the purchase of certain luxuries. After this,
he passed a law that rewarded families for having many children, to speed up the
repopulation of Italy. Then, he outlawed professional guilds, except those of
ancient foundation, since many of these were subversive political clubs. He then This mid-1st-century-BC Roman wall
passed a term-limit law applicable to governors. He passed a debt-restructuring painting in Pompeii is probably a depiction
law, which ultimately eliminated about a fourth of all debts owed.[96] of Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix, with
her son Caesarion as Cupid. Its owner
The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was then built, among Marcus Fabius Rufus most likely ordered
many other public works.[97] Caesar also tightly regulated the purchase of state- its concealment behind a wall in reaction
subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of to the execution of Caesarion on orders of
whom were entered into a special register.[98] From 47 to 44 BC, he made plans Octavian in 30 BC.[76][77]
for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans.[99]
The most important change, however, was his reform of the calendar. The Roman calendar at
the time was regulated by the movement of the moon. By replacing it with the Egyptian
calendar, based on the sun, Roman farmers were able to use it as the basis of consistent
seasonal planting from year to year. He set the length of the year to 365.25 days by adding an
intercalary/leap day at the end of February every fourth year.[94]
To bring the calendar into alignment with the seasons, he decreed that three extra months be
inserted into 46 BC (the ordinary intercalary month at the end of February, and two extra
months after November). Thus, the Julian calendar opened on 1 January 45 BC.[94][96] This
calendar is almost identical to the current Western calendar.
Shortly before his assassination, he passed a few more reforms.[96] He appointed officials to
carry out his land reforms and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth. He also
extended Latin rights throughout the Roman world, and then abolished the tax system and
reverted to the earlier version that allowed cities to collect tribute however they wanted, rather Green Caesar, posthumous
than needing Roman intermediaries. His assassination prevented further and larger schemes, portrait of the 1st century
which included the construction of an unprecedented temple to Mars, a huge theatre, and a AD, Altes Museum, Berlin
library on the scale of the Library of Alexandria.[96]
He also wanted to convert Ostia to a major port, and cut a canal through the Isthmus of
Corinth. Militarily, he wanted to conquer the Dacians and Parthians, and avenge the loss at
Carrhae. Thus, he instituted a massive mobilisation. Shortly before his assassination, the
Senate named him censor for life and Father of the Fatherland, and the month of Quintilis was
renamed July in his honour.[96]
He was granted further honours, which were later used to justify his assassination as a would-
be divine monarch: coins were issued bearing his image and his statue was placed next to
those of the kings. He was granted a golden chair in the Senate, was allowed to wear
triumphal dress whenever he chose, and was offered a form of semi-official or popular cult,
with Mark Antony as his high priest.[96]
Political reforms
Statue of Julius Caesar, Via
The history of Caesar's political appointments is complex and uncertain. Caesar held both the
[93] dei Fori Imperiali, Rome
dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship.
His powers within the state seem to have rested upon these magistracies. [93] He was first
appointed dictator in 49 BC, possibly to preside over elections, but resigned his dictatorship
within 11 days. In 48 BC, he was reappointed dictator, only this time for an indefinite period, and in 46 BC, he was appointed
dictator for 10 years.[100]
In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers,[101] which made his
person sacrosanct and allowed him to veto the Senate,[101] although on at least one
occasion, tribunes did attempt to obstruct him. The offending tribunes in this case
were brought before the Senate and divested of their office.[101] This was not the first
time Caesar had violated a tribune's sacrosanctity. After he had first marched on Rome
in 49 BC, he forcibly opened the treasury, although a tribune had the seal placed on it.
After the impeachment of the two obstructive tribunes, Caesar, perhaps unsurprisingly,
faced no further opposition from other members of the Tribunician College.[101]
When Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC, the ranks of the Senate had been severely
depleted, so he used his censorial powers to appoint many new senators, which La clémence de César, Abel de
eventually raised the Senate's membership to 900.[102] All the appointments were of Pujol, 1808
his own partisans, which robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made the
Senate increasingly subservient to him.[103] To minimise the risk that another general
might attempt to challenge him,[100] Caesar passed a law that subjected governors to term limits.[100]
In 46 BC, Caesar gave himself the title of "Prefect of the Morals", which was an office that was new only in name, as its
powers were identical to those of the censors.[101] Thus, he could hold censorial powers, while technically not subjecting
himself to the same checks to which the ordinary censors were subject, and he used these powers to fill the Senate with his
own partisans. He also set the precedent, which his imperial successors followed, of requiring the Senate to bestow various
titles and honours upon him. He was, for example, given the title of "Father of the Fatherland" and "imperator".[100]
Coins bore his likeness, and he was given the right to speak first during Senate meetings.[100] Caesar then increased the
number of magistrates who were elected each year, which created a large pool of experienced magistrates, and allowed Caesar
to reward his supporters.[102]
Caesar even took steps to transform Italy into a province, and to link more tightly the other provinces of the empire into a
single cohesive unit. This process, of fusing the entire Roman Empire into a single unit, rather than maintaining it as a network
of unequal principalities, would ultimately be completed by Caesar's successor, the Emperor Augustus.
In October 45 BC, Caesar resigned his position as sole consul, and facilitated the election of two successors for the remainder
of the year, which theoretically restored the ordinary consulship, since the constitution did not recognize a single consul
without a colleague.[102] In February 44 BC, one month before his assassination, he was appointed dictator in perpetuity.
Under Caesar, a significant amount of authority was vested in his lieutenants,[100] mostly because Caesar was frequently out of
Italy.[100]
Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the
Parthian Empire. Since his absence from Rome might limit his ability to
install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all
magistrates, and all consuls and tribunes.[102] This, in effect, transformed
the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being
representatives of the dictator.[102]
Assassination Denarius (42 BC) issued by Gaius Cassius

