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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
HISTORY
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education
Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
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Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018

Revised Edition - 2019, 2020
(Published under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and

Educational Services Corporation
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The scope of the lesson is presented

Learning Objectives
Introduction The subject to be discussed in the lesson is introduced
Leads the students to animated audio, video aids for

getting experiential learning
Provides additional information related to the subject in

boxes to stir up the curiosity of students
Infographs Visual representations intended to make the complex simple

and make the students grasp difficult concepts easily
Activities Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups

HOW TO USE
THE BOOK?
Describe the main points briefly in bullets for
Summary recapitulation
Exercise For self-study and self evaluation
Glossary Key words and technical terms explained at the end of

the lesson for clarity
References List of books and net sources for further reading
Using technology for learning activities, which enables the

ICT Corner students to access digital sources relevant to their lessons.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit Contents Page No. Month
Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus
1 01 June
Civilisation
Early India: The Chalcolithic, Megalithic, Iron Age
2 18 June
and Vedic Cultures
3 Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects 35 June
4 Emergence of State and Empire 48 July
5 Evolution of Society in South India 65 July
6 Polity and Society in Post-Mauryan Period 77 July
7 The Guptas 89 July & August
8 Harsha and Rise of Regional Kingdoms 104 August
9 Cultural Development in South India 117 August
10 Advent of Arabs and Turks 135 August
11 Later Cholas and Pandyas 155 September
12 Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms 175 October
13 Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India 190 October
14 The Mughal Empire 199 October
October &
15 The Marathas 225
November
16 The Coming of the Europeans 243 November
17 Effects of British Rule 264 November
November &
18 Early Resistance to British Rule 279
December
19 Towards Modernity 298 December
Time Line 310
Glossary / Credits for images 314
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Point the device and focus on the QR code.
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UNIT Early India: From the

Beginnings to the Indus
1 Civilisation
Learning Objectives
To know the Stone Age humans of India
To understand the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic societies of India
To learn the importance of Neolithic revolution
To have knowledge on salient features of the Indus culture
Introduction environment. Floral evidence found in the form

of charred seeds, pollens and phytoliths (plant
India experienced an early development of stones) helps us to gain knowledge of farming
cultures and civilisations. Since the Old Stone practiced by Stone Age people.
Age, several groups in India had migrated
multiple times and made cultural adaptations to The human genes also constitute an
diverse eco-zones. Each group evolved its own important source for understanding pre-
culture responding to their living experiences historic migrations. The mitochondrial DNA
in each place, which eventually led to pluralistic (mt-DNA) studies provide information on
beliefs and systems. From a life of foraging pre-historic migrations. Scientists are trying to
through nomadic pastoralism, the settlers in extract ancient DNA from the bones of the pre-
Indus region reached a matured stage of living historic era to understand human dispersals.
in the Bronze Age. Language is another important source of
This chapter focuses on the history of India history. Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austro-Asiatic
from the first settlement of humans in the Stone and Tibeto-Burman language families have
Age, up to the decline of the Indus Civilisation. flourished in India. These languages developed
It dwells on the Neolithic cultures as well. and evolved during the various phases of
migrations in Indian history.
Sources
Archaeological sources form the bedrock 1.1 Pre-historic India
of information for us to understand this long The period before the development of
span of time in Indian history. They include script is called the pre-historic times. It is also
archaeological sites, geological sediments, referred to as the Stone Age. When we talk about
animal bones and fossils, stone tools, bone the Stone Age, we include the entire South Asia,
tools, rock paintings and artefacts. There is the region covering India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
no written evidence for this period. Although Nepal and Bangladesh, as a whole.
the Harappans used a script, it is yet to be
Human ancestors are likely to have first
deciphered.
evolved in Africa and later migrated to different
The faunal (animal) and floral (plant) parts of the world. The earliest human ancestor
sources are important for understanding the species to migrate out of Africa was the
relationship of the Stone Age people with their Homo erectus. Till the end of the 20th century,
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the pre-history of India was considered to have

Wild and Domestic
begun within the time span of one million years
ago. But, recent investigations have produced Wild plants and animals grow naturally
evidence for the presence of human ancestors and independently. When they are
in India between two million and one million domesticated, their lifestyle and physical
years ago. characteristics (such as self-propagation)
change. Consequently, the seeds of domestic
Generally, the period before the invention plants become smaller in size. In the case
of script is broadly divided into Stone Age, of domesticated animals, they lose their
Bronze Age and Iron Age. Hence, the names of ferociousness.
materials that they used (for example, painted
grey ware culture or Iron Age culture) or the tools. Human ancestors made large stone blocks
geographical region (Indus) or the first site and pebbles and chipped tools out of them,
to be identified (for example, Acheulian or using another strong stone. Hand axes, cleavers,
Harappan) are used to name the cultures. choppers and the like were designed in this way
by flaking off the chips. The tools show well
The earliest age in history is called Old Stone
thought-out design and physical symmetry,
Age or Palaeolithic. This period is divided into
and convey high-quality cognitive (perception)
� Lower Palaeolithic culture skills and capabilities of pre-historic humans.
� Middle Palaeolithic culture They used the tools for hunting, butchering and
� Upper Palaeolithic culture. skinning the animals, breaking the bones for
The period after the Old Stone Age bone marrow and to recover tubers and plant
(Palaeolithic) is called the Mesolithic Age. The foods, and for processing food.
period that followed the Mesolithic is called the The industries of Palaeolithic cultures
Neolithic Age. This is the age in which animal are divided into the Early, Middle and Late
and plant domestication developed, leading Acheulian Industries. The early Acheulian tools
to food production. The classification of these include polyhedrons, spheroids, hand axes,
cultures is done on the basis of stratigraphic, cleavers and flake tools.
chronological and lithic (stone tool) evidence.
The Acheulian tradition is absent in the
Western Ghats, coastal areas and north-eastern
Lower Palaeolithic Culture
India. Heavy rainfall is attributed to its absence.
The earliest lithic artefacts come from Uncongenial conditions and lack of raw
different parts of the Indian subcontinent. materials might have prevented the occupation
During the Lower Palaeolithic cultural phase, of these areas. Perhaps there was no necessity
human ancestor species of Homo erectus for the pre-historic people to move into these
is believed to have lived in India. The first areas. These sites are found more in Central
Palaeolithic tools were identified at the site of India and in south-eastern part of India (near
Pallavaram near Chennai by Robert Bruce Foote Chennai). These areas receive high rainfall and
in 1863. He found many pre-historic sites when are therefore endowed with thick green cover
he extensively surveyed different parts of South and rich resources.
India. Since then, numerous Palaeolithic sites
Distribution
have been identified and excavated all over India.
Lower Palaeolithic tools are found in
Lithic Tools
most parts of India, except in a few regions
The study of pre-history mainly depends of the Ganges valley, southern Tamil Nadu
upon lithic tools. Pre-historic sites are and in the hilly areas of the Western Ghats.
identifiable based on the presence of stone Athirampakkam, Pallavaram and Gudiyam
2 Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation

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Acheulian and Sohanian

Based on research, two independent cultural traditions of hand axe (Acheulian) and pebble-flake
(Sohanian) industries were confirmed in India. Acheulian industry mainly had hand axes and
cleavers. The Sohan industry is considered to have used only chopper and chopping tools. The Sohan
industry gets its name from the Sohan river valley of Pakistan. These two cultural traditions are not
considered distinct any longer. Recent studies argue that there was no independent Sohan tradition
as Acheulian tools are found in the Sohan industry as well.
near Chennai, Hunsgi valley and Isampur in Equus namadicus (extinct great horse like
Karnataka, and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh animal) have been recovered. Teeth of Equus,
are some important Palaeolithic sites where the evidence of water buffalo have been uncovered
Acheulian tools are found. at Athirampakkam. They suggest an open, wet
landscape near the Chennai region in the pre-
Chronology historic period.
Recent research places the beginning of
lower Palaeolithic around two million years ago. Equus refers to the genus of animals
This culture continued upto 60,000 years ago. including horses, asses and zebras.
Hominin and Animal Fossils
Way of Life
Unlike Africa, evidence of hominin
The people of Lower
[immediate ancestor of Homo Sapiens] fossil
Palaeolithic culture hunted
is rare in India. There is a report of a fossil
animals and gathered roots,
fragment discovered by Robert Bruce Foote
nuts and fruits. They fed
from Athirampakkam. Its whereabouts are not
on the flesh and bones of
known now. The only well-known hominin
animals killed by predators.
fossil of India was found at Hathnora near
They lived in open air, river
Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh. The cranium
valleys, caves and rock shelters, as seen from
is named Narmada human. It is considered to
evidence in Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh
represent the Archaic Homo sapiens. It is the
and Gudiyam near Chennai. The pre-historic
only existing fossil find of human ancestors in
human ancestors, who belonged to the species of
India.
Homo erectus, did not have a complex language
Animal fossils are useful to understand the culture like us, the Homo sapiens. They may
palaeo-environmental context in which people have expressed a few sounds or words and used
lived. In the Narmada valley, animal fossils of a sign language. They were intelligent enough
Elephas namadicus (giant tusked pre-historic to select stones as raw material and used the
elephant), Stegodon ganesa (a giant pre-historic hammer stones to carefully flake the rocks and
elephant), Bos namadicus (wild cattle) and design tools.
Hathnora archaic Homo sapiens

Elephas namadicus Bos Namadicus
fossil skull fragment
Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 3

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Middle Palaeolithic Culture The tools became smaller.

�
The decrease in the use of hand axes in
�
After about 4,00,000 years BP (Before
Present), changes took place in the lithic relation to other tools.
technology and the species of human ancestors Use of core preparation techniques in
�
diverged. The species of Homo erectus existed stone tool production.
in this period. Some of the Middle Palaeolithic Use of chert, jasper, chalcedony and quartz
�
tools are attributed to behavioural modernity. as raw materials.
Anatomically modern humans are said to Upper Palaeolithic Culture
have emerged around 3,00,000 years ago. In
India, the Middle Palaeolithic phase was first The cultural phase that followed the Middle
identified by H.D. Sankalia on the Pravara River Palaeolithic is called Upper Palaeolithic. This
at Nevasa. After this discovery, several sites of period is marked by innovation in tool technology
this period have been identified. Recently, the and increased cognitive capability of humans.
Middle Palaeolithic of Athirampakkam is dated The modern humans, who first evolved in sub-
to be around 3.85-1.72 lakh years BP. Indian Saharan Africa, sometime before 300,000 years
Middle Palaeolithics probably may be as old as ago, migrated to and occupied various parts of Asia
the African Middle Palaeolithic culture. around 60,000 years ago. They probably replaced
the earlier populations. There is a possibility that
Industries and Tool Types these new groups were responsible for the Upper
The tool types of the Middle Palaeolithic Palaeolithic culture of India.
period are hand axes, cleavers, choppers,
Lithic Tools and Industries
chopping tools, scrapers, borers and points,
projectile points or shouldered points, and knives The lithic industry of the Upper Palaeolithic
on flakes. Flake industry was predominant in period is based on blade and bone tool
the Middle Palaeolithic period and tools such as technologies. Microliths (tiny stone tools) were
scrapers, points and borers were made. Scrapers introduced in the Upper Palaeolithic Period
were used for wood and skin working. and these tools were made using different
varieties of silica-rich raw materials. Bone tools
Chronology and faunal remains have been found in Kurnool
The Middle Palaeolithic culture in India is caves in Andhra Pradesh.
dated between 3,85,000 and 40,000 BCE (BC).
Chronology
While the African Middle Stone Age is associated
with the Homo sapiens, it is associated with the The Upper Palaeolithic culture is
Neanderthals in Europe. No hominin fossil represented in India at several sites. A time
bones of this species have been found in India. bracket of c. 40,000 years to 10,000 years BP is
suggested for this period.
Distribution
The Middle Palaeolithic sites are found Distribution
in Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna and The people of this period used caves as well
other river valleys. as the open air space for living. Meralbhavi in
Karnataka, Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh,
Ways of Life and Main
Godavarikhani in Telangana, Baghor I and
Characteristics Baghor III of Son Valley in Madhya Pradesh
The Middle Palaeolithic people occupied and Patne in Maharashtra are some of the
open-air, cave and rock shelter sites. They were Upper Palaeolithic sites of India. Sri Lanka has
hunter-gatherers. The main features of the Indian evidence of microliths and hominin fossils.
Middle Palaeolithic period include the following: Incised ostrich eggshell, and shell and stone

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An Upper Palaeolithic Shrine

An interesting find is of a possible
shrine, indicated by a block of sandstone
surrounded by a rubble circle, similar to
the contemporary shrines. Found at Baghor
in Uttar Pradesh, it is the earliest known
Triangular stone from upper Similar stone in a
evidence of a shrine in India. palaeolithic shrine contemporary shrine
beads have been found at Jwalapuram in Andhra Mesolithic sites in India are found in Paisra
Pradesh, Patne in Maharashtra and Batadomba- (Bihar), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Baghor II, Chopani
Lena and Fa Hien Cave in Sri Lanka. Mando, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha and Damdama
(all in Uttar Pradesh), Sankanakallu (Andhra) and
Ostrich Egg Shells Kibbanahalli (Karnataka). Rock shelter sites are
Evidence of ostrich has been found in some found in Adamgarh and Bhimbetka.
pre-historic sites of India. The egg shell of Coastal sites are seen at Mumbai, teri sites
this bird had been used as beads and those in Thoothukudy district (Tamil Nadu) and
from Patne have been dated to 25,000 BP. Vishakapatnam (Andhra Pradesh), these sites
They are found in Bhimbetka and Patne. also have microlithic evidence.
Teri: A coastal landscape caused by sand

dunes. These soils may have originated in the
Pleistocene epoch of the Quaternary period.
Climate
After the Ice Age, with the advent of global
Decorated ostrich shells from
Upper Palaeolithic site in Patne in Maharashtra warming, human groups became highly mobile
and began to occupy various eco-zones. The
monsoon pattern had already emerged. Some
Ways of Life and Main
regions witnessed higher rainfall. At Didwana in
Characteristics western Rajasthan, fresh water lakes were known
Evidence of art in the Upper Palaeolithic to exist between 10,000 and 3500 BP. The animal
period appears in the form of paintings. Beads bones from this period suggest a dry deciduous
and ornaments of this period have also been type of forest during the Mesolithic period.
found. The lithic blade industry advanced in this
Chronology
period. Some of the green colour paintings of
Bhimbetka are dated to Upper Palaeolithic period The date of the Mesolithic culture varies
based on style and archaeological evidence. in different parts of the world. This culture is
assigned to pre-agricultural times in certain
Mesolithic Culture areas. In Levant (Eastern Mediterranean), they
Mesolithic sites are found in most parts are dated between 20,000 and 9500 BCE. In India,
of India. They occur in all eco-zones from the Mesolithic cultures appeared around 10,000 BCE.
coasts to the hills: sand dunes, rock shelters, In certain parts of India including Kerala and
deltaic regions, lake areas, forested territories, Tamil Nadu, it continued up to 1000 BCE, till
hilly and mountainous areas, rocky terrains and the beginning of the Iron Age. In Sri Lanka, the
coastal environments. microliths appeared about 28,500 years BP.

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Economy Art
Hunting wild animals and gathering plant Art is an integral part of human existence.
food and fishing were people’s main occupation While evidence of art is found in Europe in large
during this age. Agriculture was not practised volume, they are found only at a few sites in
in the early stages. At the end of the Mesolithic India. A chert stone used as a core had geometric
period, humans domesticated animals and engravings from Chandravati in Rajasthan,
paved the way for the Neolithic way of life. The bone objects from Bhimbetka and human tooth
rock paintings of Central India depict hunting, engraved with geometric design. Rock paintings
trapping, fishing and plant food collection. are found in the rock shelters of Madhya Pradesh
The faunal evidence from this period shows and Central India. They show people hunting,
that people belonging to this period hunted trapping animals and fishing and dancing.
cattle, gaur, buffalo, barasingha, porcupines, Bhimbetka near Bhopal, Raisen and Pachmarhi
sambar, chital, gazelle, hog deer, nilgai, jackal, in Madhya Pradesh and South Mirzapur in Uttar
turtle, fish, wild hare, lizard fox and monitor Pradesh are some of the sites. Haematite, an iron-
lizard. Bones of rhinoceros and elephant have rich stone with traces of rubbing, has been found.
also been found. They used spears, bow and These people might have decorated themselves
arrow and traps. The paintings of Bhimbetka with flowers and leaves.
show that various animals were hunted and for
this men and women went together. 1.2 Hunter and gatherers
The people used fire and perhaps roasted of the Historical Period
food. Domestic animal bones of cattle, sheep,
goats, pig and dog have been found at Kanewal, The hunter and gatherers using microlithic
Loteshwar and Ratanpur, and from Adamgarh tools continued to live in the later period, even
and Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh sites. Camel after the development of Neolithic, Iron Age
bones have been found from Kanewal. and historical periods. Perhaps they became
part of the marginalised communities, when
Camps and Houses the people who lived in the cities acquired
The Mesolithic people were highly mobile. more wealth. Some of the people who live in
They moved in search of animals and plant foods. the forests even today in some remote areas and
They made temporary huts and also used caves also in the Andaman region could be considered
and rock shelters. Circular huts with postholes as those people who prefer to live by hunting
and burnt clay lumps bearing reed impressions and gathering. Many such groups lived in the
have been found. Many of caves and shelters 19th and 20th century, as recorded in the Edgar
feature paintings. Circular huts are seen in rock Thurston’s Castes and Tribes of Southern India.
paintings. The temporary huts were built using Describing them as primitive is incorrect. They
perishable materials. Traces of oval and circular should be considered as people who preferred
huts and possible wattle daub are found in to live by hunting and gathering. When the
Chopani Mando and Damdama in Uttar Pradesh Indus Civilisation was in its peak, Tamil Nadu
and Bagor and Tilwara in Rajasthan. had microlithic hunter-gatherers. The Andhra–
Burials Karnataka region had the agro-pastoralists of
the Neolithic period.
The Mesolithic people buried the dead,
which suggests their beliefs and humane Characteristics of the Mesolithic
relationships. Human skeletons have been Cultures
found in Mahadaha, Damdama and Sarai Nahar
Rai in Uttar Pradesh. At Mahadaha, a man and The Mesolithic people lived in semi-
�
a woman were buried together. One burial had permanent and temporary settlements.
an ivory pendant as the grave good. They occupied caves and open grounds.
�

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They buried the dead.

� The Neolithic cultures of India are
They had artistic skill.
� divided into various regional cultures and
they flourished in different time periods. In
They were spread over wider geographical
�
the north-western part of India and Pakistan,
regions.
it began at a very early date. In north-eastern
Cultural continuity is noticed in many parts
� India, Neolithic cultures appeared at a very late
of India from this period. date, around the early historic time.
Their microlithic tools enabled them to hunt
�
The Neolithic Culture of
smaller animals and birds.
North-Western India
1.3 Early Neolithic Cultures The Neolithic culture
and the Beginning of of north-western India
Agriculture is the earliest to have
evidence of plant and animal
The Neolithic period marked the beginning domestication in India.
of agriculture and animal domestication. Mehrgarh, Rana Ghundai,
It is an important phase in Indian history. Sarai Kala and Jalilpur are
Early evidence of Neolithic culture is found some of the Neolithic sites. These sites are now
in the Fertile Crescent region of Egypt and situated in Pakistan.
Mesopotamia, the Indus region, the Ganges
The site of Mehrgarh has produced
valley of India and also in China. Between
evidence of early Neolithic times, dating to c.
10,000 BCE to 5000 BCE, agriculture emerged
7000 BCE. Wheat and barley were cultivated
in these regions, which led to several cultural
and sheep, goat and cattle were domesticated.
developments.
This culture preceded the Indus Civilisation.
The introduction of domestication of
The first cultural period (I) of the
animals and plants resulted in the production
Neolithic age at Mehrgarh dates from c. 7000
and supply of a large quantity of grains and
to 5500 BCE. The people belonging to this
animal food. The fertile soil deposited by the
age did not use pottery, but cultivated six-
rivers enhanced the growth of agriculture,
row barley, emmer and einkorn wheat, jujube
generating a surplus of grains. Surplus food
and dates, and also domesticated sheep, goat
production played a major role in the rise of
and cattle. They were semi-nomadic, pastoral
early civilisations. Large villages came to exist
groups. They built their houses with mud
and pottery developed. Permanent residences
and buried the dead. They used ornaments
were built. Hence, the cultural developments of
of sea shell, limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli
this period are called Neolithic revolution.
and sandstone.
Early Dentistry in the Neolithic Mehrgarh

The human ancestors had knowledge of medicinal
herbs and were capable of taking care of health for
survival from the pre-historic times. As their ways of
life changed, new diseases appeared and they had to
find remedies.
From the Neolithic period, people began to eat ground
grain and cooked food, which caused dental and other
health problems. The earliest evidence for drilling
human tooth (of a living person) has been found at
Mehrgarh. It is seen as a prelude to dentistry. Mehrgarh Neolithic mud houses

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NEOLITHIC CULTURES N
W E
Chalingai Burzahom
Sarai khola Srinagar
Islamabad Gulkaral Excavated Neolithic sites
Modern Towns
Kile gul mohammad
Quetta
Mehrgarh
Delhi
Karachi Chirand Sarutaru

Marakdola
Gauhati
Daojali-
Patna
hading
I N D I A
Calcutta
Barudih
Nagpur Kucha
Bhubaneshwar
Bombay
BAY
ARABIAN
OF
SEA Utnur Nagarjunakonda
Kodekal BENGAL
Tekkalakoda Maski
Terdal Sanganakallu
l
pgaHallur Palavoy
Ku
Brahmagiri
T.Narshipur Madras
Hemmige
An
da
Paiyampalli
m an
Lakshad weep isla
a n d ni c o b a r
(I N D I A )
(I N D I A )
i sl a
nd
s
nd
s
Map not to scale

I N D I A N O C E A N
Neolithic sites of India

The period II at Mehrgarh dates from c. Historic Periods. In this place, people lived in
5500 to 4800 BCE and the period III from 4800 pit houses (about four metres in depth) in order
to 3500 BCE. There is evidence for pottery to escape the cold weather. The houses were
during these periods. Terracotta figurines and oval in shape, wide at the bottom and narrow
glazed faience beads have been found. Evidence on the top. Postholes used for constructing a
for ornaments on women has been uncovered. thatched structure were found around the pit
Long-distance trade was practiced, as revealed
houses. The Neolithic period of Kashmir had
by Lapis Lazuli, which is available only in
domestic sheep, goat and cultivated plants.
Badakshan. The town was abandoned after the
The Neolithic people of Burzahom traded with
rise of mature phase of the Indus Civilisation.
the people of the Harappan Civilisation. They
The Neolithic Culture of Kashmir used handmade pottery. They used tools such
Neolithic culture in Kashmir region was as stone axes, chisels, adzes, pounders, mace-
contemporary to the Harappan civilisation. heads, points and picks. Awls were used for
Burzahom, an important site of this culture, stitching skins into clothes to beat the weather.
provides evidence for the Megalithic and Early Scrapers were used for working the skins.