Longinus and Lentulus Spinther, depicting the
On the Ides of March (15 March; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, Caesar crowned head of Liberty and on the reverse a
was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Several Senators had sacrificial jug and lituus, from the military mint in
conspired to assassinate Caesar. Mark Antony, having vaguely learned of Smyrna. Caption: C. CASSI. IMP. LEIBERTAS /
the plot the night before from a terrified liberator named Servilius Casca, LENTVLVS SPINT.
and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off. The plotters, however,
had anticipated this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid,
had arranged for Trebonius to intercept him just as he approached the portico of the Theatre of Pompey, where the session was
to be held, and detain him outside (Plutarch, however, assigns this action of delaying Antony to Brutus Albinus). When he
heard the commotion from the Senate chamber, Antony fled.[104]
According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a petition to recall his exiled
brother.[105] The other conspirators crowded round to offer support. Both Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him
away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!"
("Ista quidem vis est!").[106]
Casca simultaneously produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's
neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to
Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?"[107] Casca,
frightened, shouted, "Help, brother!" in Greek ("ἀδελφέ, βοήθει", "adelphe,
boethei"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the
dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the
men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico.
According to Eutropius, around 60 men participated in the assassination. He was
The senators encircle Caesar, a stabbed 23 times.[108]
19th-century interpretation of the
event by Carl Theodor von Piloty According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second
one to his chest, had been lethal.[109] The dictator's last words are not known with
certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius
reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "καὶ σύ, τέκνον;"[110] (transliterated as "Kai sy,
teknon?": "You too, child?" in English). However, Suetonius' own opinion was that Caesar said nothing.[111]
Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.[112]
The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly
rendered as "You too, Brutus?");[113][114] best known from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually forms the first half
of a macaronic line: "Et tu, Brute? Then fall, Caesar." This version was already popular when the play was written, as it
appears in Richard Edes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582 and The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke & etc. of
1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays.[115]
According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say

something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building.[116] Brutus and his
companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city:
"People of Rome, we are once again free!" They were met with silence, as the citizens
of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had
taken place had begun to spread. Caesar's dead body lay where it fell on the Senate
floor for nearly three hours before other officials arrived to remove it.
The Death of Caesar, Jean-Léon
Caesar's body was cremated. A crowd which had gathered at the cremation started a Gérôme, 1867
fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. On the site of his
cremation, the Temple of Caesar was erected a few years later (at the east side of the
main square of the Roman Forum). Only its altar now remains.[117] A life-size wax statue of Caesar was later erected in the
forum displaying the 23 stab wounds.
In the chaos following the death of Caesar, Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five
civil wars, which would culminate in the formation of the Roman Empire.
Aftermath of the assassination
The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic.[118] The Roman
middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a
small group of aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief
of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome
himself. To his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavius his sole heir (hence the name
Octavian), bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name and making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the
Republic.[119]
The crowd at the funeral boiled over, throwing dry branches, furniture, and even clothing on to Caesar's funeral pyre, causing
the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum. The mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius,
where they were repelled only with considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the civil war, fulfilling at least in
part Antony's threat against the aristocrats.[120] Antony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the next series of civil wars,
particularly with regard to Caesar's adopted heir. Octavian, aged only 18 when Caesar died, proved to have considerable
political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his
tenuous position.
To combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an
enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers,
the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy
that Caesar's name would provide for any action he
took against them. With the passage of the lex Titia on
27 November 43 BC,[121] the Second Triumvirate
was officially formed, composed of Antony,
Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander
Lepidus.[122] It formally deified Caesar as Divus Marc Antony's Oration at Caesar's
Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth Funeral by George Edward
became Divi filius ("Son of the divine").[123] Robertson
Bust of Mark Antony made Because Caesar's clemency had resulted in his
during the Flavian dynasty murder, the Second Triumvirate reinstated the practice of proscription, abandoned since
(69–96 AD) Sulla.[124] It engaged in the legally sanctioned killing of a large number of its opponents to
secure funding for its 45 legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius.[125]
Antony and Octavian defeated them at Philippi.[126]
Afterward, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use
the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out
between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war,
culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium in 31 BC and suicide in Egypt in 30 BC, resulted
in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the
name Caesar Augustus, a name conveying religious, rather than political, authority.[127]
Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade Parthia, the Caucasus, and Scythia, and then
march back to Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his
assassination.[128] His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but
without lasting results.
Deification Gaius Julius Caesar