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Two phases of Neolithic culture have been They used microliths, bone and antler tools
identified. They are termed aceramic and ceramic and terracotta objects. These sites perhaps
phases. Aceramic phase did not have evidence of flourished till about the middle of the second
ceramics. Ceramic phase shows evidence for the millennium BCE.
existence of pottery. In the ceramic phase, people
The Neolithic Culture of
built mud houses. They used copper arrowheads.
They also used black ware pottery, beads of agate Eastern India
and carnelian and painted pottery. A burial at The Neolithic sites are found at many
this site produced wild dog bone and antler horn. sites in Bihar and West Bengal. Birbhanpur
An engraving of a hunting scene is depicted on a and Chirand are some of the prominent
stone here with dog and sun. Neolithic sites in this region along with Kuchai,
Seeds of wheat, barley, common pea and Golbaisasan and Sankarjang. These cultures
lentil have been recovered from the excavations. show similarities with the Neolithic complexes
of east and South-east Asia. Pointed butt celts,
people domesticated animals include cattle,
chisel and shouldered axes have been found in
sheep, goat, pig, dog and fowl. Bones of wild
the region from the Neolithic era.
animals such as red deer, Kashmir stag, ibex,
bear and wolf suggest that they hunted animals. Neolithic Culture of South India
There is evidence of menhirs and the use The Neolithic cultures
of redware pottery and metal objects in the of South India have been
megalithic culture. The use of lentil suggests found mainly in Andhra
that contacts had been established with Central Pradesh and Karnataka and
Asia. These people had interactions with the north-western part of
Harappan Civilisation. Tamil Nadu. These sites have
ash mounds in the centre
The Neolithic Culture of Ganges
with settlements around them. More than 200
Valley and Central India Neolithic sites have been identified as part of
In the Ganges Valley, and in Central India the Neolithic complex. These sites are found
Neolithic sites are found at Lehuradeva, and near the granite hills with water sources. These
Chopani Munda. The site of Lehuradeva has sites have been spotted in the river valleys of
produced early evidence of rice cultivation Godavari, Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra and
dated to c. 6500 BCE. Kaveri. Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri,
Maski, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige and Hallur
These sites are characterised by cord- in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram
marked pottery. Koldiwa, Chirand, Senuwar and Veerapuram in Andhra Pradesh and
and Mahagara are important Neolithic sites in Paiyyampalli in Tamil Nadu are the major
this region. These sites also have evidence of Neolithic sites in South India.
pottery and plant and animal domestication.
Evidence for the cultivation of hulled
and six-rowed barley, several types of wheat,
rice, pea, green gram, and gram/chicken pea,
mustard, flax/linseed and jackfruit have been
found at the sites of Central India. Sheep,
goat and cattle bones have been found besides
bones of wild animals.
The Neolithic people used a type of
pottery with cord impression on the surfaces. Neolithic ground stone axe

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Some early Neolithic sites have ash Early Harappan

� 3000–2600 BCE
mounds. Utnur and Palvoy in Andhra Mature Harappan
� 2600–1900 BCE
Pradesh and Kodekal, Kupgal and Budihal in
Late Harappan
� 1900–1700 BCE
Karnataka feature ash mound sites. Soft ash and
The urban phase was prevalent in the mature
decomposed cow dung layers are also found at
this site. The evidence of habitation in the form Harappan period and began to decline afterwards.
of houses and burials are found around the ash The Indus valley site of Harappa was
mounds. first visited by Charles Mason in 1826 CE
(AD), and Amri by Alexander Burnes in
Neolithic Culture of
1831. The site of Harappa was destroyed
North-eastern India for laying the railway line from Lahore to
In north-eastern India, Neolithic culture Multan. The seal from this site reached
appears at to a very late period. The Neolithic Alexander Cunningham, the first surveyor
cultures of north-eastern India generally date of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
from 2500-1500 BCE or even later. Shouldered Alexander Cunningham visited the site in
axes and splayed celts have been found at the sites 1853, 1856 and 1875. But the importance of
in Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal the site and the associated civilisation were
Pradesh. Daojali Hading and Sarutaru are not realised until Sir John Marshal took over
the Neolithic sites in the Assam region. This as the Director General of ASI and initiated
region bears evidence for shifting cultivation. research at the site.Sir John Marshal played
Cultivation of yams and taro, building stone an important role in the development of
and wooden memorials for the dead, and the archaeology in India.
presence of Austro-Asiatic languages are the Later in the 1940s, Mortimer Wheeler
marked features of this region, which shows excavated the Harappan sites. After the
cultural similarities with South-east Asia. partition of the Indian subcontinent, many
of the Harappan sites went to Pakistan and
1.4 The Indus Civilisation thus archaeologists were keen to trace the
The Indus Civilisation represents the Harappan sites on the Indian side. Kalibangan,
first phase of urbanisation in India. While the Lothal, Rakhi Garhi and Dholavira are the
civilisation was in its peak, several cultures, Indian sites that have been since excavated.
namely, Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures that The explorations and excavations conducted
we discussed earlier in the chapter, prevailed in after the 1950s have helped to understand the
other parts of India. Harappan Civilisation and its nature.
Nomenclature, Phases and Geographical Area and the

Chronology Settlements
The civilisation that appeared in the north- The Indus Civilisation and the
western part of India and Pakistan in third contemporary cultures covered nearly 1.5
millennium BCE is collectively called the Indus million sq. km area in India and Pakistan. The
Civilisation. Since Harappa was the first site to settlements of Sutkagen-dor in the west on the
be identified in this civilisation, it is also known Pakistan–Iran border; Shortugai (Afghanistan)
as Harappan Civilisation. This civilisation did in the north; Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh,
not appear all of a sudden. The beginnings of the India) in the east and Daimabad (Maharashtra,
Neolithic villages in this region go back to about India) in the south are the boundaries of this
7000 BCE at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh. civilisation. Its core area was in the regions of
Harappan culture is divided into various phases: Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.

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The Early Beginnings are identified as granary. The bricks were

The Indus region (Mehrgarh) is one of the laid watertight with gypsum mortar. It had
areas of the world where agriculture and animal drainage. It is associated with ritual bathing.
domestication began very early. We do not know
if there is any continuity between the Neolithic
cultures of the Indus region and the later urban
civilisation. The early Harappan phase saw the
development of villages and towns in the entire
region. In the Mature Harappan phase, urban
centres developed.
Planned Towns
Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-
Daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira, Lothal, The Great Bath
and Surkotada (Gujarat, India), Kalibangan
Subsistence and Economic
(Rajasthan, India), Banawali and Rakhigarhi
(Haryana, India) are the major cities in the Production
Harappan period. Fortification, well-planned Agriculture was an important source of
streets and lanes and drainages are noticed
subsistence for the Harappans. The Harappans
in the Harappan towns. A civic authority
cultivated diverse crops such as wheat, barley,
perhaps controlled the planning of the towns.
The Harappans used baked and unbaked lentil, chickpea, sesame and various millets.
bricks, and stones for construction. The Agricultural surplus was an important stimulus
towns had a grid pattern and drainages were for a number of developments. They adopted a
systematically built. The houses were built double cropping system.
of mud bricks while the drainages were built
The Harappans used ploughs. They perhaps
with burnt bricks. Houses had more than one
ploughed the land and then sowed the seeds.
floor.
Ploughed fields have been found at Kalibangan.
The site of Mohenjo-Daro had a planned
They used both canal and well irrigation.
town, built on a platform. It has two distinct
areas. One is identified as a citadel and
another as the lower town. The houses had Archaeobotanists study ancient
bathrooms paved with burnt bricks and proper agriculture, and human and environmental
drains. Some houses had stairs indicating the relationships.
existence of an upper floor. The houses had
multiple rooms. Many of the houses had a
Animal Domestication
central courtyard with rooms all around.
Pastoralism was also practised by the
The citadel area had important residential
structures that were either used by the public Harappans. They domesticated sheep, goat
or select residents. In Mohenjo-Daro, a and fowl. They had knowledge of various other
building has been identified as a warehouse. animals including buffalo, pig and elephant. But
horse was not known to them. The Harappan
The Great Bath is a tank situated within
a courtyard. The corridors were present on all cattle are called Zebu. It is a large breed, often
four sides and stairs are seen on the northern represented in their seals. They also ate fish and
and southern sides. It was well paved with birds. Evidence of boar, deer and gharial has
several adjacent rooms. Some structures been found at the Harappan sites.

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Craft Production intersecting circles, zigzag lines, horizontal

bands and geometrical motifs with floral and
Craft production was an important part
faunal patterns. The Harappan pottery is well-
of the Harappan economy. Bead and ornament
baked and fine in decorations.
making, shell bangle making and metalworking
were the major crafts. They made beads and Metals, Tools and Weapons
ornaments out of carnelian, jasper, crystal, The Harappan civilisation belongs to the
and steatite, metals like copper, bronze and Bronze Age civilisation and Harappans knew
gold and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt how to make copper and bronze tools. Although
clay. The beads were made in innumerable they produced bronze implements, they needed
designs and decorations. They were exported various kinds of tools for agriculture and craft
to Mesopotamia and the evidence for such production. The Harappans used chert blades,
exported artefacts have been found from the copper objects, and bone and ivory tools. The
excavations in Mesopotamian sites. tools of points, chisels, needles, fishhooks, razors,
Certain Harappan sites specialised in weighing pans, mirror and antimony rods were
the production of certain craft materials. The made of copper. The chert blades made out of
following table presents the major centres of Rohrichert was used by the Harappans. Their
craft production. weapons include arrowheads, spearhead, celt and
axe. They did not have the knowledge of iron.
Material Site or Source
Shell Nageshwar and Balakot Rohri chert : The chert, a fine grained
Lapis lazuli Shortughai sedimentary rock, was found in the region
of Rohri in Pakistan. It was used by the
Carnelian Lothal
Harappans for making stone blades and tools.
Steatite South Rajasthan
Copper Rajasthan and Oman Textiles and Ornaments
The Harappans wore clothes and used metal
Pottery and stone ornaments. They had knowledge of
cotton and silk. The image identified as a priest
The Harappans used diverse varieties
is depicted wearing a shawl-like cloth with
of pottery for daily use. They use well-fired
flower decorations. The terracotta images of
pottery. Their potteries have a deep red slip and
black paintings. The pottery are shaped like
women are shown wearing different types of
dish-on-stands, storage jars, perforated jars,
ornaments. The image of dancing girl found
at Mohenjo-Daro is shown wearing bangles in
goblets, S-shaped jars, plates, dishes, bowls and
large numbers up to the upper arm. They made
pots. The painted motifs, generally noticed on
carnelian, copper and gold ornaments. Some
the pottery, are pipal leaves, fish-scale design,
of them had etched designs and they exported
them to the Mesopotamian world. Faience,
stoneware and shell bangles were also used.
The ornaments produced were either sold or
exchanged as part of the trade activities.
Trade and Exchange
One of the sources of Harappan economy
was trade and exchange activities. Harappans
had close trade contacts with the Mesopotamians
and also with various cultures of India. The
Harappan painted pottery

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Harappan seals and materials have been found Some scholars are of the view that it is Dravidian.
in the Sumerian sites in Oman, Bahrain, and Iraq Seals might have been used as an identity marker
and Iran. The cuneiform inscriptions mention on the materials that were transported. They
the trade contacts between Mesopotamia and might have indicated the ownership.
Harappans. The mention of “Meluhha” in the Arts and Amusement
cuneiform inscriptions refers to the Indus
The terracotta
region. A Harappan jar has been found in
figurines, the paintings
Oman. Harappan seals, weights, dice and
on the pottery, and the
beads are found in Mesopotamia. Carnelian,
bronze images from the
lapis lazuli, copper, gold and varieties of wood
Harappan sites suggest
were exported to Mesopotamia. Harappans
the artistic nature
also interacted with various regions of India and
of the Harappans. The priest king
acquired raw materials and processed them.
“Priest king” of
Weights and Measures steatite, dancing girl of copper (both from
Mohenjo-Daro), and stone sculptures from
Harappans had developed proper weights
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira are
and measures. Since they were involved in
the important objects of art. Toy carts, rattles,
commercial transactions, they needed standard
wheels, tops, marbles and hop scotches exhibit
measures. Cubical chert weights have been the amusement of the Harappan people.
unearthed from Harappan sites. The weights
exhibit a binary system. The ratio of weight Faith and Belief System
is doubled as 1:2:4:8:16:32. The small weight The Indus people worshipped nature. They
measure of 16th ratio weighs 13.63 grams. They worshipped the pipal tree. Some of the terracotta
also used a measuring scale in which one inch figures appear to be mother goddess. Fire altars
was around 1.75 cm. Weights made of chert were have been identified at Kalibangan. They buried
cubical. They used binary numbering system the dead. Burials were made elaborately and
(1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.). They might have been evidence of cremation is also reported. The
used for weighing jewellery and metal. Harappan burials have pottery, ornaments,
Seals, Sealing and Scripts jewellery, copper mirrors and beads. These
suggest their belief in an afterlife.
Indus seal
Harrappan Burials
The seals from various media such as steatite,
copper, terracotta and ivory are frequently found Polity
in the Harappan sites. The Harappan script has not Uniformity in pottery, seals, weights and bricks
yet been convincingly deciphered. About 5,000 reveals the existence of a polity. Labour mobilisation
texts have been documented from the Harappan may also suggest the existence of a political system.
sites. The longest text has about twenty six signs. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro might have had a

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city-state like polity. The uniformity in the cultural of the Dravidian languages. The archaeological
materials and measurement units point to a central evidence shows movement of the Harappans
authority during the Harappan times. to the east and the south after the decline of
Authorship and the Making of their civilisation. Some of the Harappan people
Indian Culture could have moved into different parts of India.
One school of thought argues that the However, only the decipherment of the script
authors of Harappan Civilisation were speakers would give us a definite answer.
Indus Civilisation and Tamil Civilisation

The Indus Civilisation represents the first urbanisation of Indian history.
The origin and authorship of the Indus Civilisation are keenly debated historical questions. The
Indus script has not yet been conclusively deciphered and hence the authorship is not certain. The
graffiti found on the megalithic burial pots of South India and the place names presented are cited to
establish the relationship between Indus and Tamil cultures.
The archaeological evidence points to several groups of people living in Tamil Nadu and South
India continuously from the Mesolithic period. One cannot rule out the migration of a few groups from
the Indus region. More research is necessary before arriving at any definite conclusion.
The towns of ancient Tamizhagam such as Arikamedu, Keezhadi and Uraiyur that flourished are
part of the second urbanisation of India and these towns are quite different from the Indus cities.
Indus cities and towns

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Contemporary Cultures of the SUMMARY

Indus Civilisation The history of India began in the pre-
Several groups including pastoral people, historic times about 2 million years ago.
farmers and hunter-gatherers lived in the Numerous groups of people moved into
Indus region. The Indus region had villages this land from the pre-historic times. These
and large towns. The population of that groups adapted to their environment and
time was mixed. Innumerable communities created specific ways of life according to the
of hunters-gatherers, pastoral people and ecological moorings.
farmers, from Kanyakumari to Kashmir and
People who made hand axes lived in
Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh could have
India from two million years ago. Various
existed during this period. Their history is also communities occupied the entire breadth
equally important, as cultural and ecological and width of the country from the
knowledge of all these groups contributed to Mesolithic times and laid the cultural
Indian culture. foundations of India.
While the Indus Civilisation was The combined contribution of all these
flourishing in the north-western part of India, groups contributed to India’s pluralistic
several cultures were developing in different culture today.
parts of India. In the southern part of the
The diverse languages and cultures of India
subcontinent, Kerala and Sri Lanka were given
reveal the complex processes associated
to hunting and gathering. The Harappans who
with Indian history.
had knowledge of water crafts might have had
connections and interactions with South India, The first urbanisation emerged around
but no clear archaeological evidence on this is the Indus Valley Civilisation about 2600
available. The northern part of South India, BCE. While Indus Valley Civilisation was
a major cultural system in north-western
i.e. the Karnataka and Andhra region, had
India, several cultures existed across India
Neolithic cultures, engaged in pastoralism and
contemporaneously.
plough agriculture. Similarly, the Chalcolithic
cultures were prevalent in Deccan and western
India, while Neolithic cultures permeated EXERCISE
northern India including Kashmir, Ganges Q.R.Code
valley and central and eastern India. Thus
I. C
hoose the
India was a cultural mosaic during the time of
Correct Answer
the Harappans.
1.The period before the development of script is
Decline
called ______________.
The Indus Valley Civilisation declined (a) Pre-historic (b) Historic
from about 1900 BCE. Changes in climate,
(c) palaeolithic (d) Neolithic
decline of the trade with the Mesopotamia,
and the drying of the river and water resources 2. Th
e earliest age in history is called
due to continuous drought are some of the ______________.
reasons attributed by historians for the decline. (a) Old Stone Age (b) New Stone Age
Invasions, floods and shifting of the river (c) Copper Age (d) Iron Age
course are also cited as reasons for the ruin of
3. The first Palaeolithic tools were identified in
Indus civilisation. In course of time, the people
______________.
shifted to the southern and eastern directions
from the Indus region. (a) 1860 (b) 1863 (c) 1873 (d) 1883

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4. Baghor I and Baghor III of Son Valley in 4. Define Mesolithic culture.

Madhya Pradesh are some of ______________ 5. How is the Harappan culture divided into
sites in India. various phases?
(a) Lower Palaeolithic 6. Write a short note on The Great Bath.
(b) Middle Palaeolithic 7. Mention the reasons for the decline of Indus
(c) Upper Palaeolithic Civilisation.
(d) Neolithic III. Write Short Answers

5. The site of Mehrgarh has been associated with 1. Write a note on Acheulian and Sohanian
______________ culture. industries.
(a) Palaeolithic (b) Neolithic 2. What are the main features of Indian Middle
(c) Mesolithic (d) Chalcolithic Palaeolithic age?
6. The ______________ inscriptions mention 3. Mention the Mesolithic sites in India.
the trade contacts between Mesopotamia and 4. Explain the distinct features of the Mesolithic
Harappan civilisation. cultures.
(a) Cuneiform (b) Heiroglyphics 5. What are the border settlements of the Indus
civilisation?
(c) Devanagiri (d) Kharoshti
6. Write a short note on the craft production of
7.
Burzahom is an important site of
Harappan economy.
______________.
7. What do you know about the faith and belief
(a) Neolithic culture of Kashmir system of the Harappans?
(b) Neolithic culture of Ganga Valley
IV. Answer the following in detail
(c) Neolithic culture of Eastern India
(d) Neolithic culture of South India 1. Describe pre-historic India.
2. Compare the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic
8. Early Harappan period was ______________.
cultures.
(a) 3000–2600 BCE (b) 2600–1900 BCE
3. “The Neolithic Culture in Kashmir region was
(c) 1900–1700 BCE (d) 1700–1500 BCE contemporary to the Harappan civilisation”.
9. _____________ was an important source of Justify the statement.
subsistence for the Harappans. 4. Where are Neolithic cultures found in South
(a) Agriculture (b) Pottery India? Mention its important features.
(c) Craft production (d) Fishing 5. Why is the Indus Civilisation also known as
Harappan Civilisation?
10. The Indus civilisation declined from about
6. W rite about the planned towns of Harappa
______________.
and Mohenjo-Daro.
(a) 1800 BCE (b) 1900 BCE
(c) 1950 BCE (d) 1955 BCE Activity
1. Visit a nearby museum to know the objects
II. Write Brief Answers used by people of that time.
1. What are the sources for the study of pre- 2. Draw the Palaeolithic tool types.
historic period? 3. Prepare a chart on different stages in the
2. How is the Old Stone Age or Palaeolithic human evolution.
Period divided? 4. Draw the extent and spread of Indus Civilisation,
3. Write a short note on hominin. marking the sites discovered so far.

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Assignment with Teacher's Guidance 3. L.Gregory Possehl, The Indus Age: The
1. Prepare a PowerPoint presentation on the Beginnings. New Delhi. Oxford & IBH, 1999.
Stone Age of India. 4. R.S.Sharma, India’s Ancient Past. Oxford
2. Prepare a PowerPoint presentation on the University Press, 2005.
Indus Valley Civilisation. 5. Romila Thapar. From Lineage to State: Social
3. Prepare a PowerPoint on the Neolithic Formations in mid First Millennium BC in the
cultures of India. Ganga Valley. Oxford University Press, 1984.
4. Prepare a PowerPoint on the pre-historic art 6. Romila Thapar. Early India from the
of India. Origins to 1300 AD. Penguin, 2015.
7. Upinder Singh. A History of Ancient and
REFERENCE BOOKS Early Medieval India. Pearson, 2008.
1. Irfan Habib. The Indus Civilization. The INTERNET RESOURCES

People's History of India series. Tulika, 2002.
2. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. Ancient Cities 1. http://www.paleophilatelie.eu
of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford 2. http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/
University Press, 1998. web_project/arch_back.html
GLOSSARY
Nilgai a deer with small horns சிறு ெகாம்புைடய மான் வைக
a precious stone in yellow, red and
Jasper மஞ்சள், சிவப்பு , பழுப்பு நிறம் ெகாண்ட கல் வைக
brown colour
semi-precious stone with varying
quartz பல்நிறம் ெகாண்ட விைல குைறந்த மணிக்கல்
colour
Levant Eastern Mediterranean Region கிழக்கு மத்தியத்தைரக்கடல் பகுதி
gazelle a kind of deer ஒரு வைக அழகிய மான்
chisel-like tool fastened to wooden மரக் ைகப்பிடி ெகாண்ட
adzes
handle உளி ேபான்ற கருவி
agate a kind of hard precious stone உயர் வைகக் கல்
reddish variety of stone used in
carnelian அணிகலன்களில் பதிக்கும் சிவப்பு நிறக் கல்வைக
jewellery
a kind of botanical family in which
legume தாவர குடும்ப வைக (அவைர வைக)
seeds are found in pods
nomenclature system of naming ெபாருள்களின் ெபயரிடும் முைற
lentil a kind of pulse துவைர வைக
goblet a cup with handle at the base ேகாப்ைப
adduced showed as proof சான்றாகக் காண்பித்தல்
கூழாங்கற்கள் மற்றும் சரைளக் கற்களாலான
conglomerate rock consisting of gravel or pebbles
பாைற
ICT CORNER
Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation
Virtual Museum URL:

https://naturalhistory.si.edu/VT3/

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UNIT Early India: The Chalcolithic,

Megalithic, Iron Age and
2 Vedic Cultures
Learning Objectives
To understand the characteristics of the Chalcolithic period in India
To know the Megalithic-Iron Age cultures of India
To get acquainted with Aryans, non-Aryans and Vedic cultures
To learn the distinction between the Early Vedic and Later Vedic societies
Introduction main types of sources for this long span of time

A conventional view of the timeline of (c. 3000 to 600 BCE) in Indian history. One
Indian history would simply shift its themes source is the archaeological sites and material
from the Indus Civilization through the Vedic culture including pottery, plant remains and
Culture to the Age of the Mahajanapadas. But, metal objects.The other is Vedic literature. There
if we consider the time after the decline of the are no written documents for this period, since
Indus Civilization, covering from c. 2000 BCE to the Vedic texts were transmitted orally. At this
600 BCE and the space stretching from Kashmir point of time, people had not developed a script
to Kanyakumari and Arunachal Pradesh to in India, except the symbols of the Indus script
Gujarat, it is clear that diverse cultures and which are yet to be deciphered. Correlating the
people who spoke different languages lived in archaeological cultures and the information
ancient India.
related to various groups of people from the
This chapter focuses on the Late Harappan, Vedic texts is not an easy task. There are various
Chalcolithic, Megalithic Iron Age and Vedic theories on the identity of the originators
Cultures and the Aryans, except for the Indus of the Indus Civilization, and various other
Civilization which was covered in the previous archaeological cultures. We are dealing with
lesson. Essentially, it deals with the history of
diverse cultures and communities with different
India from about 3000 BCE, up to the emergence
modes of living in this space-time unit.
of the Mahajanapadas, with a focus on social
and economic changes. The Early Vedic culture is correlated with
some of the Chalcolithic cultures of India, while
Sources
the Later Vedic culture is correlated with the
The history of India, after the decline Painted Grey Ware Culture of the Iron Age in
of the Indus Civilization around 1900 BCE, North India. Unlike the age of Indus Civilization,
is characterised by the presence of nomadic when the urban sites and farming cultures
microlith-using hunter-gatherers and pastoral, were in a limited area, we notice cultural,
semi-sedentary and sedentary agro-pastoral agricultural and technological expansion and
communities of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, developments in many parts of India in this
Iron Ages and Vedic Cultures. We have two period accompanied by the growth of craft
18

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production and population. A strong cultural

foundation was laid across India during this Zend Avesta
period, which finally culminated in the Early The Zend Avesta is a Persian/Iranian text
Historic period. The extensive foundations for of Zoroastrianism. This book speaks
the village settlements of India were laid during about the lands and gods of the people
this period. speaking the Indo-Iranian languages. It
has references to the regions of northern
Literature of the Vedic Age
and north-western parts of India. It has
The Vedas (Vid = to know, Vidya) are one of terms which show linguistic similarity
the earliest known texts to have been composed with the Vedas. This text is an indirect
in India. The language of the Vedas is described evidence that the early home of the Aryans
as Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are four: Rig is the was outside the Indian subcontinent.
oldest, and the others being Yajur, Sama and
Atharva. The Vedic texts were memorized and 2.1 Pre-Aryan, Late Harappan
orally transmitted by Brahmins from generation
and Chalcolithic Cultures
to generation. They were written down in the
later period, after the introduction of writing. of India
The earliest known written manuscripts of the The Pre-Harappan cultures are the earliest
Vedas date to the 10-11th century CE. They Chalcolithic cultures of India, and they are
contain information about the polity, society, found in the time before the beginning of the
religion and philosophy, and hence they are a mature phase of the Harappan culture, and
source for writing history. continued to exist in the later period. The other
The main collections of Vedic hymns are Chalcolithic cultures of India are more or less
called samhitas. The Rig Vedic-samhita is the contemporary to this phase of Harappan culture
earliest text. The Rig Veda is dated to between and they continued even after its decline.
1500 and 1000 BCE. The Rig Veda contains 10 Unlike the mature urban phase of the Harappan
books. Books 2 to 7 are the earliest and the Books civilization, Chalcolithic cultures were pastoral
1, 8, 9 and 10 are assigned to a later period. and based on farming, generally rural in nature.
They used copper and stone blades and pottery
Samhitas are ritualistic texts, and they and also low grade iron in the later period. Their
explain the social and religious importance of settlements were sedentary or semi-sedentary.
rituals. Each samhita has added texts called In the north-western and western regions of
brahmanas, which have commentaries on the India, the early farming cultures are associated
hymns and rituals. Each brahmana has an with the Chalcolithic cultures rather than the
aranyaka (forest text) and an upanishad. The Neolithic cultures.
aranyakas contain mystical ritual instructions to
The Chalcolithic people also began to
be undertaken in secret by the sages who live in
domesticate animals in addition to agriculture.
the forests. Upanishads deal with philosophical
They had cattle, sheep, pigs and goats and
enquiries.
buffaloes. Evidence has been found of turtles
The Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas are and fowls in their settlements. The houses were
dated to a slightly later period. The samhitas made of stone, mud bricks, mud and perishable
of the Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas, and the wooden materials, and built on a stone
brahmanas, aranyakas and upanishads attached foundation. The walls were made with bamboo
to the Vedas are the Late Vedic texts. The Sama frames. Silos (well prepared pits) meant for
Veda was composed in musical notes. The Yajur storage of grains have also been found. People
Veda has rituals and hymns. The Atharva Veda used black and red ware and black on red ware
contains charms and magical spells. pottery.
Early India: The Chalcolithic, Megalithic, Iron Age and Vedic Cultures 19

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These sites have produced a large quantity evidence of cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and
of copper objects. They used copper objects dogs. The villages had wattle-and-daub houses.
such as flat axes, bangles, rings, antimony rods, They used copper and terracotta ornaments.
knives, blades, socket-less axes, barbed and Animal figurines have also been found.
tanged arrow heads, choppers and chisels.
Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware
Culture
Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware culture
is found in northern India dating to the
Chalcolithic period. The OCP pottery has red
slip and appears ochre in colour (the ochre
colour comes off when the pottery is touched)
and hence, it is called Ochre Coloured Pottery. Ochre Coloured Potsherds
It has black painted designs. The OCP comes in Chalcolithic Cultures of South India
the form of jars, storage jars, bowls, and basins.
The southern part of India has not
The OCP culture dates to 2600- 1200 BCE
produced cultural evidence of a full-fledged
and is found in the Indo-Gangetic plain and
chalcolithic culture. Perforated and spouted
may have had some associations with early
Vedic culture. The OCP culture is seen as an vessels have been found in some sites. Copper
impoverished Harappan culture and some bronze tools like chisels and flat axes
scholars see it as unrelated to the Harappan occur at these sites. Stone tools continued
culture. The OCP sites produced copper figures to be used in this area. Black on red ware
and objects and therefore it is also known as pottery is found. These people survived
“copper hoard culture.” It is a rural culture and through animal rearing and agriculture. Millets,
has evidence of the cultivation of rice, barley, pulses and horse gram were cultivated, and
and legumes. They also had pastoralism with fruits, leaves and tubers were collected.
CHALCOLITHIC SITES
N
W E
S
Mehrgarh
Jodhpura
Ganeshwar
Narham
Gilund Chirand
Balathal
Ahar Eran Koldihwa
Kayatha Pandu rajar dhibi

Navadatoli
Prabhas patan Rangpur
Golabai sasam
Daimabad
Jorwe
Nevasa BAY
Inamgaon OF
ARABIAN
BENGAL
SEA Maski
Piklihal
Sanganakallu
Hallur
Brahmagiri
Andaman and Nicoba
L a ks h ad w eep
(I n d ia)
(I n d ia)
I N D I A N O C E A N Map not to scale
20 Early India: The Chalcolithic, Megalithic, Iron Age and Vedic Cultures

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2.2 Iron Age in North India The end of Megalithic burial practice is
assigned to third-second centuries CE. During
The Iron Age in North India coincides with
this period Brahmi writing akin to Ashokan
the painted Grey Ware culture. The painted grey
Brahmi has been discovered in Kodumanal (Erode
ware is dated to from. 1100 to 800 BCE. More
District). There is also evidence of the megalithic
than 1000 sites have been identified with painted
tradition continuing into later centuries. During
grey ware pottery in northern India, with a
the Sangam period people still remembered urn
major concentration in the Ganga-Yamuna
valley. The Painted Grey Ware culture succeeded burials. The four primitive hero-stones with Tamil
the Black and Red Ware Culture in the eastern Brahmi inscriptions, datable to third to second
Ganga valley and Central India. centuries BCE found in the upper part of the
Vaigai valley, support the authenticity of the hero
The pottery was fine grey in colour with stone tradition described in the Sangam Tamil
painted geometric designs. The painted grey literature in the context of cattle raids. Scholars
ware laid the foundation of the early political
infer, based on such evidence, that the some of
formations. It correlates with the Kuru-Panchala
the Sangam poems could be assigned to the early
kingdom known from the Vedic texts. The
first century BCE or a little earlier. The tradition of
Painted Grey Ware cultural phase is followed by
erecting hero stones in memory of dead warrior-
Northern Black Polished Ware culture (NBPW),
which is associated with the Mahajanapada and heroes is considered to be an extension of the
Mauryan periods. menhir type of megalithic tradition. Menhirs,
upright monumental stones, and dolmens made
The Painted Grey ware sites reveal the of big slabs or boulders are megalithic tombs
development of agriculture and pastoralism, found in Tamilnadu.
and the settlements of this period grew in
dimension. They show a large scale population Black and red ware, along with partial
increase in the northern part of India. The Iron human remains and iron objects, were
Age in North India was coeval with Painted unearthed recently at Vadamalkunda in
Greyware Culture, and in South India it was Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu. A few stone slabs
associated with Megalithic burial mounds. were also found at the site. A centuries-old
menhir at Singaripalayam excavated near
2.3 Megalithic/ Iron Age Kundadam in Tiruppur district points to
in Tamilnadu the existence of an ancient asettlement along
The burial system followed by the people of the banks of River Uppar.
Neolithic period continued into the Megalithic
period. A circular tomb using big stone slabs
2.4 Megalithic Sites in
built upon the place of burial is known as a
megalith. Such megaliths have been found in Tamilnadu
many parts of Tamilnadu . The urn burial system
Adichanallur
was another type of practice and is evidenced
in Adichanallur (present Thoothukudi district). Adichanallur, 22 km from Tirunelveli,
Black-ware is peculiar to burial sites in is located in Thoothukudi district. In
Tamilnadu. Interestingly, black-ware is found 1876, a German ethnologist and naturalist,
mostly in burial mounds and not in human Andrew Jagor conducted an excavation at
habitations. In a majority of urn burials, the use Adichanallur. He carried with him samples
of stone is almost non-existent. However, urn of backed earthenware, utensils of all sizes
burials are grouped under megalithic because and shapes, a considerable number of iron
the materials - the pottery, iron objects, beads weapons and implements, and great quantities
of semi-precious stones kept in them - are of bones and skulls. These are now housed in
identical to those found in the stone burials. a Berlin Museum.

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The engraving of animals on bronze and

on ornaments is indicative of the primitive
workmanship. (Caldwell could stumble upon a
copper bangle during his inspection at the site.)
The people were evidently skilful in moulding
pottery, in casting or brassing metals, in weaving
and in working stone and wood. The presence of
husks of rice and millet indicates domestication
Burial Site-Adichanallur
of these grains. Iron weapons were used for both
The then district Collector of Tirunelveli war, and for animal sacrifices. The discovery of
A.J. Stuart and the famous linguist Bishop Robert sacrificial implements prompted Caldwell to
Caldwell visited Adichanallur subsequently, conclude that the people of Adichanallur were
found it was a quartz site. Quarrying was not adherents of Vedic religion.
immediately banned and archaeological
excavation commenced under the supervision of Paiyampalli
Alexander Rea. Rea prepared a comprehensive Paiyampalli is a village in Tirupathur taluk,
account of his findings, illustrated by Vellore district. The Archaeological Survey of
photographs, and was published in the annual India carried out an excavation in the 1960s and
report of the Archaeological Survey of India unearthed black and red ware pottery in this
(ASI), 1902–03. Nearly a hundred years later, the megalithic site. A large number of urn burials were
ASI carried out another excavation and brought also found in this region. The date of this culture,
out more information. The report is awaited. based on radio carbon dating, is 1000 BCE.
The burial mound at Adichanallur yielded
Kodumanal
the following:
Urns and pottery of various kinds in Kodumanal, 40 km from Erode, is located
large numbers. on the northern bank of Noyyal river, a
tributary of the Cauvery. A series of excavations
Iron implements, including spades and
were carried out during the 1980s and 1990s.
weapons (daggers, swords, spears and
The most recent was in 2012. In habitation
arrows). Some stone beads and a few
trenches and megalithic burials of Kodumanal,
gold ornaments
the goods unearthed included pots, weapons,
Bronze objects representing the domestic tools, ornaments, and beads, particularly
animals such as buffalo, goat or sheep and carnelian, akin to those found at Mohenjodaro.
cock, and wild animals like tiger, antelope Since carnelian was not known to this region
and elephant. in ancient times, it may have been brought to
Traces of cloth and wood. Kodumanal from outside.
Menhir - Tamil Brahmi inscription on a hero

Dolmen-Mallachandram Kumarikalpalayam stone-Puliman Kombai
Tirupur

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The Aryans
The attempt to write a history of India
began when the Europeans colonised India.
They compiled the archaeological and literary
sources, as well as oral traditions. Certain
notions, for example the Aryans, were developed
and used in the colonial context, when many
parts of Asia and Africa were under the influence
Burial Site - Kodumanal of the European powers. The concept of race
In the Sangam work Pathitrupathu, a place was widely prevalent at that time to classify
called Kodumanam belonging to the Chera king, and categorize people. Some of the views reflect
is praised for gemstones and therefore some the racist ideas of colonial times. The Aryan
archaeologists argue that Kodumanam is the theory was linked to the blue-eyed white race
ancient name of Kodumanal. Hoards of Roman and its connection with Europeans. Nazis used
coins have been discovered and it is believed that the Aryan concept for their political agenda,
this is a result of the export of gemstones to the ultimately leading to the Holocaust. The recent
Roman world, resulting in return a huge inflow studies have established that the word Aryan
of gold from the latter into the region. does not denote race, but only refers to the
original speakers of Indo-Aryan languages.
Conches and bangles, remnants of
furnaces, a kiln floor filled with ash soot, and Philologists study language in oral and
potsherds with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions are written forms of languages based on
other finds in the site. Pit burials, urn burials historical evidence. They use etymology,
and chamber tombs of different types excavated comparative linguistics, literary criticism,
at Kodumanal and the names inscribed on history, and linguistics in their studies.
potsherds may indicate habitation by multi-
ethnic groups. The graffiti etched on potsherds Though the Rig Veda is in Sanskrit,
give a lot of information about the people and about 300 words of the Munda and Dravidian
their activities. A menhir found at a burial site languages have been identified in it, suggesting
is assigned to the Megalithic period. According cultural mix with earlier inhabitants.
to Y. Subbarayalu, Kodumanal is coeval the
From the Vedas it is evident that Aryans used
Sangam anthologies (second century BCE to
domesticated horses and chariots. Their chariots
second century CE).
had spoked wheels and they used bows and arrows.
They practiced agriculture and pastoralism. They
2.5 The Aryans and Rig
buried and also cremated the dead. The cult of fire
Vedic Society and the use of soma drink were prevalent among
So far we have considered the Late the speakers of the Indo-Aryan languages.
Harappan Cultures, Chalcolithic and Painted The home of Indo-Europeans and Indo-
Grey ware Cultures. Let us now turn to the Aryans is still a matter of debate. Many scholars
evidence from the Vedic texts, which, unlike are of the view that the Aryans came to India as
the archaeological evidence that tell us only migrants from Central Asia. It is also believed
about the material culture, throw light on the that several waves of Indo-Aryan migration
ethnic and cultural identities of people. Because might have happened. There are several factors
of the references found in the Vedas, the which support this hypothesis. The traits of the
Aryan question is one of the important issues culture of Aryans cover Eastern Europe and
concerning the early history of India. Central Asia which is geographically interlinked

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with India and West Asia and Europe. One of migrations. M17 a genetic marker (DNA) is
the accepted areas of the Aryan home is Eastern said to have been found among the speakers of
Europe-Central Asia, north of the Black Sea. Indo-Europeans.
The Bactria-Margina Archaeological Complex
is closely related to Aryan culture dated to 2.6 Rig Vedic Culture
1900 BCE–1500 BCE.
Rig Vedic Samhita is the earliest text that
References to the names of Indo-Europeans relates to the Early Vedic period. The Early
languages are found in an inscription dated to Vedic culture is placed between 1500 BCE and
2200 BCE discovered in modern Iraq. Anatolian 1000 BCE. The political, social and economic
inscriptions of 1900-1700 BCE and Kassite aspects of life of this period are reflected in
inscriptions of 1600 BCE (Iraq) and Mittani many hymns.
inscriptions of 1400 BCE (Syria), Bhogaz Goi
Geography
inscriptions referring to names similar to the
Vedic gods (1400 BCE) have the common In the Indian subcontinent, the
features of the Indo-European languages, but early Aryans lived in the area of eastern
no such inscriptions are found in India. Afghanistan, Pakistan, Punjab and fringes of
Western Uttar Pradesh.
The term asva and several other terms in
Rig Veda have common roots in various Indo- Dasas and Dasyus
Aryan languages. In the Rig Veda, the term asva The Rig Vedas speak about not only the
(horse) occurs 215 times and vrishabha (bull) Aryans, but also about the non-Aryan people,
170 times. Tiger and rhinoceros, which are whom the Aryans encountered in India. When
tropical animals, are not mentioned in the Rig the Rig Vedic people moved into India they came
Veda. There is no trace of the urban way of life into conflict with people whom they referred
in the Rig Veda. Hence, the identity of Aryans is to as Dasyus or Dasas. Evidently the Aryans
not correlated with the Harappan culture, where differentiated themselves from the dark native
there is no evidence for horse. Nowadays, DNA people who had different cultural practices, and
studies are also used for understanding ancient sought to maintain their distinction.

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The Rig Veda has references to several other conquered and treated as slaves. They came to
groups. Simyu and Kikata are grouped with the be considered sudras in the later period. Social
dasyus. Sambara son of Kulitara is mentioned as classes were classified as warriors, priests and
a chief with 90 forts or settlements. Varchin was common people. Sudras as a category of people
another chief with many troops. The Rig Veda appeared at the end of the Rig Vedic period.
mentions the defeat of a chief called Sambara by Slavery was common and slaves were given as
Divodasa of the Bharata clan. gifts to the priests, but there is no reference to
wage labour. Horse-drawn chariots and bronze
Polity and Political Clashes
objects were possessed by a few, suggesting social
The concept of polity developed in the distinction. Vedic society was largely egalitarian
Rig Vedic time. Various units of habitation and initially, and social distinctions emerged later.
divisions such as the janas, vis, gana, grama and According to the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda
kula are referred to in the Rig Veda. The Vedas the various varnas emerged thus: Brahmanas
speak about the Aryans and their enemies and from the mouth, the kshatriya from the arms,
the battles they fought with them. The battles the vaisya from the thighs and the sudra from
were fought more for cattle and material wealth the feet of Purusha, when he was sacrificed.
and the war booty acquired was shared. They These social divisions are considered to have
not only fought with the non-Aryans, but arisen towards the end of the early Vedic period.
also fought among themselves. They invoked Various professional groups such as warriors,
the support of the gods in their battles. They priests, cattle-keepers, farmers, barbers are
strongly believed that prayers, sacrifices and also mentioned. Panis were itinerary traders or
rituals could offer support in their mundane perhaps caravan traders. Panis are also seen as
life. The god Indra is called Purandara, which enemies in some verses.
means destroyer of settlements, which were
perhaps fenced or planned townships. Tribe and Family
The Bharatas and Tritsu were the ruling Kinship was the basis of the social structure
Aryan clans who were supported by Vasishta, the of Rig Vedic society. People were identified with
priest. The region of India was named Bharata specific clans and the clans formed the tribe or
Varsha after the tribe of Bharatas. The Bharata jana. The term jana means tribe. It occurs in
clan was opposed by ten chiefs and five out of the Rig Veda 21 times but janapada does not
them were Aryans. This battle was known as occur even once. The term vis, which refers to
the Battle of Ten Kings. The battle took place on the common people, occurs 170 times and they
the banks of the river Paurushni, identified with lived in gramas (villages). The family (griha)
the river Ravi. In this battle, Sudas won and he was the main social unit within the tribe. It was
became important leading to the dominance of headed by the grihapati and his wife was known
Bharata clan. The Purus were one of the defeated as sapatni. And the family at that point of time
clans. The Purus and Bharatas formed an alliance was perhaps a joint family.
and later they formed Kuru clan. Later the Kurus
Women
allied with Panchalas and established their
control over the Upper Ganga Valley. Women had a respectable position but it
is not possible to generalise about this. Society
Social Divisions was essentially patriarchal with a preference for
The Vedic people distinguished themselves male children and cattle. The birth of a son was
from the non-Aryan people. Varna was the preferred perhaps because of the martial nature
term used by Aryans to refer to colour and of the society, which required male members
category. The Rig Veda refers to Arya varna for their clashes to establish dominance over
and Dasa varna. The Dasas and Dasyus were the territories. Having ten sons was considered