Octavianus, Caesar's
Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be officially deified. He was posthumously adopted heir
granted the title Divus Iulius (the divine/deified Julius) by decree of the Roman Senate on 1
January 42 BC. The appearance of a comet during games in his honour was taken as
confirmation of his divinity. Though his temple was not dedicated until after his death, he may have received divine honours
during his lifetime:[129] and shortly before his assassination, Mark Antony had been appointed as his flamen (priest).[130] Both
Octavian and Mark Antony promoted the cult of Divus Iulius. After the death of Caesar, Octavian, as the adoptive son of
Caesar, assumed the title of Divi Filius (Son of the Divine).
Personal life
Health and physical appearance
Based on remarks by Plutarch,[131] Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is sharply
divided on the subject, and some scholars believe that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions
of the 80s.[132] Other scholars contend his epileptic seizures were due to a parasitic infection in the brain by a
tapeworm.[133][134]
Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence
seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius, who was born after
Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause
epileptoid seizures.[135][136][137]
In 2003, psychiatrist Harbour F. Hodder published what he termed as the "Caesar Complex" theory, arguing that Caesar was a
sufferer of temporal lobe epilepsy and the debilitating symptoms of the condition were a factor in Caesar's conscious decision
to forgo personal safety in the days leading up to his assassination.[138]
A line from Shakespeare has sometimes been taken to mean that he was deaf in one
ear: "Come on my right hand, for this ear is deaf".[139] No classical source mentions
hearing impairment in connection with Caesar. The playwright may have been making
metaphorical use of a passage in Plutarch that does not refer to deafness at all, but
rather to a gesture Alexander of Macedon customarily made. By covering his ear,
Alexander indicated that he had turned his attention from an accusation in order to
hear the defence.[140]
Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral

manifestations—headaches, vertigo, falls (possibly caused by muscle weakness due to
nerve damage), sensory deficit, giddiness and insensibility—and syncopal episodes
were the results of cerebrovascular episodes, not epilepsy. Pliny the Elder reports in
his Natural History that Caesar's father and forefather died without apparent cause
while putting on their shoes. These events can be more readily associated with
cardiovascular complications from a stroke episode or lethal heart attack. Caesar
possibly had a genetic predisposition for cardiovascular disease.[141]
Suetonius, writing more than a century after Caesar's death, describes Caesar as "tall
of stature with a fair complexion, shapely limbs, a somewhat full face, and keen black
eyes".[142]
Name and family Bust of Julius Caesar, posthumous

portrait in marble, 44–30 BC, Museo
Pio-Clementino, Vatican Museums
The name Gaius Julius Caesar
Using the Latin alphabet of the period, which lacked the letters J and U, Caesar's name would be rendered GAIVS IVLIVS
CAESAR; the form CAIVS is also attested, using the older Roman representation of G by C. The standard abbreviation was
C. IVLIVS CÆSAR, reflecting the older spelling. (The letterform Æ is a ligature of the letters A and E, and is often used in
Latin inscriptions to save space.)
In Classical Latin, it was pronounced [ˈɡaː.i.ʊs ˈjuːl.i.ʊs ˈkae̯ sar]. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical
writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by
Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during
Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ (Kaísar), reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus, his name is
pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser.
In Vulgar Latin, the original diphthong [ae̯ ] first began to be pronounced as a simple long vowel [ɛː]. Then, the plosive /k/
before front vowels began, due to palatalization, to be pronounced as an affricate, hence renderings like [ˈtʃeːsar] in Italian and
[ˈtseːzar] in German regional pronunciations of Latin, as well as the title of Tsar. With the evolution of the Romance languages,
the affricate [ts] became a fricative [s] (thus, [ˈseːsar]) in many regional pronunciations, including the French one, from which
the modern English pronunciation is derived.
Caesar's cognomen itself became a title; it was promulgated by the Bible, which contains the famous verse "Render unto
Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The title became, from the late first millennium,
Kaiser in German and Tsar or Czar in the Slavic languages. The last Tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria, whose
reign ended in 1946. This means that for approximately two thousand years, there was at least one head of state bearing his
name.
Family
Julio-Claudian family tree
Parents
Father Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia) (proconsul of Asia in 90s BC)
Mother Aurelia (one of the Aurelii Cottae)
Sisters
Julia Major
Julia Minor
Wives
First marriage to Cornelia (Cinnilla), from 84 BC until her death in 69 or 68 BC

Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC over the Bona Dea scandal
Third marriage to Calpurnia, from 59 BC until Caesar's death
Children
Julia, by Cornelia, born in 83 or 82 BC

Caesarion, by Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC, and killed at age 17 by
Caesar's adopted son Octavianus.
Posthumously adopted: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great-
nephew by blood (grandson of Julia, his sister), who later became
Emperor Augustus.
Suspected Children
Marcus Junius Brutus (born 85 BC): The historian Plutarch notes that
Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother
Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth.[144] Caesar would
have been 15 years old when Brutus was born.
Reliefs of Cleopatra and her son by
Junia Tertia (born ca. 60s BC), the daughter of Caesar's lover Servilia Julius Caesar, Caesarion, at the
was believed by Cicero among other contemporaries, to be Caesar's Temple of Dendera
natural daughter.
Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born ca. 85–81 BC): On several
occasions Caesar expressed how he loved Decimus Brutus like a son. This Brutus was also named an heir of
Caesar in case Octavius had died before the latter. Ronald Syme argued that if a Brutus was the natural son
of Caesar, Decimus was more likely than Marcus.[145]
Grandchildren
Grandchild from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed.[146]
Lovers
Cleopatra, mother of Caesarion

Servilia, mother of Brutus
Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes
Notable relatives
Roman painting from the House of
Gaius Marius (married to his paternal aunt Julia)
Giuseppe II, Pompeii, early 1st
Mark Antony (his relative through Antony's mother Julia) century AD, most likely depicting
Lucius Julius Caesar (his third cousin) Cleopatra VII, wearing her royal
diadem, consuming poison in an act
of suicide, while her son Caesarion,
Rumors of passive homosexuality also wearing a royal diadem, stands
behind her[143]
Roman society viewed the passive role during sexual activity, regardless of gender, to
be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic
triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar."[147] According to
Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early
in his career. The stories were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to
humiliate him. Caesar himself denied the accusations repeatedly throughout his lifetime, and according to Cassius Dio, even
under oath on one occasion.[148] This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and
discredit political opponents.
Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers,[149] but later apologised.[150]
Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors. Suetonius described Antony's
accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. Octavian eventually became the first Roman Emperor as
Augustus.[151]
Literary works
During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors
in Latin —even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style.[152] Only Caesar's
war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by
other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia
and his Anticato, a document written to defame Cato in response to Cicero's published
praise. Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.[153]
Memoirs
The Commentarii de Bello Gallico, usually known in English as The
Gallic Wars, seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in
Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by
Aulus Hirtius on the last two years.
The Commentarii de Bello Civili (The Civil War), events of the Civil War
from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in
Egypt.
Julii Caesaris quae exstant (1678)
Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in
doubt:
De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria;

De Bello Africo (On the African War), campaigns in North Africa; and
De Bello Hispaniensi (On the Hispanic War), campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula.
These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the
actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front." They were
important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation
when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been
presented as public readings.[154] As a model of clear and direct Latin style,
The Gallic Wars traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin
students.
Legacy
Historiography
A 1783 edition of The Gallic Wars
The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events
of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction
of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind, so historians must filter the exaggerations
and bias contained in it.[155] The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of Caesar, which described Augustus
as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by the Octavian traditions, such as when Caesar's epoch is
considered a turning point in the history of the Roman Empire. Still, historians try to filter the Octavian bias.[156]
Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar. Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work Histoire de
Jules César, which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic. Charles VIII ordered a
monk to prepare a translation of the Gallic Wars in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place The Gallic
Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the
Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the Commentaries, and translated them to Turkish language. Henry IV and
Louis XIII of France translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV retranslated the first one
afterwards.[157]
Politics
Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of Caesarism, a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is
based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a
regime involving prominence of the military in the government.[158] Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon
Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists.[159][160] Bonaparte did not focus only on
Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism.[161] The word is also used in a
pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule.
Depictions
Bust in Naples Bust in the National Bust of Julius Modern bronze

National Archaeological Caesar from the statue of Julius
Archaeological Museum of Naples British Museum Caesar, Rimini, Italy
Museum,
photograph
published in 1902
Battle record
Country
Date War Action Opponent/s Type (present Outcome
day)
Victory
Gallic Battle of the
58 BC Helvetii Battle France
Wars Arar
Victory
Gallic Battle of Helvetii, Boii, Tulingi,
58 BC Battle France
Wars Bibracte Rauraci
Victory
Gallic Battle of
58 BC Suebi Battle France
Wars Vosges
Victory
57 BC Belgae Battle France
Wars Axona
Nervii, Viromandui,
Victory
57 BC Battle France
Wars Sabis Atrebates, Aduatuci
Julius
Victory
55 and 54 Gallic Caesar's
Celtic Britons Campaign England
BC Wars invasions of
Britain
Victory
54 BC–53 Gallic Ambiorix's Belgium,
Eburones Campaign
BC Wars revolt France
Victory
Gallic
52 BC Avaricum Bituriges, Arverni Siege France
Wars
Gallic Battle of
52 BC Gallic tribes Battle France Defeat
Wars Gergovia
Alise-
Decisive Victory
September Gallic Battle of Siege and Sainte-
Gallic Confederation
52 BC Wars Alesia Battle Reine,
France
Victory
Gallic Siege of Vayrac,
51 BC Gallic Siege
Wars Uxellodunum France
June– Victory
Caesar's Battle of Catalonia,
August 49 Optimates Battle
Civil War Ilerda Spain
BC
Battle of Defeat
10 July 48 Caesar's Durrës,
Dyrrhachium Optimates Battle
BC Civil War Albania
(48 BC)
Decisive Victory
9 August Caesar's Battle of
Pompeians Battle Greece
48 BC Civil War Pharsalus
Victory
Caesar's Battle of the Alexandria,
47 BC Ptolemaic Kingdom Battle
Civil War Nile Egypt
Victory
2 August Caesar's Battle of Zile,
Kingdom of Pontus Battle
47 BC Civil War Zela Turkey
Defeat
4 January Caesar's Battle of Ruspina
Optimates, Numidia Battle
46 BC Civil War Ruspina Africa
6 April 46 Caesar's Battle of Optimates, Numidia Battle Tunisia Decisive Victory