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as a blessing. Women attended assemblies Trade, Exchange and Redistribution

and offered sacrifices. Marriage was common
Trading activities were limited though
but primitive practices were also continued. traders were present during the Early Vedic
Polyandry seems to have existed, and widow period. Panis are referred to as traders and they
remarriage was also known. People married were perhaps caravan traders. The word pan
at the age of 16–17, according to scholars, and means barter, which was a mode of exchange.
there is little evidence of child marriage. Nishka was a gold or silver ornament used in
Economy: Agriculture barter. A priest received 100 horses and 100
nishka as fee for sacrifices. The danas and
Archaeological evidence points to the
dakshinas offered to people were means of
development of agriculture among the Rig
redistributing resources. The dakshina was both
Vedic people. The ploughshare is mentioned in
a fee for a specific service and also a means of
the Rig Vedas. The field was known as kshetra
distributing wealth. The distribution of cows
and the term krishi referred to ploughing.
helped spread pastoral activities and economic
The terms langla and sura referred to plough
production.
and the term sita meant the furrow created by
ploughing. Water for irrigation was probably Transport
drawn from wells by cattle-driven water-lifts Bullock carts, horses and horse-drawn
using pulleys. They had knowledge of different chariots were used for transport. There are
seasons, sowing, harvesting and thrashing. They references to the sea (samudra) and boats (nau).
cultivated barley (yavam) and wheat (godhuma). Boats driven by 100 oars are mentioned.
Pastoralism Polity and Administration
Cattle rearing was an important economic The polity of the Rig Vedic period was
activity for the Aryans, although they practiced that of a tribal society. The chief of the tribe
agriculture. Cattle were considered wealth. was the main political head and he was called
The term for war in the Rig Veda was gavishthi rajan. The kings lived in multi-pillared palaces.
which means search for cows (which is the They offered gifts of cattle, chariots and horse
contemporary term (goshti) for factions as well). ornaments and gold to the priests. Rajan was
The donations to the priests were mainly cows a hereditary chief. He was perhaps elected by
and women slaves but not land, which reveals the assembly called samiti. The main duty of
the importance of pastoralism. There was no the king was to protect the tribe. He protected
private property in land. wealth, fought wars, and offered prayers on
Craft Production behalf of gods. The king had authority over the
territory and people.
The Rig Veda mentions artisans such
as carpenters, chariot-makers, weavers and Vedic society was militaristic. Bows,
leather-workers. Copper metallurgy was one of daggers, axes and lances were the main weapons
the important developments of this period. The of war. Tributes and booty collected from war
term ayas in the Rig Veda refers to copper and were redistributed by the king. There are also
bronze. Karmara, smith, is mentioned in the references to gift of dasas or slaves. The king
Rig Veda. Likewise, there are references to siri Trasadasyu, the chief of the Purus, gave away 50
or yarn, indicating spinning which was done by women as a gift. The chief was known as gopa or
women and to carpenters, takshan. Weaving of gopati which means, chief of cattle.
clothes of wool is also referred to and obviously The assemblies called sabha, samiti, vidhata
it was necessary in the cold weather. Some of the and gana are mentioned in the Rig Veda. Sabha
crafts were fulltime crafts, involving specialists. was the assembly of elders or the elites, samiti

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was an assembly of people, and vidhata was the Rituals were adopted as a solution to many
assembly of tribe. They performed military and issues and the problems of day-to-day life and thus
religious functions. Women attended the sabhas the priests had an important role in the society.
and vidhatas. The king sought the support of
Characteristics of Society
the samiti and sabha for his activities. There are
debates about the exact nature of these assemblies In the early Vedic period lineage and
and functions. Most of our understanding of tribes constituted society, and the king had
the conditions of Vedic society depends upon limited power. The various tribal groups of
the interpretations of various terms. Sometimes Aryans and non-Aryans fought to control the
it is hard to reconstruct the original meaning. territories. Social divisions did not take deep
root, although the concept of varna and Aryan
The purohita or priest offered advice to the
identities existed. Pastoralism was predominant
king. Vedic priests advised the kings, inspired
and cattle centred clashes were common,
them and praised their deeds. In turn they
although agriculture did play an important role.
received rewards for their services. Senani
The archaeological sites suggest different types
was the chief of army. There is no evidence of of craft production including metal, carpentry,
tax collecting officers. Perhaps people made pottery and clothes.
voluntary contribution called bali to the king.
Some scholars say that bali was an imposed 2.7 Later Vedic Culture
tax, and not voluntary. There is no reference to
the administration of justice. The officer who The Later Vedic culture is dated to the
controlled the territory was called Vrajapati. period between 1000 BCE and 700–600 BCE.
He helped the heads of fighting groups called The Painted Grey Ware Culture of the Iron Age,
gramini. Gramini was the head of the village and which has been identified by archaeologists at
fighting unit. many excavated sites, is associated with the Later
Vedic culture. This period witnessed political,
Vedic Religion and Rituals social, economic complexity and developments.
Religion and rituals played an important The Late Vedic Texts
role in Vedic society. In the Rig Veda, the
natural forces sun, moon, rivers, mountains The Later Vedic texts were composed after
and rains were defined as divinities. The the Rig Veda Samhitas. The Yajur, Sama and
religion was naturalistic and polytheistic. Indra Atharva Vedas were composed after the Rig Veda.
was the most important god and he was called Eastward Expansion of the Aryans
Purandara. Agni was seen as intermediary
The Aryan speakers expanded from the
between god and people. Surya was a god who
Punjab to Western Uttar Pradesh in the Ganga
removed darkness. Ushas was the goddess
Yamuna doab in the Later Vedic period. The
of dawn. Aditi, Prithvi and Sinivali are other
history of ancient India was thus marked by
goddesses.
the movement of cultures, and interactions and
Varuna, the god of water was next in battles among various groups for territories and
importance. This god was the upholder of resources. It has been suggested that while the
natural order. Soma was the god of plants and Aryans migrated to the region of eastern part
the drink was named after him. Soma drink of the Ganga valley, the Indo-Iranians migrated
was part of the ritual and the preparation of from the region of Iran to the region of Punjab.
this intoxicating drink is explained in many The later Vedic texts speak about the region of
hymns of Rig Veda. Maruts was the god of Kuru Panchala which falls in the Indo-Gangetic
strength. Interestingly there are few references divide and the Upper Ganga Valley. The area
to Rudra or Siva. mentioned as the south-eastern boundary

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of the Aryans in Rig Veda is listed in Aitreya words indicating that Munda speaking-people
Brahmana as the midland, which indicates the lived in the Ganga valley. The region of Kosala
movement of Aryans into the Ganga valley in and Videha were the easternmost territories of the
the Later Vedic period. Perhaps this expansion Aryan expansion during this period. By the end
was induced by the need for water and land of the Vedic period Panchala and Videha were
resources, fresh, less occupied territories and Aryanised. The area beyond this region in the
population pressures. east was seen as an alien territory. In the Atharva
The Kurus, Panchalas, Vashas and Ushinaras Veda, the people of Anga and Magadha (Bihar)
are the tribes of this period. References to the were seen as enemies. Similarly, the Pundras of
Saraswati and Dhristavati rivers occur in the later Bengal and the Andhras were seen as outside the
Vedic texts also. Around 1000 BCE, the Vedic Aryan identity in the Aitreya Brahmana. This
Aryans moved towards Kosala region in eastern suggests that these regions were not influenced
Uttar Pradesh and Videha in North Bihar, where by Aryan culture. What we gather is that the
the Vedic people encountered the local people process of Aryanization gradually spread from
following Chalcolithic material culture. In the the north-west to the south-east mainly into the
Upper Ganga valley, the Vedas acquired Munda Ganga Valley.
KURU DYNASTY (Iron age)

N
VARNU
Si
nd
GANDHAR hu W E
S
a
st i
KAMBHOJA ta an
Vi ik Kuru dynasty
As
i
usn
Par i
dr
tun
SINDHU
Sh
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(INDUS)
PANCHAL
Ya G
m an Sa
un ga ryu
a
KUNTI VIDEHA
KAUSALA
MAGADHA
ANGA
I N D I A
VIDARBHA
BAY
OF
BENGAL
ARABIAN
SEA
Anda
man and Nicobar
L a ksha d weep
(I n d ia)
(I n d ia)

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Later Vedic Culture and Iron king increased. The influence of assembly called
vidhata disappeared, while samiti and sabha
Iron was an important metal used for
continued in the period. The development
implements in this period. It was called syama-
of large kingdoms reduced the power of the
ayas or krishna-ayas or the dark metal. Iron is
assemblies.
believed to have played an important role in the
conversion of the forests of the Ganga Valley The Rajan was the leader who led the
into agricultural lands. By the end of Vedic army in the battle. The concepts of Samrat/
period, the knowledge of iron had reached Samrajya developed and they suggest the
eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha. Earlier it increase in the power and ambition of the
was believed that iron originated around 700 king. The legitimization of kingship became
BCE, but recent research dates the beginning of important with the performance of various
iron to around 1200 BCE or even earlier. The sacrifices such as vajapeya and rajasuya. The
early views gave excessive emphasis to iron to king developed more control over the territory,
the colonization of the Ganga Valley, but new people and resources. Purohita, which means
scholarship argues that iron was not the only ‘one who places the king in the forefront’,
factor behind the expansion of the population. became important in the establishment of
polity and kingship. Monarchy developed.
Settlements and territories
The Rajan became the controller of the social
With the intensification of agriculture, order. Srauta sacrifices (sacrifices to achieve
the Later Vedic people led a settled life leading some benefits) were carried out to control the
to formation of territorial units. The term resources. The kings presented cows, horses,
janapada, referring to territory, is found in the chariots, gold, clothes and female slaves to the
Brahmanas dated to ca. 800 BCE. There are more priest. The Aitreya Brahamana says that king
than 1000 sites of painted Grey Ware culture in has to provide 1000 pieces of gold and cattle
this area, suggesting that new settlements came to the Brahmana who anoints him. Thus the
up and the Upper Ganga Valley was densely priest became important in the formation of
populated. People lived either in mud-brick polity and royalty.
houses or houses with wattle and daub walls. The
The terms such as rashtra, to denote a
foundations for the towns must have emerged
territory, and rajya, meaning sovereign power
during the later Vedic period. This was a period
appeared. The king received voluntary or
of intense interactions. The term nagara,
compulsory contribution called bali from the
referring to commercial quarters, is found in the
people (vis). Such voluntary contributions
later Vedic texts. However, large towns appeared
became tributes. The Mahabharata offers clues
only at the end of the Vedic period. The sites
to historical development and is suggestive of
of Hastinapura and Kausambi are considered
the power struggle to control the territories.
proto urban (urban-like) settlements. The
The Ramayana too is suggestive of the Aryan
material culture of this period shows more
expansion and the encounters with native
diversity and is an improvement over the Early
people in the forest.
Vedic period. It can be surmised that there was
surplus production to support various classes The territorial formations and the
such as chiefs, princes and priests. development of lineages became stronger
during the Later Vedic period. Romila Thapar
Political Organization characterises the developments in the first
In the Early Vedic Age tribal polities were millennium BCE as the movement from
dominant. The king was elected by assemblies. lineage to state. The development of state level
In the Later Vedic period the assemblies political organization emerged only after 500
became less important and the power of the BCE, and the Later Vedic society was therefore

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in transition. Several lineages became more Striking changes took place in the Varna
territorial and settled in the Later Vedic Age. System. There was an increase in the privileges
This is evidenced by the term janapada, as we of the two higher classes, the Brahmanas and the
saw earlier. The mid-first millennium BCE Kshatriyas at the cost of the Vaisyas and Sudras.
had political organisations such as rajya and In the Panchavimsa Brahmana, the Kshatriya is
ganasanghas (oligarchies) and these institutions placed first, higher than the Brahmana but in the
developed in the later Vedic period. Satapatha Brahmana, the Brahmana is placed
higher than Kshatriya. In later Vedic society the
Lineage is a group of people descended importance of the purohita (priest) is stressed,
from a common ancestor. as mentioned in the Vedic texts. The Kshatriyas
challenged Brahmanical supremacy and their
As we saw earlier, the clans of Bharatas and exclusive privilege of entering the asramas, a
Purus combined to form the Kurus, and along regulated four stage life namely brahmacharya,
with the Panchalas they occupied the central grihasta, vanaprastha and sanyasa. The outcome
part of the Ganga-Yamuna doab. Panchala of this was the birth of Jainism, Buddhism and
territory was in north-western Uttar Pradesh. Ajivakam.
The Kuru-Panchalas became one major ethnic
The system of four Varnas had taken deep
group and Hastinapur became their capital.
root and became rigid in the course of time.
The war between the Kauravas and Pandavas
The popularity of rituals helped the Brahmanas
was the theme of the Mahabharata and both of
to attain power. Brahmanas became important
them belonged to the clan of Kurus. Traditions
and the kings supported them, although they
say that Hastinapur was flooded and the Kuru
had conflicts with Rajanyas, the warrior nobles.
clan moved to Kausambi near Allahabad.
The concept of dvija (twice-born) developed
Sacrifices and rituals gained importance in and the upanayana (sacred thread) was limited
the Later Vedic society. The king became more to the upper sections of the society. This
independent. Rituals dominated kingship, and ceremony marked the initiation for education.
this increased the power and influence of the The fourth varna was denied this privilege and
Rajanyas and the Brahmanas, while distancing the Gayatri mantra could not be recited by the
the king from the vis. The Asvamedha-yaga Sudras. Women were also denied upanayana
involved letting a horse loose into areas where and Gayatri mantra. The king asserted his
it moved freely; this was an assertion that the authority over the three varnas. The Aitreya
authority of the king was recognized, and a Brahmana refers to the Brahmana as the seeker
battle ensued when the horse was challenged. of support and he could be removed by king
The vajapeya ritual involved a chariot race. Such from his position.
innovative modes of rituals helped to increase
Certain craft groups managed to attain
the power of the king.
higher status. For example, the Rathakaras,
Social Organization the chariot makers, had the right to wear the
sacred thread. Vaisya referred to the common
The social transformation in the Later
people. They were involved in agriculture,
Vedic Period is much more clearly reflected
cattle breeding and artisans. Later they became
in the references in the Vedic texts. The social
divisions of varna became more established. traders. Vaisyas paid tax to the kings. Some
Teaching was seen as the occupation of the social groups were placed in ranking even below
Brahmanas. The wives of Brahmanas and cows the Sudras.
were given important status. Rajanya refers to The idea of gotra emerged in the later Vedic
kshatriyas and they were the warriors and rulers period. Gotra literally meant ‘cowpen’ and it
who received bali as tax. referred to a group of people from a common

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ancestor. Persons of the same gotra were depicted with a plough, which suggests the
considered as brothers and sisters and could not importance of cultivation. The Vedic people
therefore intermarry. Several unilineal descent cultivated barley and rice, and wheat. Wheat
groups existed with common ancestors. Several was the staple food of Punjab region. The Vedic
related clans formed the tribe. people began to use rice in the Ganga-Yamuna
doab. The use of rice, rather than wheat, is
Family
noticed in the Vedic rituals.
The household became more structured,
Pastoralism
which means it became more organised. The
family was an important social unit. The family Pastoralism continued to be important.
was patriarchal with patrilineal descent. The Cattle were considered sacred. They became
relations within the family were hierarchical. part of exchange and redistribution. The
Polygyny (taking many wives) was prevalent. offering of cattle as part of dakshina continued.
Several household rituals were also developed Pastoralism supplemented agriculture.
for the welfare of the family. The married man
Craft Production
with his wife was the yajamana.
Arts and crafts proliferated during the Later
The concept of asramas, referring to various
Vedic age and craft specialization took deep
stage of life, was not well established in this time.
roots, when compared to early Vedic period,
While brahmacharya, grihasta and vanaprastha
since more occupational groups are mentioned
are mentioned, sanyasa had not developed.
in this period. Evidence of iron work is noticed
Women from about 1200 BCE. Metals such as copper,
tin, gold, bronze and lead are mentioned. These
The status of women declined as the
metals were smelted and worked by specialized
society became more structured and the
groups. The copper objects were used for
patriarchal family became more important. In
making weapons for war and hunting. Weaving
the family the father was the head. The right of
was undertaken by women. Leatherwork,
primogeniture was strong. Though women had
pottery and carpentry were well known. Terms
participated in rituals in the Rig Vedic period,
such as kulala referring to potters and urna
they were excluded in the later Vedic period.
sutra referring to wool appear. Bow makers,
Daughters are spoken of as a source of trouble.
rope makers, arrow makers, hide dressers, stone
Their work was to look after the cattle, milking
breakers, physicians, goldsmiths and astrologers
animals and fetching water.
are some of the specialized professional groups
Economy mentioned in the texts. Professions such as
physicians, washerman, hunters, boatman,
The economic activities of this period
astrologer and cook are mentioned. References
were quite diversified. Agriculture, pastoralism,
to the elephant are often found in the Atharva
craft production and trade contributed to the
Veda, along with the elephant keeper. The
economic development.
increase in references to such groups indicates
Agriculture a society in transformation.
Agricultural activities increased during the The performers of Vedic sacrifices were also
Late Vedic period. The Satapatha Brahmana a type of service providers. The priest played an
mentions rituals related to ploughing important role in legitimizing the role of king
undertaken by the kings. This suggests the through various rituals. Wealth was measured in
importance given to cultivation by the rulers, terms of cattle and animals. There is a mention
and the shift to agriculture to support the of offerings of 20 camels, 100 gold necklaces, 300
increasing population. The god Balarama is horses and 10,000 cows as dakshina.

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Trade and Exchange heterodox faiths such as Buddhism and Jainism

which emphasized correct human behaviour
Trade and exchange had developed in the
and discipline.
Later Vedic age. The material culture found in
the archaeological sites reveals the movement of Philosophy and Education
commodities and materials. Specialised caravan
The disciplines of philosophy, literature
traders existed. No evidence of coins has been
and science developed in this period. Various
found and therefore barter must have been the
branches of learning such as literature,
medium of exchange. The introduction of coins
grammar, mathematics, ethics and astronomy
took place after about 600 BCE.
developed. Education was limited to males. The
Religious Faith and Belief System development of Vedic texts and the importance
given to pronunciation, grammar and oral
During the Later Vedic period the upper
transmission suggest training in utterances and
Ganga Doab was the centre of the Aryan
memorization, as part of the Vedic system of
culture. This region is described as the land
education. The development of various types
of Kuru-Panchalas. The Vedic gods Agni and
of texts could be considered as developing
Indra lost their importance. Prajapati became
solutions for certain mundane issues and a
the main deity. Rudra, the god of rituals,
quest for knowledge. Araynakas are concerned
identified with Siva, became important. The
with priests who were in the forests.
Satapatha Brahmana lists the names of Rudra
as Pasunampathi, Sarva, Bhava and Bahikas. Upanishads (which means to sit nearby)
Vishnu was conceived as the protector of people. texts with philosophical enquiries, were
There is no reference to Vishnu’s incarnations. composed during this period. They were also
Each varna had its own deities. referred to as Vedanta, since they were attached
as the last part of the Vedic texts.
Rituals
Rituals became
Satyameva Jayate is from Mudaka Upanishad.
important in society. It was
believed that rituals and
sacrifices could solve many They lay stress on knowledge and the
problems. The rituals became realization of the self or atman and Brahman
more complex, required (the Supreme Being), meditation, cycle of
more resources, and took birth and death. They convey the ideas of
longer time. This indirectly reflects the demand karma, and good conduct, self-restraint, mercy
for rituals and the formation of elite groups and generosity as virtues. Despite the ritual
who could spend more resources on rituals dominated aspects of Vedic life, some seers were
and sacrifices. The correct performance of in pursuit of knowledge and virtuous conduct.
rituals was stressed. Stress was laid on paying
dakshina. Numerous rituals were prescribed
Dara Shukoh, the Mughal prince,
for solving all kinds of day to day problems.
translated the Upanishads into
The resort to rituals and sacrifices as a solution Persian in 1657, much before the
for problems led to the view that material colonial scholars developed any
wealth could achieve anything. The ideas in interest in ancient Indian literature.
the Upanishads argue against such a view, and
stress the importance of realising the atman or
Other aspects of Life
inner self. Such degeneration of rituals and the
material-oriented nature of the priests created The Late Vedic culture has evidence of
dissension and led to the development of music and fine arts. Music instruments such

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as lute, flute and drum are referred to in the

texts. With the development of cultivation EXERCISE
and pastoralism, different types of food and
drinks made of grains, milk and ghee and Q.R.Code
I. Choose the
plants were consumed. Evidence of the use of
correct answer
silk and ornaments of metal, gold and copper
is found. Metal mirrors were also used. The 1.
The main collection of
archaeological sites have uncovered beads and vedic hymns are called
ornaments and the fabrication of glass beads (a) Brahmanas (b) Samhita
was also developed in the later part of the Vedic
(c) Aranyakas (d) Upanishads
period.
2. The land of Upper Ganga Doab region was
Characteristics of Later Vedic described as
Society (a) Kuru-panchalas (b) Ganga valley
Later Vedic period is marked by lineages (c) Indus valley (d) Videha
of clans, and small kingdoms developed in
3. Adichanallur is situated in _______ district
many parts of the Ganga valley, leading to the
development of the state after 600 BCE. The idea (a) Coimbatore (b) Tirunelveli
of janapada and rashtra as territorial units had (c) Thothukudi (d) Vellore
developed. The raja wielded much power and
4. Consider the following:
the social divisions began to strike deep roots.
The varna system had developed well. (i) Senani - chief of the army
(ii) Gramani - village head
SUMMARY
(iii) Bali - voluntary contribution
After the decline of the Indus Civilization
(iv) Purohita - governor
numerous cultures developed across north
India. Copper, followed by iron, came to be Which one of the pair is incorrect?
widely used. Iron helped to expand areas of (a) i (b) ii (c) iii (d) iv
cultivation leading to agrarian surplus. As 5. A
ssertion (A) : There is no evidence of child
this facilitated feeding of more number of marriage in Early Vedic period
people there were greater instances of in-
migration and population growth. The Late Reason (R) : Women had been excluded

Harappan cultures suggest that some of the from rituals in the later Vedic period
groups moved into eastern direction, after (a) A and R are correct and R explains A
the decline of the Indus Civilization. (b) A and R are correct but R doesn’t explain A
The Chalcolithic culture, including the
(c) A is correct but R is incorrect
OCP cultures, flourished in different parts
of India. (d) Both A and R are correct
The Aryans migrated to India around 1500
BCE. The Vedic texts form an important II. Write brief answers
source of this period. 1. List out the literature of Vedic Age.
The Rig Veda, the earliest text in Sanskrit,
2. Write about the Zend Avesta.
portrays the society and culture of the early
Vedic period. 3. Highlight the position of women in the Early
Vedic Age.
The Later Vedic period for which Yajur,
Sama and Atharva Vedas are the source, 4. Who were the Rig Vedic Gods?
evolved into a complex and rigid society. 5. What do you know of the Iron Age in India?