BC Civil War Thapsus
Victory
17 March Caesar's Battle of Andalusia
Pompeians Battle
45 BC Civil War Munda Spain
Chronology
See also
Et tu, Brute?
Gaius Julius Caesar (name)
Julius Caesar, a play by William Shakespeare (c. 1599)
Giulio Cesare, an opera by Handel, 1724
Veni, vidi, vici
Caesareum of Alexandria
References
1. For 13 July being the wrong date, see Badian in Griffin (ed.) p.16 (https://books.google.com/books?id=gzOXL
GbIIYwC&pg=PA16)
2. Keppie, Lawrence (1998). "The approach of civil war". The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to
Empire. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-8061-3014-9.
3. Suetonius (121). "De vita Caesarum" (https://archive.today/20120530163202/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Th
ayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html) [The Twelve Caesars]. University of Chicago. p. 107.
Archived from the original (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius
*.html) on 30 May 2012. "More than sixty joined the conspiracy against [Caesar], led by Gaius Cassius and
Marcus and Decimus Brutus."
4. Plutarch. "Life of Caesar" (http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20180213130122/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thaye
r/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/caesar%2A.html). University of Chicago. p. 595. Archived from the original (http
s://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/caesar*.html) on 13 February 2018. Retrieved
19 February 2021. "... at this juncture Decimus Brutus, surnamed Albinus, who was so trusted by Caesar that
he was entered in his will as his second heir, but was partner in the conspiracy of the other Brutus and
Cassius, fearing that if Caesar should elude that day, their undertaking would become known, ridiculed the
seers and chided Caesar for laying himself open to malicious charges on the part of the senators ..."
5. Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict (https://archive.org/
details/battlesthatchang00tuck_956). ABC-CLIO. p. 68 (https://archive.org/details/battlesthatchang00tuck_95
6/page/n86).
6. Froude, James Anthony (1879). Life of Caesar (https://web.archive.org/web/20071209113843/http://www.mirr
orservice.org/sites/ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext05/8cesr10.txt). Project Gutenberg e-text.
p. 67. Archived from the original (http://www.mirrorservice.org/sites/ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/et
ext05/8cesr10.txt) on 9 December 2007. See also: Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Julius 6 (https://pe
nelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#6) Archived (https://archive.to
day/20120530163202/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.htm
l#6) 30 May 2012 at archive.today; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/T
hayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2B*.html#41); Virgil, Aeneid
7. Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:28–30
8. Dionysius, iii. 29.
9. Tacitus, Annales, xi. 24.
10. Niebuhr, vol. i. note 1240, vol. ii. note 421.
11. Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.7 (https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+7.7). The
misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th
century (Suda kappa 1199 (http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=
guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1&field=adlerhw_gr&searchstr=kappa%2C1199)). Julius
was not the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while
Caesar's mother Aurelia lived long after he was born.
12. Historia Augusta: Aelius 2 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Aelius*.ht
ml#2).
13. Goldsworthy, p. 32 (https://books.google.com/books?id=oR-ljeBaWIcC&pg=PA32).
14. Suetonius, Julius 1 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html
#1) Archived (https://archive.today/20120530163202/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Su
etonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#1) 30 May 2012 at archive.today; Plutarch, Caesar 1 (https://penelope.uchica
go.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1), Marius 6 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thay
er/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Marius*.html#6); Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54 (https://www.perseus.t
ufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plin.+Nat.+7.54); Inscriptiones Italiae, 13.3.51–52
15. Plutarch, Marius 6 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Marius*.html#6)
16. Plutarch, Caesar 1 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html#1);
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ISBN 978-0-8061-3287-7.
26. Florus, Epitome 2.7.11–14 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Florus/Epitome/2I*.html#X
XXIIII); Appian, The Civil Wars 5.3 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/
5*.html)
27. Florus, Epitome 2.34.66 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Florus/Epitome/2I*.html#XXXI
III)
8)
29. Cicero, Philippic ii.110: Cicero refers to the divine honours of : "...couch, image, pediment, priest" given to
Caesar in the months before his assassination.
30. According to Dio Cassius, 44.6.4.
31. Plutarch, Caesar 17, 45, 60; see also Suetonius, Julius 45.
32. Ronald T. Ridley, "The Dictator's Mistake: Caesar's Escape from Sulla," Historia 49 (2000), pp. 225–226,
citing doubters of epilepsy: F. Kanngiesser, "Notes on the Pathology of the Julian Dynasty," Glasgow Medical
Journal 77 (1912) 428–432; T. Cawthorne, "Julius Caesar and the Falling Sickness," Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Medicine 51 (1957) 27–30, who prefers Ménière's disease; and O. Temkin, The Falling
Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology (Baltimore 1971), p
162.
33. Bruschi, Fabrizio (2011). "Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to neurocysticercosis?" (https://www.researchgat
e.net/publication/51493212). Trends in Parasitology. Cell Press. 27 (9): 373–374.
doi:10.1016/j.pt.2011.06.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pt.2011.06.001). PMID 21757405 (https://pubmed.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/21757405). Retrieved 2 May 2013.
34. McLachlan, Richard S. (2010). "Julius Caesar's Late Onset Epilepsy: A Case of Historic Proportions" (http://a
pps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=4&SID=P2Ajl5
d3oe6ha3MO8EF&page=1&doc=2). Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. Canadian Journal of
Neurological Sciences Inc. 37 (5): 557–561. doi:10.1017/S0317167100010696 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS
0317167100010696). PMID 21059498 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21059498). Retrieved 11 May 2013.
35. Hughes J; Atanassova, E; Boev, K (2004). "Dictator Perpetuus: Julius Caesar—did he have seizures? If so,
what was the etiology?". Epilepsy Behav. 5 (5): 756–64. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.05.006 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2Fj.yebeh.2004.05.006). PMID 15380131 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15380131).
S2CID 34640921 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34640921).
36. Gomez J, Kotler J, Long J (1995). "Was Julius Caesar's epilepsy due to a brain tumor?". The Journal of the
Florida Medical Association. 82 (3): 199–201. PMID 7738524 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7738524).
37. H. Schneble (1 January 2003). "Gaius Julius Caesar" (http://www.epilepsiemuseum.de/alt/caesaren.html).
German Epilepsy Museum. Retrieved 28 August 2008.
38. Hodder, Harbour Fraser (September 2003). "Epilepsy and Empire, Caveat Caesar" (http://www.forensic-psyc
h.com/articles/artHarvardMagCaesar.php). Accredited Psychiatry & Medicine. Harvard, Boston: Harvard
University. 106 (1): 19.
39. William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar I.ii.209.
40. Plutarch, Alexander 42; Jeremy Paterson discussing Caesar's health in general in "Caesar the Man," A
Companion to Julius Caesar (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), p. 130 online. (https://books.google.com/books?id=gzO
XLGbIIYwC&pg=PT150#v=onepage&q=julius%20caesar%20deaf)
41. Galassi, Francesco M.; Ashrafian, Hutan (29 March 2015). "Has the diagnosis of a stroke been overlooked in
the symptoms of Julius Caesar?". Neurological Sciences. 36 (8): 1521–1522. doi:10.1007/s10072-015-2191-
4 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10072-015-2191-4). PMID 25820216 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/258202
16). S2CID 11730078 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11730078).
42. Suetonius, Life of Caesar 45 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Jul
ius*.html#45) Archived (https://archive.today/20120530163202/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roma
n/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#45) 30 May 2012 at archive.today: excelsa statura, colore candido,
teretibus membris, ore paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis.
43. Roller, Duane W. (2010), Cleopatra: a biography (https://archive.org/details/cleopatrabiograp00roll_0/page/17
8), Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 178–179 (https://archive.org/details/cleopatrabiograp00roll_0/page/17
8), ISBN 978-0-19-536553-5.
44. Plutarch, Brutus 5 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Brutus*.html#5)
45. Ronald Syme, "Bastards in the Roman Aristocracy," pp. 323–327. Thomas Africa thought Syme had recanted
this view; see "The Mask of an Assassin: A Psychohistorical Study of M. Junius Brutus," Journal of
Interdisciplinary History 8 (1978), p. 615, note 28, referring to Syme's book Sallust (Berkeley, 1964), p. 134.
This would appear to be a misreading, given Syme's fuller argument twenty years later in "No Son for
Caesar?" Historia 29 (1980) 422–437, pp. 426–430 regarding the greater likelihood that Decimus would be
the Brutus who was Caesar's son.
46. Ramon L. Jiménez (1 January 2000). Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=q2loAAAAMAAJ). Praeger. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-275-96620-1.
uetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#49) 30 May 2012 at archive.today; Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.20 (http
s://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/43*.html#20)
49. Catullus, Carmina 29 (http://www.vroma.org/~hwalker/VRomaCatullus/029x.html), 57 (http://www.vroma.org/~
hwalker/VRomaCatullus/057x.html)
51. Suetonius, Augustus 68 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/August
us*.html#68), 71 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html
#71)
52. Cicero, Brutus, 252.
53. Edward Courtney, The Fragmentary Latin Poets (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 153–155 and 187–188.
See also Poems by Julius Caesar.
54. T.P. Wiseman, "The Publication of De Bello Gallico," Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter (Classical Press of
Wales, 1998).
55. Canfora, pp. 10–11
56. Canfora, p. 10
58. Caesarism, Charisma, and Fate: Historical Sources and Modern Resonances in the Work of Max Weber.
Transaction Publishers. 2008. p. 34.
59. Brown, Howard G. (29 June 2007). "Napoleon Bonaparte, Political Prodigy". History Compass. Wiley. 5 (4):
1382–1398. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00451.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2007.00451.x).
60. Hartfield, James (28 September 2012). Unpatriotic History of the Second World War (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=gALtBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77). John Hunt Publishing. p. 77. ISBN 9781780993799.
Sources
Primary sources
Own writings
Dickinson College Commentaries: Selections from the Gallic War (http://dcc.dickinson.edu/caesar/caesar-intr
oduction)
Forum Romanum Index to Caesar's works online (http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/caesarx.html) in
Latin and translation
Works by Julius Caesar (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Julius+Caesar) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Julius Caesar (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Caesar%2
C%20Julius%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Julius%20Caesar%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Caesar%2
C%20Julius%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Julius%20Caesar%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Caesar%2
C%20J%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Julius%20Caesar%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Caesar%2
C%20Julius%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Julius%20Caesar%22%29%20OR%20%28%22100-44%2
2%20AND%20Caesar%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Julius Caesar (https://librivox.org/author/2012) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Ancient historians' writings