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III. Write short answers

REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Briefly describe the Chalcolithic culture of
South India. 1. Irfan Habib and Vijay Kumar Thakur,
2.
List out the geographical areas of Early The Vedic Age and the Coming of Iron, c.
Vedic Age. 1500–700 BC, A People’s History of India,
3. Highlight the social divisions in the Rig Vol. 3 (New Delhi: Aligarh Historians
Vedic period. Society, Tulika Books).
2. R.S. Sharma, India’s Ancient Past.
4.
Analyse the characteristics of a pastoral
Oxford University Press, 2005.
society.
3. Romila Thapar. From Lineage to
5. Distinguish between the early Vedic society
State: Social Formations in Mid-First
and the later Vedic society.
Millennium BC in the Ganga Valley.
4. Romila Thapar. Early India: From the
1. Give an account of Ochre Coloured Pottery Origins to 1300 AD. Penguin, 2015.
Ware Culture in India. 5. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and
2.
Discuss the Megalithic Iron Age Sites Early Medieval India. Pearson, 2008.
discovered in Tamilnadu.
3.
Attempt an essay on the polity and INTERNET RESOURCES
administration of the Vedic age.
1. https://sol.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.
php?id=1608&chapterid=1627&1628
Activity
2. https://holisticthought.com/
1. Prepare a scrap book on the recent excavations the-later-vedic-period-in-india/
and the resultant findings in Tamilnadu. 3. https://www.culturalindia.net/
2. Discussion on several viewpoints on Aryans indian-history/ancient-india/vedic-
and Dravidians. civilization.html
GLOSSARY
ingots Molten bar of iron உல�ோக வார்ப்பிரும்புக் கட்டி
spouted vessel kettle like vessel நீண்ட மூக்குடைய பாத்திரம்
consensus widespread agreement கருத்தொருமித்த
oblation offering to god காணிக்கை; ஆகுதி
surmise guess ஊகம்
proliferated grow rapidly பல்கிப் பெருகி
mundane issue worldly problem அன்றாட வாழ்க்கைப் பிரச்சனை

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UNIT Rise of Territorial Kingdoms

and New Religious Sects
3
Learning Objectives
To acquaint the students with knowledge on

migration of Aryans towards Ganges Plains and the use of iron technology
second urbanization and emergence of Mahajanapadas
socio-economic changes associated with changes in polity
intellectual ferment and new consciousness stirred up by Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikam
heterodox faiths in the Tamil country
Introduction the society leading to rise of new ideas and

faiths. Of the several competing alternate
Aryans began migrating eastwards
beliefs, only Jainism and Buddhism touched the
from about 1000 BCE. As they moved
hearts of the people. In this lesson we focus on
eastwards, they encountered thick forests.
the territorial identities and the new heterodox
Iron played a significant role in the clearing
of the forest. The fertile soil of the Gangetic religious sects that emerged during this period.
valley and the use of iron ploughshares Sources
improved agricultural productivity. Iron
also played a big role in improving craft The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana,
production such as pottery, carpentry and the dharmasastras, Buddhist texts such as the
metal working. This in turn paved the way Tripitakas and Jatakas, Jaina texts and Greek
for urbanization. In the meantime, a spirit of accounts such as that of Arrian constitute literary
scepticism began to pervade questioning every sources for the period. Archaeological excavations
custom and orthodoxy in the belief system in have corroborated the literary evidences.
Impact of Iron Technology: Differing Views

The movement of the Indo-Aryans towards the east was aimed at accessing the iron ore
of south Bihar and gaining a near monopoly over it. The iron ore was responsible for
the political dominance attained by the state of Magadha. -D.D. Kosambi.
Iron axes and iron ploughs led to the expansion of area under cultivation in the Ganges
valley. -R.S. Sharma.
That the use of iron axe and iron plough facilitated clearing of forests and generation
of agricultural surplus is a myth because even as late as 16th and 17th centuries the
Gangetic plain was heavily forested. -Makkhan Lal.
The forests of Ganges region could have been cleared by means of fire. -A. Ghosh and
Niharranjan Ray.
35

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1. Iron objects such as hoes, sickles, knives, Second Urbanisation

hooks, nails, arrowheads, vessels and Agricultural surplus, the growth of crafts
mirrors confirm the widespread use of iron and trade, and the growing population led to
technology. the emergence of towns in the Gangetic plains.
2. Textiles, beads, pottery, ivory objects, This is called the second urbanisation in Indian
ceramics and glassware and artefacts of history after the first urbanisation evident in the
other metals are found. Harappan Civilization. Different types of towns
3. A large number of terracotta artefacts have came into being:
also been found. 1. Political and administrative centres
Some of the urban features revealed by excavation such as Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kaushambi
of the various cities are as follows: and Champa
1. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), 2. Centres of trade and commerce such as
considered luxury-ware and “urban Ujjain and Taxila
hallmark” have been excavated. 3. Holy centres such as Vaishali.
2. The towns were Rajagriha, Kaushambi
enclosed by a moat and sometimes they
were fortified.
3. Houses were built with mud bricks and in
some cases with burnt bricks.
4. Facilities such as drains, ring wells and
soak-pits are found, confirming the second
urbanisation in the Gangetic plains.
3.1 Developments in the

Gangetic Plain Vaishali
Agriculture improved during this phase 3.2 Janapadas to

of development in the middle Gangetic Mahajanapadas
plains. Wet rice cultivation began to yield
more produce of rice than other crops, thus The Later Vedic period (1000–600 BCE)
creating the necessary agrarian surplus. witnessed the transition from a tribal polity
Protected irrigation alone was not responsible based on lineage to a territorial state. The janas
who migrated eastwards began to settle down in
for the surplus production of rice. Iron
various regions. The loyalty of the people shifted
technology also played a crucial role. While
from jana (tribe or clan) to janapada (territory).
it is debated whether iron axe aided clearing
Janapada literally meant ‘the place where the
of the forests or whether iron ploughshare
tribe sets its foot upon.’ The janapadas fought
increased agricultural yield, there can be no
with one another for resources and political
two opinions that it played a critical role in
dominance. Some janapadas extended their
improving the production of artefacts. The
territories and brought various janas within
impact of iron technology is better understood
their jurisdiction. Such janapadas grew into
if one considers “the technical changes which
mahajanapadas.
the introduction of iron implements would
have brought about in various craft activities”. Territory, people, government and
Leisure time provided by agricultural surplus sovereignty are important elements of a state.
and technology led to growth of crafts, which All these elements were found in some of
in turn aided vibrant trade. the mahajanapadas. The mahajanapadas
36 Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects

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represented the emergence of territorial Monarchies or Kingdoms

kingdoms that ruled over people (jana). The mahajanapadas on the Gangetic plains
The king headed the government aided by a were all monarchies. Vedic orthodoxy was an
centralised administration. The king was also established practice in these kingdoms. The
the sovereign ruler. The king levied taxes out priestly class enjoyed a preeminent status in
of agricultural surplus and redistributed it the mahajanapadas unlike in the gana-sanghas.
and ensured maintenance of law and order in The kingdoms were governed by kings and the
a hierarchical society by force and coercion. administration was centralised. The brahman
These features marked the formation of state in priests provided legitimacy to the king through
the Gangetic plains. various rituals. The kingship was hereditary and
the succession was in most cases based on the
Sixteen Mahajanapadas
law of primogeniture. The king was assisted by
According to Puranic, Buddhist and Jaina councils called parishad and sabha. The councils
traditions, there were sixteen mahajanapadas. were advisory in nature. The king appropriated
the agricultural surplus through land revenue
1. Gandhara 9. Kuru apart from a few other taxes. Bali was a tax
2. Kamboja 10. Panchala imposed based on the area of cultivable land.
3. Asmaka (Assaka) 11. Matsya Bhaga was obtained as a share of the produce.
4. Vatsa 12. Vajji (Vrijji) Kara and Shulka were some of the other taxes
5. Avanti 13. Anga collected during this period. Thus the king
6. Shurasena 14. Kasi raised revenue through taxes to maintain an
7. Chedi 15. Kosala elaborate administrative structure and an army.
8. Malla 16. Magadha
The richer landowners were called
The mahajanapadas are classified as gana- grihapatis. These landowners employed
sanghas and chiefdoms based on the nature of labourers called dasas or karmakaras. The
their polity. smaller landowners were known as kassakas
or krishakas. The society was stratified on the
Gana-Sanghas basis of varna. It emerged as a marker of status.
The proto-states of the Gangetic region Cultivators and artisans were identified as the
were known as janapadas and comprised shudras. A new social category that emerged
chiefdoms, republics and small kingdoms. during this period was placed below the
Sixteen mahajanapadas find mention in the shudras in the social hierarchy and considered
early texts. There were also gana-sanghas untouchables. They were forced to live on the
or oligarchies, which were centred on clans. fringes of the settlements and subsisted on
The Vrijjis were one of the best known of the hunting and gathering their food. They were
marginalised and given only menial jobs as
gana-sanghas, and Vaishali was their capital
urbanisation was on the rise. They had their
in the Mithila region. These kingdoms did
own language, which was different from that
not come under the single decision-making
spoken by the Indo-Aryans.
authority of a king but decisions were taken
on a collective basis by the heads of the
3.3 Emergence of
different clans together. There were also
smaller kingdoms such as Kosala and Kasi. Heterodox Thinkers
It is interesting to note that the names of the In the sixth and fifth centuries before
clans, such as Ikshvaku and Vrishni, as well the Common Era, north India underwent
as these early kingdoms, are all mentioned in a remarkable intellectual awakening that
the two epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. profoundly impacted India and influenced
Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects 37

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its culture in subsequent millennia as well. 5. The grievance of Kshatriyas was that they
The impact also swept across South Asia. This were denied a staged life of ashramas, a
awakening was the outcome of questioning privilege permitted only to Brahmins in
the existing philosophy by a host of heterodox the Vedic texts.
thinkers. Gosala, Gautama Buddha, Mahavira,
Ajita Kesakambalin and other thinkers “When attempts are made to smother
renounced the world and wandered across the the intellectual curiosity of people, the
Gangetic plains, contemplating and reflecting on mind of man rebels against it, and the
the social and cultural scenario of their times. It inevitable reaction shows itself in an
impatience of all formal authority and a wild
was not uncommon to see ascetics crisscrossing
outbreak of the emotional life long repressed
the Gangetic plains, propounding new ideas.
by the discipline of the ceremonial religion”.
The teachings of these ascetics addressed the - Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, the philosopher,
needs of a rapidly changing society, which saw Former President of India.
the emergence of new polity, the coming into
being of urban centres, development of crafts, Heterodox Sects
and an increase in long-distance trade. These
The ascetic wanderers and teachers
thinkers questioned the Vedic ideas of soul,
attracted groups of followers and established
mind and body, thereby paving the way for the
rise of new religious sects. Even though all of various sects. Their philosophies encompassed
them questioned the Vedic religion, there was antinomian (belief that divine grace takes away
rivalry among them. Eventually Buddhism and the necessity of obeying moral law), materialist
Jainism emerged as popular faiths. and fatalist elements. They were heterodox sects
that rivalled the orthodox Vedic religion and
Causes of Intellectual Awakening many of them came into existence during this
Sixth century BCE was a period of intense time. A Buddhist text, Samannaphala Sutta, while
intellectual ferment. There are several reasons making a reference to Ajatashatru of Magadha
for the emergence of this ferment. meeting Gautama Buddha, mentions that before
1. State formation and the rigidity of the his meeting, the former had a philosophical
Vedic religion constrained the liberty discourse with the leaders of the various sects
of thought and action. A revolt against such as Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala,
religious practice of following dogmas Ajita Kesakambalin, Pakudha Kachchayana,
found its articulation in heterodox sects. Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Nigantha Nataputta
2. The emergence of territorial identities (Mahavira). They are described as “homeless
accelerated the process of socio-political wanderers” of longstanding (chira-pabbajito),
and economic changes. The elite class, founders of sects (tithakaro) and leaders of
disillusioned with the system in place, their orders (ganachariyo). These sects were the
began to move in protest towards the key rivals of Buddhism. Their doctrines were
heterodox religions blossoming in shown unsatisfactory while that of Buddha was
Magadha or middle Ganges plains. acceptable to Ajatashatru.
3. As the Vedic religion had not yet
permeated into the society, people did
3.4 Ajivikas
not find it difficult to follow the newly The Ajivikas are believed to have evolved
emerging religious sects. from one of the many ascetic groups of the times.
4. With urbanisation and expansion of trade, According to Buddhist records, Nanda Vaccha
new classes of merchants and bankers was considered the founder of the Ajivika sect.
such as sethis sought higher social status He was succeeded by Kisa Samkicca, followed
appropriate to their economic status. by Makkhali Gosala, who was the third

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and the greatest of the Ajivikas. Gosala met water, wind and sense. After death, these elements
Mahavira for the first time in Nalanda and their return to the earth. There is no life after death. He
friendship lasted for six years. They separated said, “Generosity is taught by idiots. The words
due to doctrinal differences. Gosala then went of those who speak of existence after death are
to Sravasti, where he was patronised by a rich false, empty chatter. With the breakup of the body,
potter woman called Halahala. He believed in the wise and the foolish alike are annihilated,
the doctrine of reanimation, and criticised and destroyed. They do not exist after death.”
ridiculed the severe austerities of the Vedic
ascetics. Being rival sects, both the Buddhist Ajivikas in Tamil Land
and Jaina accounts portray Gosala as a person of Manimekalai, Nilakesi and
vicious character. Sravasti was the headquarters Sivagnanasiddhiyar have references to
of the Ajivika sect. The Ajivikas were naked Ajivika doctrine. Nilakesi’s quest for truth
ascetics. The basic principle of the Ajivikas takes her to Buddha and Puranan. Puranan
was niyati or fate: they believed that nothing in was the leader of the Ajivika sect. The Cholas
this world could be changed as everything was are known to have levied a tax on the Ajivikas.
predetermined. Everyone has to pass through a
series of transmigrations to put an end to pain. Lokayata and Carvaka
According to Ajivikas, there were six inevitable The term “lokayata” signifies materialist
factors in life, viz. gain and loss, joy and sorrow, thought. Indian materialism has also been
and life and death. Two other preachers, Purana named Carvaka after one of the two founders
Kassapa and Pakudha Kacchayana, joined the of the school. Carvaka and Ajita Kesakambalin
Ajivikas after the death of Gosala and infused are said to have established Indian materialism
new life to it. as a formal philosophical system. Carvakas
Purana Kassapa held the view that actions developed the concept of scepticism and believed
did not have any merit or demerit. No evil is in the pursuit of knowledge through experience.
caused by torture, hurting and killing others. They questioned the authority of Vedas.
Similarly, no merit is acquired by generosity,
Rivalry among Heterodox Sects
self-control and truthful speech. Humans
cannot change anything by action as everything There was intense rivalry among the
is predetermined. According to him, non-action various heterodox sects. This is evident from
is the way out of life. Pakudha Kacchayana the various religious accounts of the period.
believed that the world was made of seven Buddhist and Jaina texts not only mention
substances that were “unmade, irreducible, other heterodox sects but also belittle them. For
uncreated, barren, stable as a mountain peak, example, Bhagavatisutra, a Jaina text, provides a
standing firm like a pillar – that do not alter, do poor account of Makkhali Gosala.
not change, do not interfere with one another, Buddhagosa also ridicules Gosala in
are incapable of causing one another pleasure, his commentaries. A Buddhist Jataka story
pain or both pleasure and pain”. “compares the heretics with the fire-flies, whose
The Ajivikas had rich lay disciples such as faint light faded before the rising glory of the
potters and bankers. The Ajivika sect spread sun, i.e., the Buddha”.
across the length and breadth of the country,
though their influence was much less compared 3.5 Jainism
to that of Buddhism and Jainism. Among the various sects, the sect led by
Ajita Kesakambalin (Ajita of the Hair Vardhamana Mahavira (referred to as Nigantha
Blanket) was a materialist. He believed that every Nataputta by Buddhist texts) bloomed into a
human was made of four primary elements: fire, religion called Jainism. It was earlier known as

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Nirgranthas (free from bonds). Mahavira was unto death according to Jaina ideals. His death or
known as Jina (conqueror) of the soul and hence final liberation was a joyous event for the Jains.
his sect came to be known as Jainism. According Mahavira had a huge following. In the early
to Jain tradition, Mahavira was not the founder stages, his followers were drawn from different
of Jainism. According to Jaina tradition, Risabha sections of the society. However, in course of
was the founder of the sect. He is considered the time, Jainism was confined to the trading and
first Tirthankara. Yajur Veda mentions three of money-lending community. Jainism’s insistence
the Tirthankaras, viz., Risabha, Ajitanatha and on non-violence closed other occupations,
Aristanemi. Mahavira organised his members including agriculture, as it prescribed refraining
into monastic and lay followers. from intended or unintended killing.
Life of Mahavira About 500 years after Mahavira’s death, in
Vardhamana was born around 540 BCE about 79 or 82 CE, a schism occurred in Jainism.
in Kundagrama, a suburb of Vaishali. He Magadha was affected by severe famine and
was a member of the ruling family of a gana- some of the Jaina monks under Bhadrabahu
sangha and his father Siddhartha was the chief went south to maintain their strict discipline.
of the Jnatrika clan. His mother Trishala was a They remained without garments and were
Lichchavi princess and sister of its chief Chetaka. known as Digambaras (space-clad or naked).
Mahavira was closely connected to rulers of Others stayed back under the leadership of
Magadha, Anga and Videha through his mother. Sthulabhadra and adopted a white garment and
From his childhood, he was attracted to spiritual were known as Svetambaras (white-clad). The
life. After the death of his parents, he left his schism weakened Jainism in Magadha, but it
home at the age of 30 and wandered about found ardent followers in Gujarat, Rajasthan,
as a mendicant for 12 years in search of true Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka.
knowledge. He practiced severe austerities and On the death of
discarded his garments. During the course of his Bhadrabahu, Shulabhadra
wanderings, he met Gosala and spent six years held a Great Council at
with him before they parted due to differences. Pataliputra, which compiled
In the 13th year of his wandering, at the age of 42, the Jaina canon. It consisted
Vardhamana attained enlightenment or Nirvana. of 12 angas (limbs). Another
He then became a Tirthankara and came to be council was held in Valabhi, Gujarat, in the 5th
called a Jina or Mahavira (the Great Conqueror). century CE. It added 12 upangas (minor sections).
He preached for 30 years and was patronised by The Jaina monks not only wrote religious
the rich and the elite. He died about 468 BCE at treatises but also promoted secular literature.
the age of 72 in Pavapuri near Rajgriha. He fasted Acharrangasutra, Sutrakritanga, and Kalpasutra
are the earliest Jaina texts. Most of the early Jaina
texts were written in Ardha-Magadhi, the language
of the common people.
Tenets of Jainism
The central tenet of
Jainism is non-violence.
No other religion lays as
much emphasis on non-
violence as does Jainism.
It also criticises human
Jaina Painting portraying Mahavira’s birth Mahavira

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emotions. Jainism denies the existence of God. Jains could not practice agriculture or other crafts
In its early stages, deity was not worshipped in that involve killing or injury to living organisms.
Jainism. It emphasises that salvation cannot be Hence they took to trading and money-lending
attained by worshipping god or by sacrifices. It and excelled in it. As a result, they were closely
stipulates that one can escape misery only by associated with urbanisation.
performing austerities.
Jainism is an egalitarian religion. It does
Mahavira rejected Vedic authority. Hence, not sanction any inequality based on birth. It is
Jainism is an unorthodox religion. According one’s deeds that determine one’s status in society
to Jainism, the world has no beginning or end. and not birth. Jainism believes that “by one’s
It goes through a series of progress and decline action one becomes a Brahmin, a Kshatriya, or
according to an eternal law. Jainism advocated a Vaishya, or a Sudra.” Pride based on birth is
dualism: the world is made of soul (jiva) and considered a sin. Women were admitted into
matter (ajiva), which are eternal. The coming the monastic order. However, as a woman one
together of jiva and ajiva creates karma (action), cannot attain salvation. By accumulating merit
which leads to an endless cycle of birth and by good deeds, a woman could be reborn as a
rebirth. To free oneself from karma, one has to man and then strive to attain salvation.
practice severe austerities and self-mortification.
Therefore, in Jainism, only monks could achieve Jainism in Tamilnadu
liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Jainism spread to Tamil Nadu from about
Triratnas the third century CE. Jaina rock shelters are
found in large numbers around Madurai
Jain discipline requires adherence to certain and other places. The mention of death of
rigorous rules. The Jains are required to follow Kopperuncholan by fasting in Purananuru
three principles called Triratnas or Three Gems. is considered by some to be similar to Jaina
(1) Right faith (samyag-darshana) practice of sallekhana. Jaina influence is strong
(2) Right knowledge (samyag-jnana) in early Tamil literature. Naladiyar, Palamoli,
(3) Right conduct (samyag-mahavrata)
Five Great Vows
The monks have to undertake the five great
vows (pancha-mahavrata):
(1) Not to kill or injure (ahimsa)
(2) Not to steal (asteya)
(3) Not to lie (satya)
(4) Celibacy (brahmacharya)
(5) Not to possess property (aparigraha)
Non-Violence
The five vows are common to both the monks
and lay followers. The monks were to observe the
vows more rigorously than the lay followers. As
Jainism placed great emphasis on non-violence,
strict observers of the faith wear a muslin cloth
around their mouth and nose so that they would
not inhale small insects even by mistake. To avoid
trampling on ants and other insects, Jain monks
used feathers to sweep the path before walking. Jaina Kanchi, Tiruparuthikunram

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Jivaka Chinthamani, Yapperunkalam Karikai, prophesied that the child would either become ‘a
Neelakesi are some of the prominent Jaina Universal Emperor or a Universal Teacher’. While
works in Tamil. As early as c. 470 CE a Jaina Mahamaya was going to her parents’ home,
Dravida Sangha was established in Madurai by Siddhartha was born in a park in Lumbini near
Vajranandi, a disciple of Boojya Padha. Jainism Kapilavastu. Siddhartha grew in luxury as a royal
has survived in Tamil Nadu and there are prince. He married Yashodhara and had a son
several Jaina temples. One of the Jaina temples named Rahula. When he was riding on his chariot
is at Tiruparuthikunram near Kanchipuram with his charioteer Channa one day outside the
with beautiful ceiling paintings. This part of palace, he saw an old man, a sick man, a corpse
Kanchipuram was known as Jaina Kanchi. and finally a religious mendicant. Overcome by
remorse at the misery of people, he left his palace
Decline of Jainism in India
in the dead of night in search of eternal truth. He
1. Absence of royal patronage rode in his chariot pulled by his favourite horse
2. Split amongst Jains as Digambaras and Kanthaka and driven by his charioteer Channa far
Swetambaras away from the city. He cut his hair and sent it along
3. Lack of missionary zeal with his discarded garments and jewellery to his
4. Factionalism father. This is known as Mahabhiraskramana or
5. The severity of practices and the Great Going Forth.
6. Spread of Buddhism as a rival faith
led to the decline of Jainism S i d d h a r t h a
wandered about and
3.6 Buddhism joined Alara Kalama as a
Among the heterodox disciple for a brief period.
sects, Buddhism was the He also sought guidance
most popular. It went on to from a hermit Uddaka
emerge as a powerful religion Ramaputta. Siddartha
patronised by various rulers. was not satisfied with
It was so influential that its their path and practised
ideas were adopted by Asoka severe austerities, which Mahabodhi temple,
left him nearly dead. Gaya
as a state policy. Though it virtually disappeared
from India for nearly a millennium, it spread far One day, he ate rice boiled in milk given by a
and wide and is widely followed even today in milkmaid named Sujata and began meditation
the South-east and East Asian countries. In the under a pipal tree in Bodhgaya. After 49 days of
mid-twentieth century it was revived in India meditation, he attained enlightenment, at the age
by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. of 35. Thereafter, he came to be called Buddha
or the Enlightened. He then delivered his first
Life of Buddha sermon in a deer park in Sarnath near Varanasi.
Gautama Buddha This event is described as Dharmachakra-
was born as Siddhartha in parivartana or ‘wheel of the great law’. He spoke
the Sakya clan to its king about the Four Noble Truths and the Middle
Suddhodhana and his Path. He established Sangha and spread his ideas
chief queen Mahamaya. far and wide. Buddha and his followers travelled
His mother Mahamaya for eight months of the year and stayed at a
dreamt of a white elephant place for four months of the rainy season. At the
with six tusks entering her age of 80, he passed away in Kusinagara. This is
womb when she was known as Parinirvana. The prominent disciples
pregnant. Learned men Gautama Buddha of Buddha were Sariputta, Maha-moggallana,

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Mahakaccayana and Ananda. Buddha had a It led to the emergence of Mahayana and
huge following among both the royalty and lay Hinayana (the Great and Lesser Vehicles) in
persons. Buddhism. Mahayana or the Great Vehicle
became popular and influential in India.
Buddhist Councils
Nalanda University was an important centre of
After the death of Buddha, the tenets and Buddhist learning and was patronised by the
other aspects of Buddhism were decided upon Palas. Mahayana spread to China and Japan.
in the councils of Buddhist monks. Over a Hinayana or the Lesser Vehicle became popular
period of time, four Buddhist councils were in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and other
held. The First Buddhist Council was held South-east Asian countries. By the end of the
at Rajagriha after Buddha’s death, under the Gupta period, Vajrayana or the Vehicle of the
patronage of Ajata Satru. It was headed by Thunderbolt emerged. It was popular in Bengal
Upali. In this council, Upali recited the Vinaya and Bihar. It was influenced by primitive local
Pitaka. Ananda recited Sutta Pitaka. The Second cults and spread to Tibet in the 11th century
Buddhist Council met at Vaishali a century after CE. The Vikramasila University in Bihar was
Buddha’s death. The Buddhist Order split into an important centre of Vajrayana Buddhism.
two later. One was called the Sthaviravadins or Buddhism in India began to decline with the
‘Believers in the Teachings of the Elders’ and the onset of the Bhakti movement. Slowly Buddhism
other known as Mahasanghikas or ‘Members came to be influenced by Hindu practices. Soon,
of the Great Community’. The Third Buddhist Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism,
Council was held at Pataliputra. It was convened and Buddha came to be considered as an avatar
by Asoka. The Sthaviravadins established of Vishnu in some traditions.
themselves strongly and expelled the heretics.
The last section called “Kathavatthu” was added Buddhist Literature
to Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Fourth Buddhist The Buddhist texts were compiled in Pali.
Council was held at Kashmir during the reign The Pali canons are called as the Tripitakas
of Kanishka. Sarvastivadins were an important (Three Baskets). They are Vinaya Pitaka,
sect of Buddhism. Its doctrines were compiled Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.Vinaya
in Mahavibhasa. Pitaka deals with monastic rules and moral
disciplines. Sutta Pitaka dwells upon discourses
and teachings of Buddha. Abhidhamma
Pitaka expounds Buddhist philosophy. The
Sutta Pitaka, which contains the teachings of
Buddha, is divided into five groups or Nikayas.
he Starving Tigress:
T
A Jataka Tale
Born in a family renowned for purity of
conduct and great spiritual devotion, the
Bodhisattva became a great scholar and
teacher. With no desire for wealth, he went
Buddhist Council to a forest and led a life of an ascetic. It was in
Buddhist Sects this forest he encountered a starving tigress,
In course of time, Mahasanghikas, which after giving birth to cubs was about to
Sthaviravadins and Sarvastivadins emerged as eat her own new born cubs for survival. With
major sects of Buddhism. New ideas emerged no food in sight, the Bodhisattva offered his
among the Mahasanghikas and Sarvastivadins. body as food to the tigress out of compassion.

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They contain popular works such as Theragatha Buddhism in Tamilnadu

and Therigatha (Hymns of the Elder Monks Buddhism spread to Tamizhagam from
and Nuns) and Jataka tales (Buddha’s deeds in about third century BCE. Asokan inscriptions
previous births as Bodhisattva). found in the Deccan region vouch for the
Other important Buddhist works include spread of Buddhism to southern parts of India.
Milinda Panha, a discussion between Greco- Archaeological evidences also reveal the existence
Bactrian king Menander and Buddhist monk of a Buddhist complex of the fourth century
Nagasena, and Ceylonese chronicles Dipavamsa CE in Kaveripattinam. Quoting Pattinapalai,
(Island Chronicles), Mahavamsa (Great Noboru Karashima refers to merchants in
Chronicle) and Culavamsa (Lesser Chronicle). Kaveripoompattinam, who were vegetarians,
opposed to animal sacrifice. From this one could
Four Noble Truths of Buddha
presume the influence of Buddhism in Tamil
The four noble truths prescribed by Buddha country. Manimekalai by Sattanar one of the
are as follows: twin epics of the post-Sangam age is a Buddhist
1.
The Noble Truth of Suffering: Birth, literature. Similarly the now extinct Kundalakesi
age, death, unpleasantness, separation, is a Buddhist epic. Kanchipuram in the early
unfulfilled wish. Christian era was a flourishing Buddhist centre.
Dinnaga and Dharmapala, who headed the
2.
The Noble Truth of the Origin of
famous Nalanda University were renowned
Suffering: thirst for pleasure, power,
Buddhist scholars from Kanchipuram. Hiuen
long life, etc. are the causes for sorrow.
Tsang who visited Tamil country mentions in his
3. The Noble Truth of the Cessation of travel accounts about several Buddhist Stupas
Suffering (Nirvana): complete stopping built by Asoka in Kanchipuram.
or release from sorrow.
A Buddhist temple was built in
4. The Noble Truth of the Path Leading to
Nagapattinam at the request of a Chinese
Cessation of Suffering: the Noble Eight
ruler during the reign of Pallava king
fold Path or the Middle Path.
Narasimhavarman II (CE 695-722). Chinese
Buddha’s Middle or Eightfold monk Wu-hing visited the monastery. In CE
Path (Astangika Marga) 1006, during the reign of Rajaraja I, Srivijaya
King Mara-wijayottungga-varman built a
(1) Right Views; (2) Right Resolve; (3) Right
Buddhist temple in Nagapattinam. It is called
Speech; (4) Right Conduct; (5) Right Livelihood;
the Soolamani-varma-vihara.
(6) Right Effort; (7) Right Recollection;
(8) Right Meditation. Decline of Buddhism in India
Hence Buddha did not mention or talk Buddhism faced divisions from time to
about God. He neither accepted nor denied the time. Division into various splinter groups like
existence of God. Buddhism advocated equality. ‘Hinayana’, ‘Mahayana’, ‘Vajrayana’, ‘Tantrayana’ and
It preached non-violence or ahimsa and love ‘Sahajayana’ led Buddhism to lose its originality. Pali
towards all. However, it was a moderate religion and Prakrit were the spoken languages of people
compared to Jainism’s insistence on ahimsa. It of north India and it was through these languages
promoted trade and capitalism as it was against the message of Buddhism was spread. But ever
waste and advocated frugality. Jobs involving since the times of Fourth Buddhist Council held
any form of killing were forbidden. Trade in during the reign of Kanishka, Sanskrit had come
weapons, living beings, meat, liquor and poison to be adopted. Buddhism thereupon became
were not permitted. unintelligible to common people.

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Buddhism also lost its royal patronage after

Harshavardhana. In contrast, the Vedic religion EXERCISE
got royal patronage first from Pushyamitra
Sunga and later from imperial Guptas. The Q.R.Code
I. Choose the
role of the exponents of Bhakti movement like correct answer
Ramanuja, Ramananda also helped to restore
1. Buddha delivered his first
the glory of Vedic religion.
sermon in _______
(a) Sanchi (b) Benaras
(c) Saranath (d) Lumbini
2. _ ______ is the Buddhist text that makes a
reference to Ajatashatru’s meeting of Buddha
(a) Jivakasinthamani
(b) Acharrangasutra
Toramana Coins (c) Kalpasutra
The invasion of Huns gave a deathblow (d) Samannapha Sutta
to Buddhism. Toramana and Mihirakula, the 3. B hagavatisutra is a _______ text
two Hun chiefs had a deep-seated hatred for
(a) Buddhist (b) Jaina (c) Ajivika (d) Vedic
the Buddhists and they almost liquidated the
Buddhists living in the north-west India. To 4. _ ______ played an important role in
make matters worse, the Rajput rulers who improving the method of cultivation.
could not reconcile to the Buddhist concept of (a) Iron (b) Bronze (c) Copper (d) Brass
non-violence, and as ardent advocates of Vedic 5. Among the 16 mahajanapadas, _______
religion started persecuting the Buddhists. emerged as the most powerful in northern
Finally the invading Arabs and Turks forced India.
the Buddhist monks to flee from India and (a) Kosala (b) Avanti (c) Magadha (d) Kuru
seek asylum in Nepal, Tibet and Ceylon. In
consequence Buddhism faded away in India. II. Write brief answers
1. Write the tripitakas that serve as the source
SUMMARY for our study.
Between 1000-700 BCE iron played a 2. What do you know about Carvaka Philosophy?
significant role in extending the area of
3. Explain the core of Mahavir’s teachings.
cultivation.
Agricultural surplus, growth of crafts, trade and 4. Distinguish the difference between janapadas
the growing population led to the emergence and mahajanapadas.
of towns and exchange centres in the Gangetic 5. Write the importance of Nagapattinam in the
plains. Buddhist history of Tamilnadu.
The Mahajanapadas are classified as gana-
sangas and chiefdoms based on the nature of III. Write short answers
their polity. 1. Write a note on the use of iron in clearing the
According to Ajivikas, gain and loss, joy forest critically.
and sorrow and life and death were the six 2. Analyse the factors responsible for the rise of
inevitable factors of life. towns and cities in the Ganges Plains.
Mahavira’s three principles and Buddha’s eight
fold path created a new intellectual awakening 3. Mention some of the rising towns and cities
in India during the sixth century BCE. in the aftermath of second urbanization.
Influence of Jainism and Buddhism spread to 4. Identify the heterodox thinkers of fifth and
Tamilnadu from about the third century BCE. sixth century BCE.

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5. Point out the influence of Jainism in 3. B.M. Barua, The Ajiviakas , University of
Tamilnadu. Calcutta, 1920.
IV. Answer the following in detail 4. Hajime Nakamura, Indian Buddhism.
1. Discuss the causes of intellectual awakening 5. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. 1,
in the sixth century BCE. George, Allen & Unwin, 1973.
2. Give an account of Ajivikam and its spread 6. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early
in India. Medieval South India, Pearson Longman,
3. Explain the schism in Jainism pointing out its 2009.
implications. 7. Noboru Karashima, A Concise History of
4. List out the eightfold path of Buddha. South India, OUP, 2014.
5. Account for the decline of Buddhism in India. 8. J.M. Somasundaram Pilllai, A History of Tamil
Activity Literature, Annamalainagar, 1968.
1. Locating the 16 mahajanapadas on the outline 9. Himanshu Prabha Ray, “Writings on the
map of India. Maritime History of Ancient India” in
2. Preparing a chart with information on Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, ed., Approaches to
Buddhist monuments in India. History: Essays in Indian Historiography, ICHR
in association with Primus Books, 2011.
REFERENCE BOOKS
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. A.L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India, 3rd
edition, Sidgwick & Jackson, 1977. 1. http://www.philtar.ac.uk
2. Abraham Eraly, Gem in the Lotus: The Seeding 2. http://www.columbia.edu
of Indian Civilization, Penguin, 2000. 3. http://www.himalayanart.org
GLOSSARY
scepticism doubt அவநம்பிக்ைக
pervade spread பரவு
moat a deep wide trench filled with water அகழி
lineage ancestry பரம்பைர
An exclusive right of inheritance by மூத்த மகனுக்கு மட்டுேம வாரிசுரிைம
primogeniture
the first son என்ற ேகாட்பாடு
coercion compulsion கட்டாயப்படுத்துதல்
preeminent famous புகழ்வாய்ந்த
stratified having a class structure வர்க்க அடிப்பைடயில் அைமக்கப்பட்ட
contemplating meditating/pondering சிந்தைன ெசய்தல்
espousing supporting ஆதரித்தல்
belittle degrade சிறுைமப்படுத்துதல்
contemptible hated ெவறுக்கத்தக்க
a person who differs in opinion from
heretics ைவதீகத்திற்கு எதிரான
established religion/dogma
refrain avoid தவிர்
schism division பிளவு
frugality economical சிக்கனமான
vouch confirm உறுதிப்படுத்து
smother suppress நசுக்கு அல்லது அடக்கு
ICT CORNER
Rise of Territorial Kingdoms and New Religious Sects
Browse in the link

Web link: http://geacron.com/home-en/

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UNIT Emergence of State

and Empire
4
Learning Objectives
To enable the students to acquire knowledge on
the emergence of the first two important empires of India
the significance of the invasions of Persians and Greeks
the socio-political changes from 6th century to 3rd century BCE.
the Pre-Mauryan administration and socio-economic conditions
the Dharmic state of Ashoka through his edicts
Introduction waterways for trade and travel. Bimbisara, who

was a contemporary of Buddha, started the
From the sixth century to the third
process of empire building in Magadha. It was
century BCE, North India passed through
strengthened by his son Ajatashatru and then
major political and social changes. Buddhism by the Nandas. The empire reached its glory
and Jainism emerged as prominent religions and peaked with the advent of the Mauryan
having a large number of followers. These Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya. The
two religious systems were antithetical to the first three Mauryan emperors, Chandragupta,
mainstream Vedic religion. As a consequence Bindusara and Ashoka, were the best known.
of new beliefs and ideas propounded by Jainism After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire went into
and Buddhism, the social order largely centred decline.
on Vedic rituals underwent a significant change,
Sources
as people of many religious faiths were part of
the emerging society. On the political front, The names of Chandragupta and his two
minor states and federations of clans were successors in the Mauryan period are well
merged through conquests to create an empire known now. But reconstructing their lives and
during this period, resulting in a large state, careers was a laborious and difficult process
ruled by a chakravartin or ekarat (emperor or for the earlier historians. There are hardly
one supreme king). The rise of a centralised any comprehensive contemporary accounts
empire in the Gangetic plains of present-day or literary works which refer to the Mauryan
Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh changed the emperors though they are mentioned in various
social, economic and administrative fabric of Buddhist and Jain texts as well as in some Hindu
the region. works like the brahmanas. The Mahavamsa,
the comprehensive historical chronicle in Pali
The flat plains and the availability of from Sri Lanka, is an important additional
plentiful water from the perennial rivers, such source. The scattered information from these
as the Ganga and its many tributaries, were sources has been corroborated by accounts of
among the favourable ecological conditions Greek historians who left their accounts about
which promoted the rise of a large state in this India following Alexander’s campaign in north-
particular region. Rivers also acted as major western part of the country.
48

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Archaeology and epigraphy are the Chandragupta. This is of importance for two
tools that provide rich information for the reasons: (i) it indicates the extent of the Mauryan
historian to understand earlier periods of Empire, which had expanded as far west as Gujarat
history. Archaeology is particularly important and (ii) it shows that more than four centuries
because excavations reveal the nature of urban after his death, the name of Chandragupta was
morphology, that is, layout of the city and still well known and remembered in many parts
construction of buildings. They also provide of the country. A second source is a literary work.
concrete information about the material culture The play Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta was
of people in the past, such as the metals that written during the Gupta period, sometime after
were known, materials and tools they used, and the 4th century CE. It narrates Chandragupta’s
the technology they employed. accession to the throne of the Magadha Empire
The archaeological finds in the Gangetic and the exploits of his chief advisor Chanakya
regions give us solid proof about the nature of the or Kautilya by listing the strategies he used to
urban centres established in the region in course counter an invasion against Chandragupta. This
of time. Epigraphical evidence is scanty for the play is often cited as a corroborative source since
period. The most widely known are the edicts of it supports the information gathered from other
Ashoka, which have been discovered in many contemporary sources about Chandragupta. It
parts of the country. In fact, the reconstruction is important to note from both these sources
of the Mauryan period to a great extent became that the fame of Chandragupta had survived
possible only after the Brahmi script of the long after he was gone and became imbibed in
inscriptions at Sanchi was deciphered by James popular lore and memory. They thus attest to
Prinsep in 1837. Information about other the significance of oral traditions, which are now
edicts in other parts of the country also became accepted as an additional valid source of history.
available at that time. It must be remembered
that these were the oldest historical artefacts
4.1 Rise of Magadha under
found in India in the nineteenth century, until the Haryanka Dynasty
archaeological excavations unearthed the Indus Among the 16
valley towns of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro mahajanapadas, Kasi
in the twentieth century. All the edicts began was initially powerful.
with a reference to a great king, “Thus spoke However, Kosala became
devanampiya (beloved of the gods) piyadassi (of dominant later. A
pleasing looks)”, and the geographical spread of power struggle broke
the edicts make it clear that this was a king who out between Magadha,
had ruled over a vast empire. But who was this Kosala, Vrijji and Avanti.
king? Puranic and Buddhist texts referred to a Eventually Magadha
chakravartin named Ashoka. As more edicts emerged as the dominant Bimbisara
were deciphered, the decisive identification that mahajanapada and
devananampiya piyadassi was Ashoka was made established the first Indian empire. The first
in 1915. One more edict when deciphered, which known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara of the
referred to him as devanampiya Ashoka, made Haryanka dynasty. He extended the territory
reconstruction of Mauryan history possible. of Magadhan Empire by matrimonial alliances
Let us now turn to two later sources. The and conquests. By marrying off his sister to
first is the rock inscription of Junagadh, near Prasenajit, ruler of Kosala, he received Kasi
Girnar in Gujarat. This was carved during the as dowry. He also married the princesses of
reign of Rudradaman, the local ruler and dates Lichchhavis and Madra. He maintained friendly
back to 130–150 CE. It refers to Pushyagupta, relations with Avanti but annexed Anga by
the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Emperor military might. Thus, Magadha became a
Emergence of State and Empire 49

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powerful and prominent power. During his Nandas. During the process of empire building,
reign, Bimbisara patronised various religious Nandas exterminated many kshatriya clans and
sects and their leaders. He had an encounter subjugated kshatriya-ruled kingdoms, which had
with Buddha as well. still retained a degree of autonomous authority,
thus creating a centralised state. An inscription
His son Ajatashatru ascended the
known as the Hathigumpha (elephant cave)
throne by killing his father. King Prasenajit
from Udayagiri near Bhubaneshwar, Odisha,
immediately took back Kasi, which he had
records the aqueduct built by King Nanda three
handed out as dowry to Bimbisara. This led to
hundred years earlier. This is also indicative of
a military confrontation between Magadha and
the geographical extent of the Nanda Empire.
Kosala. The struggle lasted until Prasenajit was
Though the Nandas were able administrators
overthrown and died at Rajgriha, the capital of
and had strengthened the Magadha Empire,
Magadha Empire. Kosala was then annexed to
they were not popular among the people.
Magadha. Ajatashatru also fought and won the
battle against the Lichchhavis. He defeated the
4.3 Persian and
Lichchhavis and the Mallas. Ajatashatru is also
believed to have met Buddha in his lifetime. By
Macedonian Invasions
the time Ajatashatru died in 461 BCE Magadha The period from the sixth century witnessed
had become undisputedly the strongest power. close cultural contact of the north-west of India
The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by with Persia and Greece. It might be surprising to
the Shishunaga dynasty. Shishunaga, a viceroy know that Gandhara and its adjoining regions
of Benaras, deposed the last Haryanka king and on the Indus were part of the Achaemenid
ascended the throne. The Shishunagas ruled Empire of Persia. Cyrus, the emperor of Persia,
for fifty years before the throne was usurped by invaded India around 530 BCE and destroyed
Mahapadma Nanda. the city of Kapisha. According to Greek historian
Herodotus, Gandhara constituted the twentieth
4.2 Nandas: The First and the richest satrapy of the Achaemenid
Empire. The region continued to be part of the
Empire Builders of India
Persian Empire till the invasion of Alexander
About a hundred years after Ajatashatru’s the Great. The inscriptions of Darius I mention
demise, the Nandas became the emperors the presence of the Persians in the Indus region
of Magadha in 362 BCE. The first Nanda and include “the people of Gadara, Haravati and
ruler was Mahapadma. It is believed that he Maka” as subjects of the Achaemenid Empire.
usurped the throne by murdering the last of
the Shishunaga kings. Under the Nandas, the Taxila
empire expanded considerably, and the wealth Takshashila or Taxila is situated in
and power of the Nandas became widely present-day Pakistan. Between the fifth century
known and feared. Mahapadma Nanda was and fourth century BCE, it was part of the
succeeded by his eight sons, and they were Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Because of its
together known as the navanandas or the nine strategic location on the trade route between the
A centralised state required a new administrative framework to govern an extensive territory,

the creation of a bureaucracy, resources of money and men for managing the administration
and the army. A system of revenue administration had to be developed to raise the funds needed
for the state through taxation. Such a political formation led to the development of cities as
administrative centres, distinct from villages and rural areas. A large standing army was required
for expanding and retaining the empire.
50 Emergence of State and Empire

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The Mauryan art and architecture show

The word “Hindu” appears for the first traces of Persian influence. Mauryan columns
time in an inscription of Darius I at of the Ashokan Pillar are similar to the columns
Persepolis, Iran. Darius lists “Hindu” as found in the Achaemenid Empire. The bell-
part of his empire. The word “Sindhu”, denoting shaped capital of the columns, especially
a river in general and Indus in particular, became the lion capital of Sarnath pillar and the bell
“Hindu” in Persian. The Greeks dropped the S capital of Rampurval pillar, show resemblance
and called it Indu, which eventually came to be to designs found in the Achaemenid columns.
called Hindu and later India. Similarly, the pillared remains of the Palace
in Pataliputra display a remarkable similarity
East and the West, it emerged as an important to the pillared hall in the Achaemenid capital.
centre of learning and culture. Students However, the craftsmen, though inspired by
came from far and wide to Taxila in search of the Persian art and architecture, gave a definite
knowledge. The city was brought to light by Indian character to their work.
the excavation carried out in the 1940s by Sir
John Marshall. Taxila is considered “one of the Connection between Persian
greatest intellectual achievements of any ancient
and Sanskrit
civilization”. Panini seems to have compiled his
well-known work, Ashtadhyayi, here. There are linguistic similarities between
Rig Veda and Zend Avesta. The term Aryas
Impact of Persian Contact was also used by the ancient Persians.
As the north-western part of India came According to Indologist Thomas Burrow,
under the control of the Persian Empire from only phonetic change had occurred
about middle of the sixth century, the region overtime. The Bogaz Koi (in North-East
became a centre of confluence of Persian Syria) Inscription dating back to 1380 BCE
and Indian culture. The Persian contact left records a treaty between a Hittite and a
its impact on art, architecture, economy and Mitanni King. It mentions the names of a
administration of ancient India. The cultural few Rig Vedic gods such as Indara, Uruvna
impact was felt most in the Gandhara region. The (Varuna), Mitira and Nasatiya (Ashvins).
most significant impact was the development
of the Kharosthi script, used in the north- 4.4 Alexander’s Invasion
western part of India. It was used by Ashoka During Dana Nanda’s reign, Alexander
in his inscriptions in the Gandhara region. The invaded north-west India (327–325 BCE).
Kharosthi script was derived from Aramaic used In many ways, the invasion by Alexander is
widely in the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. a watershed in Indian history. It marked the
Like Aramaic, Kharosthi was written beginning of the interaction between India and
from right to left. Persian sigloi (silver coin) the West, which spanned many centuries to
is an imitation from the region. The earliest follow. Greek historians began to write about
coins in India are traced to the period of the India, and Greek governors and kings ruled
in the north-western region of India, which
mahajanapadas. The Indian word for coin karsa
introduced new styles of art and governance.
is of Persian origin. The coins might have been
After his conquests in the Punjab region,
inspired by the Persian coins. The existence Alexander expressed his desire to march further
of coins in that period suggests trade links east to attack the Magadha Empire. However, his
between India and Persia. The Ashokan edicts already tired troops had heard about the great
might have been inspired by the edicts of the emperor in the east (Nanda) and his formidable
Achaemenid king Darius. The Ashokan edicts army and refused to be engaged in a war against
use the term lipi instead of the Iranian term dipi. such a powerful adversary.