Appian, Book 13 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/2*.html) (English
translation)
Cassius Dio, Books 37–44 (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/37*.html)
(English translation)
Plutarch on Antony (http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/antony.html) (English translation, Dryden edition)
Plutarch: The Life of Julius Caesar (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cae
sar*.html) (English translation)
Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Anto
ny*.html) (English translation)
Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Cae
sars/Julius*.html). (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe)
Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-julius.html)
(J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified)
Secondary sources
Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics.
ISBN 978-0-543-92749-1.
Canfora, Luciano (2006). Julius Caesar: The People's Dictator (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZeTEUL
UngZIC). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1936-8.
Freeman, Philip (2008). Julius Caesar (https://archive.org/details/juliuscaesar00free). Simon and Schuster.
ISBN 978-0-7432-8953-5.
Fuller, J. F. C. (1965). Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). Caesar: Life of a Colossus (https://archive.org/details/caesarlifeofcolo00gold).
Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12048-6.
Grant, Michael (1969). Julius Caesar. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Grant, Michael (1979). The Twelve Caesars (https://archive.org/details/twelvecaesars00suet_1). New York:
Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044072-0.
Griffin, Miriam, ed. (2009). A Companion to Julius Caesar (https://books.google.com/books?id=gzOXLGbIIYw
C). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444308457.
Holland, Tom (2003). Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-
7897-4.
Jiménez, Ramon L. (2000). Caesar Against Rome: The Great Roman Civil War. Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-
96620-1.
Kleiner, Diana E. E. (2005). Cleopatra and Rome (https://archive.org/details/cleopatrarome00dian). Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01905-8.
Meier, Christian (1996). Caesar: A Biography. Fontana Press. ISBN 978-0-00-686349-6.
Tucker, Spencer (2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO.
Thorne, James (2003). Julius Caesar: Conqueror and Dictator. The Rosen Publishing Group.
Ward, Allen M.; Heichelheim, Fritz M.; Yeo, Cedric A. (2016). History of the Roman People (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=9Q83DAAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 9781315511207.
Weinstock, Stefan (1971). Divus Julius. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-814287-4.
Wiseman, T. P. (1998). The Publication of De Bello Gallico," Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter. Classical Press
of Wales.
Weber, Max (2008). Caesarism, Charisma, and Fate: Historical Sources and Modern Resonances in the Work
of Max Weber. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1412812146.
Warrior, Velerie M. (2006). Roman Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82511-3.
Zoch, Paul A. (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History (https://archive.org/details/ancientrome00paul).
University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3287-6.
External links
Works written by or about Gaius Julius Caesar at Wikisource
Works related to Julius Caesar at Wikisource
Online books (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Julius+Caesar&library=OLBP), and library
resources in your library (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Julius+Caesar) and in other libraries (htt
ps://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Julius+Caesar&library=0CHOOSE0) about Caesar
Online books (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Julius+Caesar&library=OLBP), and library
resources in your library (https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Julius+Caesar) and in other libraries (htt
ps://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Julius+Caesar&library=0CHOOSE0) by Caesar
Guide to online resources (https://web.archive.org/web/20101129220004/http://virgil.org/caesar/)
History of Julius Caesar (http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caesar.html)
Julius Caesar (https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caesar_julius.shtml) at BBC History (https://www.
bbc.co.uk/history/)
Grey, D. The Assassination of Caesar (https://web.archive.org/web/20160113125550/http://cliojournal.wikispa
ces.com/The%2BAssassination%2Bof%2BCaesar), Clio History Journal, 2009.
Caesar: Courage and Charisma (https://web.archive.org/web/20170402081306/https://piavindex.wordpress.c
om/2017/04/01/caesar-courage-and-charisma/)
Jones, Henry Stuart; Bryant, Margaret (1911). "Caesar, Gaius Julius" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_En
cyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Caesar,_Gaius_Julius). Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). pp. 938–943.
Political offices
Preceded by Succeeded by
Roman consul
Lucius Afranius Lucius Calpurnius Piso
59 BC
Quintus Caecilius Metellus Caesoninus
With: Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus
Celer Aulus Gabinius
Preceded by
Roman consul Succeeded by
Lucius Cornelius Lentulus
48 BC Quintus Fufius Calenus
Crus
With: Publius Servilius Isauricus Publius Vatinius
Gaius Claudius Marcellus
Preceded by Roman consul Succeeded by
Quintus Fufius Calenus 46 BC Himself
Publius Vatinius With: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus without colleague
Preceded by Succeeded by
Roman consul
Himself Himself
January–September 45 BC
Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Mark Antony
Preceded by Roman consul
Succeeded by
Himself 44 BC
Publius Cornelius Dolabella
without colleague With: Mark Antony
Religious titles
Preceded by
Pontifex maximus of the Roman Religion Succeeded by
Quintus Caecilius Metellus
63–44 BC Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
Pius
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Julius - Caesar PT 2

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Julius Caesar

Early life and career

Consulship and military campaigns

Dictatorship and assassination

Assassination Denarius (42 BC) issued by Gaius Cassius

According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say

Aftermath of the assassination

Deification Gaius Julius Caesar

Health and physical appearance

Francesco M. Galassi and Hutan Ashrafian suggest that Caesar's behavioral

Name and family Bust of Julius Caesar, posthumous

First marriage to Cornelia (Cinnilla), from 84 BC until her death in 69 or 68 BC

Julia, by Cornelia, born in 83 or 82 BC

Cleopatra, mother of Caesarion

De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria;

Bust in Naples Bust in the National Bust of Julius Modern bronze

6 April 46 Caesar's Battle of Optimates, Numidia Battle Tunisia Decisive Victory

Ancient historians' writings

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julius_Caesar&oldid=1029784938"

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