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routes in use, which facilitated the movement

of Greek merchants and craftsmen to India,
establishing direct contact between India and
Greece. As trade contact increased, many Greek
settlements were established in the northwest of
India. Alexandria near Kabul, Boukephala near
Peshawar in Pakistan and Alexandria in Sindh
were some of the prominent Greek settlements.
Emperor Alexander The Greek accounts of India provide
valuable information but with a bit of
In 326 BCE when Alexander entered the
exaggeration. Alexander’s death created a void
Indian subcontinent after defeating the Persians,
in the north-west, facilitating the accession
Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, surrendered and
of Chandragupta Maurya to the throne of
accepted the suzerainty of Alexander. The
Magadha. It also helped him to conquer the
most famous of Alexander’s encounters was
numerous small chiefdoms in the north-west
with Porus, ruler of the region between Jhelum
and bring the region under his empire.
and Beas. The two armies met in the battle of
Hydaspes in which Porus was imprisoned. 4.5 Mauryan Empire
Later, impressed by the Porus’s dignity,
Alexander restored his throne on the condition Contemporary accounts by Greek
of accepting his suzerainty. His battle-weary historians show that Chandragupta was a youth
soldiers refused to march further. Alexander living in Taxila when Alexander invaded India.
Greek historians have recorded his name as
did not want to proceed against the reluctance
“Sandrakottus” or “Sandrakoptus”, which are
of his army. During his return, Alexander died
evidently modified forms of Chandragupta.
of a mysterious fever in Babylon.
Inspired by Alexander, Chandragupta led
a revolt against the Nandas years later and
overthrew them. Chandragupta achieved it
either by inciting the people to rise against
an unpopular monarch, or by soliciting their
support in overthrowing an unpopular king.
Chandragupta established the Mauryan Empire
and became its first emperor in 321 BCE.
Surrender of Porus to Alexander, 1865

engraving by Alonzo Chappel (modern representation)
The Impact of Alexander’s Ashoka Rock Edict at Junagadh

Invasion We know from the Junagadh rock inscription
Alexander’s invasion led to the establishment (referred to earlier) that Chandragupta had
of Greek satrapies in the north-western region expanded his empire westward as far as Gujarat.
of the Indian subcontinent. Trade routes opened One of his great achievements, according to
up with the West. There were four different trade local accounts, was that he waged war against

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the Greek prefects (military Nandas and helping Chandragupta to become

officials) left behind by the emperor of Magadha. He is celebrated
Alexander and destroyed as the author of the Arthasastra, a treatise on
them, so that the way was political strategy and governance. His intrigues
cleared to carry out his and brilliant strategy to subvert the intended
ambitious plan of expanding invasion of Magadha is the theme of the play,
the territories. Another Mudrarakshasa.
major event of his reign was Seleucus Nicator
Bindusara
the war against Seleucus,
who was one of Alexander’s generals. After the Chandragupta’s son Bindusara succeeded
death of Alexander, Seleucus had established him as emperor in 297 BCE in a peaceful
his kingdom extending up to Punjab. and natural transition. We do not know what
Chandragupta defeated him in a battle some happened to Chandragupta. He probably
time before 301 BCE and drove him out of the renounced the world. According to the Jain
Punjab region. The final agreement between tradition, Chandragupta spent his last years as
the two was probably not too acrimonious, an ascetic in Chandragiri, near Sravanabelagola,
since Chandragupta gave Seleucus 500 war in Karnataka. Bindusara was clearly a capable
elephants, and Seleucus sent an ambassador ruler and continued his father’s tradition of
to Chandragupta’s court. This ambassador close interaction with the Greek states of West
was Megasthenes, and we owe much of the Asia. He continued to be advised by Chanakya
information that we have about Chandragupta and other capable ministers. His sons were
to Indica, the account written by Megasthenes. appointed as viceroys of the different provinces
The original of this work is lost, but many Greek of the empire. We do not know much about his
historians had reproduced parts of his account military exploits, but the empire passed intact
describing the court of Chandragupta and his to his son, Ashoka.
administration. Bindusara ruled for 25 years, and he must
have died in 272 BCE. Ashoka was not his
Chandragupta
chosen successor, and the fact that he came
Chandragupta was to the throne only four years later in 268 BCE
obviously a great ruler who would indicate that there was a struggle between
had to reinvent a strong the sons of Bindusara for the succession.
administrative apparatus to Ashoka had been the viceroy of Taxila when he
govern his extensive kingdom. put down a revolt against the local officials by
(The system of governance the people of Taxila, and was later the viceroy
and polity is discussed in the of Ujjain, the capital of Avanti, a major city and
next section.) Chandragupta Chandragupta commercial centre. As emperor, he is credited
was ably advised and aided (modern representation) with building the monumental structures that
by Chanakya, known for have been excavated in the site of Pataliputra.
political manoeuvring, in governing his empire. He continued the tradition of close interaction
Contemporary Jain and Buddhist texts hardly with the Greek states in West Asia, and there
have any mention of Chanakya. But popular oral was mutual exchange of emissaries from both
tradition ascribes the greatness of Chandragupta sides.
and his reign to the wisdom and genius of
Chanakya. Chanakya, also known as Kautilya Ashoka
and Vishnugupta, was a Brahmin and a sworn The defining event of Ashoka’s rule was his
adversary of the Nandas. He is credited with campaign against Kalinga (present-day Odisha)
having devised the strategy for overthrowing the in the eighth year of his reign. This is the only

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recorded military expedition

of the Mauryas. The number
of those killed in battle, those
who died subsequently, and
those deported ran into tens
of thousands. The campaign
had probably been more
ferocious and brutal than Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE),
usual because this was a in the Brahmi at British Museum
punitive war against Kalinga,
which had broken away from
Emperor Ashoka the Magadha Empire (the
Devanampiya Hathigumpha inscription
speaks of Kalinga as a part
of the Nanda Empire). Ashoka was devastated
by the carnage and moved by the suffering
that he converted to humanistic values. He
became a Buddhist and his new-found values
and beliefs were recorded in a series of edicts,
which confirm his passion for peace and moral
The Ashoka edicts at Saranath
righteousness or dhamma (dharma in Sanskrit).
Edicts of Ashoka
The edicts of Ashoka thus
constitute the most concrete
source of information about
the Mauryan Empire. There
are 33 edicts comprising 14
Major Rock Edicts, 2 known
as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts, some Minor
Rock Edicts and a few Minor Pillar Inscriptions.
The Major Rock Edicts extend from Kandahar
in Afghanistan, Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in
north-west Pakistan to Uttarakhand district in
the north, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west, Rock Edict - Kandahar in Afghanistan
Odisha in the east and as far south as Karnataka
and Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh. Minor
Pillar Inscriptions have been found as far north
as Nepal (near Lumbini). The edicts were written
mostly in the Brahmi script and in Magadhi
and Prakrit. The Kandahar inscriptions are in
Greek and Aramaic, while the two inscriptions
in north-west Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.
The geographical spread of the edicts
essentially defines the extent of the vast empire
over which Ashoka ruled. The second inscription
mentions lands beyond his borders: “the Chodas Rock Edict of Ashoka, Dhauli, Odisha

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(Cholas), the Pandyas, the Satiyaputa, the in consonance with the realities of the times.
Keralaputa (Chera), even Tamraparni, the Yona After his death, the Mauryan Empire slowly
king Antiyoka (Antiochus), and the kings who disintegrated and died out within fifty years.
are the neighbours of this Antioka”. The edicts But the two centuries prior to Ashoka’s death
reveal Ashoka’s belief in peace, righteousness and the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
and justice and his concern for the welfare were truly momentous in Indian history. This
of his people. By rejecting violence and war, was a period of great change. The consolidation
advocating peace and the pursuit of dhamma, of a state extending over nearly two-thirds of the
Ashoka negated the prevailing philosophy of sub-continent had taken place with formalised
statecraft that stressed that an emperor had administration, development of bureaucratic
to strive to extend and consolidate his empire institutions and economic expansion, in
through warfare and military conquests. addition to the rise of new heterodox religions
and philosophies that questioned the established
Third Buddhist Council
orthodoxy.
One of the major events of Ashoka’s reign
was the convening of the Third Buddhist sangha 4.6 The Mauryan State
(council) in 250 BCE in the capital Pataliputra. and Polity
Ashoka’s deepening commitment to Buddhism
meant that royal patronage was extended to the The major areas of concern for the Mauryan
Buddhist establishment. An important outcome state were the collection of taxes as revenue to
of this sangha was the decision to expand the the state and the administration of justice, in
reach of Buddhism to other parts of the region addition to the maintenance of internal security
and to send missions to convert people to the and defence against external aggression. This
religion. Buddhism thus became a proselytizing required a large and complex administrative
religion and missionaries were sent to regions machinery and institutions. Greek historians,
outlying the empire such as Kashmir and South taking their lead from Megasthenes, described
India. According to popular belief, Ashoka sent the Mauryan state as a centralised state. What
his two children, Mahinda and Sanghamitta, to we should infer from this description as a
Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism. It is believed centralised state is that a uniform pattern of
that they took a branch of the original bodhi administration was established throughout the
tree to Sri Lanka. very large area of the empire. But, given the
existing state of technology in communications
Ashoka seems to have ruled until 232 B.C
and transport, a decentralised administrative
(B.C.E). Sadly, though his revolutionary view of
system had to be in place.
governance and non-violence find a resonance
in our contemporary sensibilities, they were not This bureaucratic set-up covered a
hierarchy of settlements from the village, to the
towns, provincial capitals and major cities. The
bureaucracy enabled and required an efficient
system of revenue collection, since it needed
to be paid out of taxes collected. Equally, the
very large army of the Mauryan Empire could
be maintained only with the revenue raised
through taxation. The large bureaucracy also
commanded huge salaries. According to the
Arthasastra, the salary of chief minister, the
Ashoka’s visit to the Ramagrama purohita and the army commander was 48,000
Sanchi Stupa Southern Gate panas, and the soldiers received 500 panas.

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If we multiply this by the number of infantry Provincial Administration

and cavalry, we get an idea of the enormous
At the head of the
resources needed to maintain the army and the
administration was the
administrative staff.
king. He was assisted by a
council of ministers and a
Arthasastra
purohita or priest, who was a
Perhaps the most detailed account of person of great importance,
the administration is to be found in the and secretaries known as
Arthasastra (though the work itself is now mahamatriyas. The capital region of Pataliputra
dated to a few centuries later). However, it was directly administered. The rest of the
must be remembered that the Arthasastra was a empire was divided into four provinces based at
prescriptive text, which laid down the guidelines Suvarnagiri (near Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh),
for good administration. If we add to this the Ujjain (Avanti, Malwa), Taxila in the north-
information from Ashoka’s edicts and the work west, and Tosali in Odisha in the south-east.
of Megasthenes, we get a more comprehensive The provinces were administered by governors
picture of the Mauryan state as it was. who were usually royal princes. In each region,
MAURYAN EMPIRE N
W E
Pushkalavati Mauryan Empire
Taxila
Capital of empire S
Provincial Capital
Kandahar Pillar edict of Ashoka
Other city/town
Delhi-Topra
Delhi-Meerut
Delhi
(Indraprastha)
Shravasti Lumbini
Mathura Rampurva
Patala Vaishall Pataliputra

Gujjara Allahabad
Saranath
Kaushambi Varanasi Rajagriha
Vidisha Rupnath
Ujjain Sanchi Tripuri
Tamralipti
Bharukaccha
Sopara
BAY
ARABIAN Sannati
OF
SEA
Amaravati BENGAL
Suvarnagiri Nittur Yerragudi
Siddapur Brahmagiri
nd A
SA KER
a
TY ALA
L s
m
AP
a
(I n d i a)
a n a n d N ic
UT
k
(I n d i a)
S
LA
RA
h ad w eep
O
PU
CH
S
TR
S
YA
ND
AS
PA
b ar o
Map not to scale


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the revenue and judicial administration and the by the government. Lands owned by the king,
bureaucracy of the Mauryan state was replicated forests, mines and manufacture of salt, on which
to achieve a uniform system of governance. the state held a monopoly, were also important
Revenue collection was the responsibility sources of revenue.
of a collector-general (samaharta) who was
Judicial Administration
also in charge of exchequer that he was, in
effect, like a minister of finance. He had to Justice was administered through courts,
supervise all the provinces, fortified towns, which were established in all the major towns.
mines, forests, trade routes and others, which Two types of courts are mentioned. The
were the sources of revenue. The treasurer dharmasthiya courts mostly dealt with civil
was responsible for keeping a record of the tax law relating to marriage, inheritance and other
revenues. The accounts of each department aspects of civil life. The courts were presided
had to be presented jointly by the ministers to over by three judges well-versed in sacred laws
the king. Each department had a large staff of and three amatyas (secretaries). Another type
superintendents and subordinate officers linked of court was called kantakasodhana (removal of
to the central and local governments. thorns), also presided over by three judges and
three amatyas. The main purpose of these courts
District and Village Administration was to clear the society of anti-social elements and
At the next level of administration came various types of crimes, and it functioned more
the districts, villages and towns. The district like the modern police, and relied on a network
was under the command of a sthanika, while of spies for information about such anti-social
officials known as gopas were in charge of five to activities. Punishments for crimes were usually
ten villages. Urban administration was handled quite severe. The overall objective of the judicial
by a nagarika. Villages were semi-autonomous system as it evolved was to extend government
and were under the authority of a gramani, control over most aspects of ordinary life.
appointed by the central government, and a
Ashoka’s Dharmic State
council of village elders. Agriculture was then,
as it remained down the centuries, the most Ashoka’s rule gives us
important contributor to the economy, and an alternative model of a
the tax on agricultural produce constituted the righteous king and a just state.
most important source of revenue. Usually, the He instructed his officials, the
king was entitled to one-sixth of the produce. In yuktas (subordinate officials),
reality, it was often much higher, usually about rajjukas (rural administrators)
one-fourth of the produce. and pradesikas (heads of the districts) to go on
tours every five years to instruct people in dhamma
Source of Revenue (Major Rock Edict 3). Ashoka’s injunctions to
The Arthasastra, recommended the officers and city magistrates stressed that all
comprehensive state control over agricultural the people were his children and he wished for
production and marketing, with warehouses his people what he wished for his own children,
to store agricultural products and regulated that they should obtain welfare and happiness
markets, in order to maximise the revenues in this world and the next. These officials should
from this most important sector of the economy. recognise their own responsibilities and strive
Other taxes included taxes on land, on irrigation to be impartial and see to it that men were not
if the sources of irrigation had been provided by imprisoned or tortured without good reason. He
the state, taxes on urban houses, customs and added that he would send an officer every five
tolls on goods transported for trade and profits years to verify if his instructions were carried out
from coinage and trade operations carried on (Kalinga Rock Edict 1).

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EDICTS OF
EDICTS OFASHOKA
ASHOKA N
W E
Manserah
S
Edicts of Ashoka
Shabazgarhi
Major rock edicts
Pillar edicts
Kandahar Minor rock edicts
Kalsi
Territorial limits
Delhi
Lumbini
Meerut
Lauriya-
Nandangarh Rampurva
Kausambi Lauriya-
Araraj
I N D I A
Girnar
Sopara Dhauli
Sannathi Jaugada
Amaravati BAY
ARABIAN OF
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Yerragudi
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d a m a n a n d N ic
(I n d ia)
(I n d i a)
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Ashoka realised that an effective ruler of cotton throughout India, were the
needed to be fully informed about what was most widespread occupations outside of
happening in his kingdom and insisted that agriculture. A great variety of cloth was
he should be advised and informed promptly produced in the country, ranging from the
wherever he might be (Major Rock Edict 6). coarse fabrics used by the ordinary people for
He insisted that all religions should co-exist everyday use, to the very fine textures worn
and the ascetics of all religions were honoured by the upper classes and the royalty. The
(Major Rock Edicts 7 and 12). Providing Arthasastra refers to the regions producing
medical care should be one of the functions specialised textiles – Kasi (Benares), Vanga
of the state, the emperor ordered hospitals to (Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai and
be set up to treat human beings and animals many others. Each region produced many
(Major Rock Edict 2). Preventing unnecessary distinctive and specialised varieties of
slaughter of animals and showing respect for fabrics. Cloth embroidered with gold and
all living beings was another recurrent theme
silver was worn by the King and members
in his edicts. In Ashoka’s edicts, we find an
of the royal court. Silk was known and was
alternative humane and empathetic model of
generally referred to as Chinese silk, which
governance. The edicts stress that everybody,
also indicates that extensive trade was
officials as well as subjects, act righteously
carried on in the Mauryan Empire.
following dhamma.
Metal and metal works were of great
4.7 Economy and Society importance, and the local metal workers
worked with iron, copper and other metals
Agriculture to produce tools, implements, vessels and
Agriculture formed the backbone of the other utility items. Iron smelting had been
economy. It was the largest sector in terms known for many centuries, but there was a
of its share in total revenue to the state and great improvement in technology after about
employment. The Greeks noted with wonder 500 BCE, which made it possible to smelt
that two crops could be raised annually in iron in furnaces at very high temperatures.
India because of the fertility of the soil. Archaeological finds show a great qualitative
Besides food grains, India also grew cash and quantitative improvement in iron
crops such as sugarcane and cotton, described production after this date. Improvement in
by Megasthenes as a reed that produced iron technology had widespread implications
honey and trees on which wool grew. These for the rest of the economy. Better tools like
were important commercial crops. The axes made more extensive clearing of forests
fact that the agrarian sector could produce possible for agriculture; better ploughs
a substantial surplus was a major factor in could improve agricultural processes; better
the diversification of the economy beyond nails and tools improved woodwork and
subsistence to commercial production. carpentry as well as other crafts. Woodwork
was another important craft for ship-
Crafts and Goods
building, making carts and chariots, house
Many crafts producing a variety of construction and so on. Stone work–stone
manufactures flourished in the economy. We carving and polishing–had evolved as a
can categorise the products as utilitarian or highly skilled craft. This expertise is seen in
functional, and luxurious and ornamental. the stone sculptures in the stupa at Sanchi
Spinning and weaving, especially of cotton and the highly polished Chunar stone used
fabrics, relying on the universal availability for Ashoka’s pillars.

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and growth. Production of a surplus beyond

subsistence is futile unless the surplus has
exchange value, since the surplus has no use value
when subsistence needs have been met. Thus, as
the economy diversified and expanded, exchange
becomes an important part of realising the
benefits of such expansion. Trade takes place in a
hierarchy of markets, ranging from the exchange
of goods in a village market, between villages
and towns within a district, across cities in long-
distance overland trade and across borders to
Sanchi Stupa other countries. Trade also needs a conducive
A whole range of luxury goods was political climate as was provided by the Mauryan
produced, including gold and silver articles, Empire, which ensured peace and stability over
jewellery, perfumes and carved ivory. There is a very large area. The rivers in the Gangetic
evidence that many other products like drugs plains were major means for transporting
and medicines, pottery, dyes and gums were goods throughout northern India. Goods were
produced in the Mauryan Empire. The economy transported further west overland by road. Roads
had thus developed far beyond subsistence connected the north of the country to cities and
production to a very sophisticated level of markets in the south-east, and in the south-west,
commercial craft production. passing through towns like Vidisha and Ujjain.
Crafts were predominantly urban-based The north-west route linked the empire to
hereditary occupations and sons usually followed central and western Asia. Overseas trade by ships
their fathers in the practice of various crafts. was also known, and Buddhist Jataka tales refer
Craftsmen worked primarily as individuals, to the long voyages undertaken by merchants.
though royal workshops for producing cloth Sea-borne trade was carried on with Burma and
and other products also existed. Each craft had a the Malay Archipelago, and with Sri Lanka. The
head called pamukha (pramukha or leader) and ships, however, were probably quite small and
a jettha (jyeshtha or elder) and was organised in might have hugged the coastline.
a seni (srenior a guild), so that the institutional We do not have much information about
identity superseded the individual in craft the merchant communities. In general, long-
production. Disputes between srenis were resolved distance overland trade was undertaken by
by a mahasetthi, and this ensured the smooth merchant groups travelling together as a caravan
functioning of craft production in the cities. for security, led by a caravan leader known as
Trade the maha-sarthavaha. Roads through forests
and unfavourable environments like deserts
Trade or exchange becomes a natural were always dangerous. The Arthasastra,
concomitant of economic diversification however, stresses the importance of trade and
Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse Karshapana-Bindusara

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ensuring its smooth functioning. Trade has to agricultural workers and craftsmen, who seek
be facilitated through the construction of roads employment, thereby forming the workforce
and maintaining them in good condition. Since for the production of manufactured goods
tolls and octroi were collected on goods when and services of various kinds. These goods, in
they were transported, toll booths must have addition to the agricultural products brought
been set up and manned on all the trade routes. in from the rural countryside, are traded in
Urban markets and craftsmen were generally markets. Cities also tend to house a variety
closely monitored and controlled to prevent of persons in service-related activities. The
fraud. The Arthasastra has a long list of the sangam poetry in Tamil and the Tamil epics
goods – agricultural and manufactured – which provide vivid pictures of cities like Madurai,
were traded in internal and foreign trade. These Kanchipuram and Poompuhar as teeming with
include textiles, woollens, silks, aromatic woods, people, with vibrant markets and merchants
animal skins and gems from various parts of selling a variety of goods, as well as vendors
India, China and Sri Lanka. Greek sources selling various goods including food door to
confirm the trade links with the west through the door. Though these literary works relate to
Greek states to Egypt. Indigo, ivory, tortoiseshell, a slightly later period, it is not different in
pearls and perfumes and rare woods were all terms of the prevailing levels of technology,
exported to Egypt. and these descriptions may be taken as an
accurate depiction of urban living. The only
Coins and Currency
contemporary pictorial representation of
Though coinage was known, barter was the cities is found in the sculptures in Sanchi,
medium of exchange in pre-modern economies. which portray royal processions, and cities are
In the Mauryan Empire, the silver coins known seen to have roads, a multitude of people and
as pana were the most commonly used currency. multi-storeyed buildings crowded together.
Hordes of punch-marked coins have been found
in many parts of north India, though some of these Urbanisation in Sixth Century BCE
coins may have been from earlier periods. Thus One of the first pre-requisites for urbanisation
while coins were in use, it is difficult to estimate is the development of an agricultural base. This
the extent to which the economy was monetised. had evolved in the Indo-Gangetic plain and
from very early on there are references to cities
Process of Urbanisation
like Hastinapura and Ayodhya. By about sixth
Urbanisation is the process of the century BCE, urbanization had spread to the
establishment of towns and cities in an doab and many new city centres like Kaushambi,
agrarian landscape. Towns can come up Bhita, Vaishali and Rajagriha, among others, are
for various reasons – as the headquarters mentioned in the region. Buddhist texts about
of administration, as pilgrim centres, as Buddha’s preaching were always located in urban
commercial market centres and because of centres. Cities developed primarily because of
their locational advantages on major trade the spread of agriculture and wet rice cultivation,
routes. In what way do urban settlements in particular in the doab region, after the marshy
differ from villages or rural settlements? To land was drained and reclaimed for cultivation.
begin with, towns and cities do not produce The fertile soil and plentiful availability of water
their own food and depend on the efficient from the perennial rivers made it possible to
transfer of agricultural surplus for their raise even two crops of rice, and the production
basic consumption needs. A larger number of a large agricultural surplus to feed the cities.
of people reside in towns and cities and The improvements in iron technology also had
the density of population is much higher an impact on economic life both in rural and
in cities. Cities attract a variety of non- urban areas. As Magadha grew, many regional

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centres like Ujjain were also incorporated into were enriched by the work of the grammarian
the empire. Panini (c. 500 BCE), and Katyayana, who was a
contemporary of the Nandas and had written a
Housing and Town Planning commentary on Panini’s work. Buddhist and Jain
Towns were often located along the rivers, texts were primarily written in Pali. Evidently
presumably for ease of access to transportation. many literary works in Sanskrit were produced
They were surrounded by moats and a rampart during this period and find mention in later
to provide defensive protection. They were always works, but they are not available to us.
open to attacks since treasuries holding government The Arthasastra notes the performing arts of
revenue were housed in them, in addition to the the period, including music, instrumental music,
fact that as trading centres, the local people and bards, dance and theatre. The extensive produc-
merchants were also wealthy. As the towns became tion of crafted luxury products like jewellery, ivo-
more prosperous, the quality of the houses, which ry carving and wood work, and especially stone
were built of mud brick and even of fired brick, carving should all be included as products of
improved. Towns also had other facilities like Mauryan art.
drains, ring wells and mud pits, testifying to the
Many religions, castes and communities lived
development of civic amenities and sanitation.
together in harmony in the Mauryan society. There
Excavations from the Mauryan period show that is little mention of any overt dissension or disputes
the standard of living had improved as compared among them. As in many regions of that era
to the earlier period. The houses were built of brick, (including ancient Tamil Nadu), courtesans were
and the cities had ring wells and soak pits. There accorded a special place in the social hierarchy
was a quantitative increase in the use of iron and and their contributions were highly valued.
the variety of iron artefacts.
Decline of the Mauryan Empire
City of Pataliputra
The highly centralized administration
Pataliputra was the great capital city in the became unmanageable when Ashoka’s
Mauryan Empire. It was described as a large and successors were weak and inefficient. A
wealthy city, situated at the confluence of the weakened central administration with a
Ganga and Son rivers, stretching in the form of large distance to communicate led to the
a parallelogram. It was more than 14 kilometres rise of independent kingdoms.
in length and about 2 kilometres wide. It After Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split into
was protected by an outer wall made of wood, two. There were invasions from the north-
with loopholes for shooting arrows at enemies. west. The notable groups that undertook
There were 64 gates to the city and 570 watch military expeditions and established
towers. There was a wide and deep moat outside kingdoms on Indian soil were the Indo-
the wall, which was fed by water from the river, Greeks, the Sakas and the Kushanas.
which served both as a defence and an outlet for The last ruler Brihadratha was killed in
sewage. There were many grand palaces in the (c.185 B C (BCE)) by his commander-in-
city, which had a large population. The city was chief Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the
administered by a corporation of 30 members. Sunga dynasty that ruled India for over
Ashoka added to the magnificence of the city hundred years.
with the monumental architecture that he
SUMMARY
added to the capital, like the many-pillared hall.
Gana-sanghas in course of time became
Art and Culture the larger mahajanapadas and of the 16
Most of the literature and art of the period kingdoms, Magadha eventually emerged as
have not survived. Sanskrit language and literature the most powerful.

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The first known ruler of Magadha was 3.

A comprehensive historical chronicle in
Bimbisara, followed by his son Ajatashatru. Pali from Sri Lanka serving as an important
Mahapadma Nanda started the Nanda source for the Mauryan Period is ______.
dynasty. (a) Mahavamsa (b)
Deepavamsa
The invasion of north-west India by Alexander
(c) Brahmanas (d)
Mudrarakshasa
in 326 BCE opened up trade with the West.
After the death of Alexander, Chandragupta 4. The play ______ by Visakadatha describes
founded the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta and his accession to the throne
The three notable Mauryan rulers, of the Magadha Empire.
Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka, (a) Mudrarakshasa (b)
Rajatharangini
established a centralised state. The system
(c) Arthasastra (d) Indica
of Mauryan administration came to light
through the accounts of Arthasastra and 5. Megasthenes’work ______describes the court
Indica. of Chandragupta and his administration.
Mauryan Empire set in a new phase in Indian (a) Indica (b)
Mudrarakshasa
history as trade and commerce grew manifold (c) Ashtadhyayi (d)
Arthasastra
during this period.
6. The ______ was a prescriptive text for good
Mauryan Empire continued the earlier
administration.
tradition of consolidation of the empire. The
truly revolutionary change that was attempted (a) Arthasastra (b) Indica
was Ashoka’s exhortations to his officials and (c) Rajatharangini (d) Mudrarakshasa
people to follow dhamma, abjure violence
and lead a moral life. II. Write Brief Answers
Mauryan Empire marked a distinct phase 1. How did Bimbisara extend the territory of
in Indian history with significant advances Magadhan Empire?
in technology and economic and social
2. Write a note on Mahapadma Nanda.
development, and created the framework for
a large, centrally administered, state. 3. What made Alexander the Great to restore
the throne of Porus ?
4. What are the features of a centralised state?
EXERCISE 5. Give a brief note on the literary sources for
the study of Mauryan state.
Q.R.Code
I. Choose the 6. In what ways did the invasion of Alexander
Correct Answer make a watershed in Indian history?
1. Brahmi script in Ashoka’s III. Write Short Answers

pillar inscription was deciphered by _____. 1. Mention the urban features revealed by
(a) Thomas Saunders archaeological findings.
(b) James Prinsep 2. Explain the features of the monarchies or
kingdoms on the Gangetic plains.
(c) Sir John Marshal
3. Highlight the impact of the invasion of
(d) William Jones
Alexander the Great on India.
2. The first known ruler of Magadha was ______ 4. What do you know of Ashoka’s campaign
of the Haryanka dynasty. against Kalinga?
(a) Bimbisara (b) Ajatashatru 5. Discuss the extensive trade on textiles carried
(c) Ashoka (d) Mahapadma Nanda on during the Mauryan period.

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6.
Write a note on the commodities traded 2. Abraham Eraly, Gem in the Lotus: The Seeding
between India and West and Central Asia. of Indian Civilization, Penguin, 2000.
3. B.M. Barua, The Ajivikas, University of
Calcutta, 1920.
1. Explain the sources for the study of the 4. D.N. Jha, Ancient India in Historical
Mauryan Empire. Outline, Manohar, New Delhi, 2010.
2. Describe the salient features of Mauryan 5. Dhammika, Ven. S. The Edicts of King
polity. Ashoka – an English Rendering. 1993/94.
3. Highlight the impact of Persians on India. 6. John Keay, India: A History. 2000.
7. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, (ed.) The Age of the
4. Give an account of the edicts of Ashoka.
Nandas and Mauryas (reprint), 1996.
Activity 8. Romila Thapar, Ashoka and the Decline of
the Mauryas (rev. ed.), 1997.
1. Preparing a chart with information on the
9. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of
edicts of Ashoka.
Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300,
2. Discussion on the outcome of the conquest
Penguin Books, 2002.
of Kalinga.
10. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol.
3. Comparing the present-day system 1, George, Allen & Unwin, London
of administration with the Mauryan 11. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and
administration. Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age
4. Making an album with pictures of Sanchi- to the 12th Century, Pearson, Delhi, 2008.
Saranath pillars and Magadha and Mauryan 12. Wm. Theodore D. Bary, ed., Sources of
kings. Indian Tradition, vol. 1, Columbia
University Press, New York, 1958.
REFERENCE BOOKS
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. A.L. Basham, The Wonder That Was
India: A Survey of the History and 1. http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/
Culture of the Indian Sub-continent hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html
before the Coming of the Muslims, 2. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/religion/
Picador, 2004. f2001/edit/docs/samannaphala.pdf
GLOSSARY
antithetical contrasting முரண்பட்ட

inciting inducing தூண்டும்
acrimonious bitter கசப்பான
manoeuvring planned action சூழ்ச்சி
adversary enemy விர�ோதி
negate nullify செயல்படாததாக்கு
proselytizing attempt to convert one’s religion மதமாற்ற முயற்சி
empathetic showing concern for others மற்றவர் உணர்வினை மதித்தல்

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UNIT Evolution of Society

in South India
5
Learning Objectives
To understand the social and political formation in early South India
from the third century BCE to the fifth century CE
Introduction Stupas: The stupa is a heap of clay that

In the Deccan region, encompassing evolved out of earthen funerary mounds,
major parts of present day Telangana, Andhra, in which the ashes of the dead were buried.
Karnataka and Maharashtra, the Satavahanas Buddhist stupas evolved out of the burial of
established a powerful kingdom in the first the ashes of the mortal remains of the Buddha.
century BCE. In the south, the three family Buddhist sacred architecture originated with
ruling houses, the Cheras, the Cholas and the the eight stupas where the ashes were divided.
Pandyas were their contemporaries, ruling Hemispherical shape, the stupa symbolizes
the fertile parts of Tamizhagam. But the Tamil the universe; and the Buddha represents
rulers started two centuries earlier as they figure the emperor of the spiritual universe. The
in Ashoka’s inscriptions of the third century stupa has a path around it for devotional
BCE. There were many common things as well circumambulation.
as differences in the polity and society of the
Deccan and Tamil regions. The coins issued by the Cheras, Cholas,
Pandyas, and the chieftains of the Sangam
Sources Age.
Archaeological Roman copper, silver and gold coins.
The megalithic burial sites of the early
historic period. Epigraphic
Excavated material from ancient The Ashokan inscriptions, written in Prakrit,
sites, including ports, capital towns, found in Andhra-Karnataka regions.
with architectural remains, such as in
Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Alangulam, and The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in
Uraiyur. the caves of Tamil Nadu and Kerala such as
Buddhist sites with stupas and chaityas in Mangulam, Jambai, and Pugalur.
located in Andhra and Karnataka regions The Satavahana inscriptions and other
(Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, etc.) Buddhist inscriptions of the Andhra region
Numismatic Short inscriptions found on pottery and
Coins of pre-Satavahana chieftains rings and stones in Tamil Nadu and some
and of the Satavahanas from Andhra- sites outside India, like in Berenike, and
Karnataka region. Quseir al Qadhim (Egypt).
65

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Literary
Women Poets of the Sangam Age :
Tamil texts including the Sangam and post- Of the over 450 poets who contributed to
Sangam literature. the corpus of Sangam poetry about thirty
The Arthasastra, the treatise on economy are women. They composed more than 150
and statecraft authored by Kautilya. poems. The most prominent and prolific
The Puranas which mention the genealogy among them was Avvaiyar. Others include
of the Andhras/Satavahanas. Allur Nanmullaiyaar, Kaakkaipadiniyar,
Kavarpendu, Nalveliyaar, Okkur
Buddhist Chronicles such as Mahavamsa.
Masaathiyar, and Paarimakalir.
Gatha Saptasati, a Prakrit text composed by
the Satavahana king Hala.
5.1 South India during
Classical Tamil Literature
Mauryan times
The Classical Sangam corpus consists
of Tholkappiyam, the eight anthologies The Ashokan edicts (c. 270-30 BCE)
(Ettuthogai), Ten Idylls (Paththuppattu). present for the first time a picture of the
Tholkappiyam is the earliest extant Tamil political condition in south India. Rock
grammatical text dealing not only with poetry Edict II lists the Tamil ruling houses Cholas,
but also the society and culture of the times. Pandyas, Keralaputras and Satiyaputra as
The Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) neighbour rulers, lying beyond his domain,
and the five epics belong to post-Sangam times where he is said to have made provision for
(fourth to sixth century CE) and describe a two types of medical treatment: medical
different social and cultural set-up. treatment for both humans and animals.
The Mauryan empire at that time included
Foreign Notices northern parts of Karnataka and Andhra,
The following Greek and Latin sources while the Tamil kingdoms were treated as
inform us about the long distance cultural and independent neighbours.
commercial connections. After the decline of the Mauryan power,
The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient and before the rise of the Satavahanas, many
Greek text of the first century CE. small principalities emerged. Although not
Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, first much information is available about their
century CE rulers, their coins and inscriptions reveal
Ptolemy’s Geography, second century CE that they were chiefs who controlled small
A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table territories.
Ettuthogai and Paththupattu collections have about 2400 poems. These poems, varying in length
from 3 to 800 lines, were composed by Panar and pulavar.
The Eight Anthologies are 1. Natrinai; 2. Kurunthogai; 3. Aingurunuru; 4. Patitruppathu;
5. Paripadal; 6. Kalithogai; 7. Akananuru; 8. Purananuru.
Paththupattu (Ten Idylls): 1. Thirumurugatrupatai; 2. Porunaratrupatai;
3. Sirupanatruppatai; 4. Perumpanatruppatai; 5. Mullaipattu; 6. Maduraikanchi;
7. Nedunalvadai; 8. Kurinjipattu; 9. Pattinappalai; 10. Malaipadukadam.
Patinen Kilkanakku texts, which are post-Sangam works, include eighteen texts, which mostly
deal with ethics and moral codes. The most important of them are Thirukkural, and Naladiyar.
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai are the two important epics useful for insights into cultural
and religious history.
66 Evolution of Society in South India

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5.2 South India under the of Nahapana with his own royal insignia. The
Satavahanas inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri at
Nashik mentions him as the conqueror of the
The Satavahanas emerged in the first century Shakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas. He is also said
BCE in the Deccan region. They ruled over parts to have performed the prestigious Vedic
of Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Madhya asvamedha sacrifice.
Pradesh. From recent archaeological evidence Va s i s h t h i p u t r a
it is understood that the Satavahanas started to Pulumayi, the successor of
rule in the Telengana area and then moved to Gautamiputra Satakarni,
Maharashtra to rule in the Godavari basin with expanded the frontiers of
Prathistan (Paithan in Maharashtra) as their the Satavahana Empire.
capital. Later they moved eastwards to control The coins issued by him
coastal Andhra also. The work of Pliny talks about are found scattered in
30 walled towns, a large army, cavalry and elephant many parts of south India. Vasishthiputra
force in the Andhra country. Pulumayi
Yagnashri Satakarni was
Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest another famous ruler who issued coins with
of the Satavahana kings. He defeated the a ship motif, indicating the importance of the
Shaka ruler Nahapana and reissued the coins overseas trade during his reign.
SATAVAHANA EMPIRE
Malwa
Avanti Ujjayani
Saurashtra Utkala Tripuri
Junagadh Bharuch
Girnar Anupa
Vidarbha ga
Nasik l in Sisupalpuri
Kalyan Muluka Ka
Pratishthan
Sopara Bay of
Asmaka
Arabian Bengal
Sea
Amravati
Andama
L a k sha d weep
(I n dia)
n and Nicob
(I n d ia)
ar
Indian Ocean
Evolution of Society in South India 67

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King Hala is credited with the writing of The details about this period are mainly derived
Gaha Sattasai, a collection of 700 love poems. from the Sangam literature. Based on the
Written in Maharashtri Prakrit dialect, it has archaeological evidences apart from the literary
themes similar to those found in the Tamil sources we can assume that this sangam Era was
Sangam poetry. started atleast two centuries earlier than what we
widely believe. Generally this age can be taken as
The Satavahana Empire declined around
the beginning of historic age in Tamilnadu.
the 3rd century CE and was replaced by the
Ikshvakus, followed by Pallavas in Andhra and The Muvendar
the Kadambas in northern Karnataka.
Though the three Tamil ruling families
Importance of Satavahana Period were known to Ashoka in the third century BCE
Offering land grants was an important itself, some individual names are known only
development of the Satavahana times. The from the Sangam poems of the first century and
beneficiaries of these grants were mostly later. Known as muvendar, ‘the three crowned
Buddhists and Brahmins. The Naneghat kings’, the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas
inscription refers to tax exemptions given controlled major agrarian territories, trade
to the lands granted to Buddhist monks. routes and towns. But the Satiyaputra (same as
Thus we notice the beginning of priestly Athiyaman) found in the Ashokan inscription
groups attaining higher status. These land along with the above three houses is a Velir
donations created a group of people who did chief in the Sangam poems.
not cultivate, but owned land. This led to the The Cholas controlled the central and
development of land-based social hierarchy northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Their core area
and divisions in the society. of rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as
For the first time a big state covering a Cholamandalam. Their capital was Uraiyur
major part of the Deccan was established. (near Thiruchirapalli town) and Puhar or
Several rock-cut caves dedicated to the Buddha Kaviripattinam was an alternative royal
sangha bear evidence that they were situated residence and chief port town. Tiger was their
in the trade routes linking the interior to the emblem. Kaviripattinam attracted merchants
coastal parts of Konkan region. It was also a from various regions of the Indian Ocean.
period of brisk Indo-Roman trade. Pattinappalai, composed by the poet Katiyalur
Uruttirankannanar, offers elaborate descriptions
of the bustling trading activity here during the
rule of Karikalan.
Karikalan, son of Ilanjetchenni, is
portrayed as the greatest Chola of the Sangam
age. Pattinappalai gives a vivid account
of his reign. Karikalan’s foremost military
achievement was the defeat of the Cheras and
the Pandyas, supported by as many as eleven
Velir chieftains at Venni. He is credited with
Naneghat inscription
converting forest into habitable regions and
developing agriculture by providing irrigation
5.3 The Sangam Age
through the embankment of the Kaveri and
The last three centuries before the common building reservoirs. Another king, Perunarkilli
Era and the first three centuries of the Common is said to have performed the Vedic sacrifice
Era are widely accepted as the Sangam Period. Rajasuyam. Karikalan’s death was followed by

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Karikalan (modern representation) Cheran Chenguttuvan with Ilango Adigal

(modern representation)
a succession dispute between the Puhar and famous for pearl fishery and chank diving. Korkai
Uraiyur branches of the Chola royal family. is referred to in the Periplus as Kolkoi. Fish was
The Cheras controlled the central and the emblem of the Pandyas. Their coins have
northern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region elephant on one side and a stylised image of fish
of Tamil Nadu. Vanji was their capital and on the other. They invaded Southern Kerala and
the ports of the west coast, Musiri and Tondi, controlled the port of Nelkynda, near Kottayam.
were under their control. Vanji is identified According to tradition, they patronized the Tamil
with Karur, while some scholars identify it Sangams and facilitated the compilation of the
with Tiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala. Now it is Sangam poems. The Sangam poems mention the
accepted by most scholars that there were two names of several kings, but their succession and
main branches of the Chera family and the regnal years are not clear.
Poraiya branch ruled from Karur of present-day The Mangulam
Tamil Nadu. Ta m i l - B r a h m i
The Patitruppathu speaks of eight Chera i ns c r ipt i on
kings, their territory and fame. The inscriptions mentions a Pandya
of Pugalur near Karur mention Chera kings king by name
of three generations. Cheral Irumporai Nedunchezhiyan of
issued coins in his name. Imayavaramban the second century
Neduncheralathan and Chenguttuvan are some BCE. Maduraikanchi Coin of Peruvazhuthi
of the prominent Chera kings. Chenguttuvan refers to Mudukudumi-Peruvazhuthi and
defeated many chieftains and is said to have another Nedunchezhiyan, victor of
ensured the safety of the great port Musiri by Talaiyalanganam, and a few other Pandya
putting down piracy. But the great north Indian kings. Mudukudimi-Peruvazhuthi is referred
expedition of Chenguttuvan mentioned in to in the Velvikkudi copper plates of eighth
Silappathikaram is however not mentioned in century for donating land to Brahmans. He
the Sangam poems. He is said to have ruled for seems to have issued coins with the legend
fifty-six years, patronising the orthodox and Peruvazhuthi, to commemorate his
heterodox religions. Some Cheras issued copper performance of many Vedic sacrifices.
and lead coins, with Tamil-Brahmi legends, Nedunchezhiyan is
imitating Roman coins. There are many other praised for his victory over
Chera coins with their bow and arrow emblem the combined army of the
but without any writing on them. Chera, the Chola and five
The Pandyas ruled from Madurai. Korkai Velir chieftains (Thithiyan,
was their main port, located near the confluence Elini, Erumaiyuran,
Nedunchezhiyan
of Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal. It was Irungovenman, and (modern representation)

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Porunan) at Talayalanganam. He is also given The Velir, who were many in number,
credit for capturing Milalai and Mutthuru controlled the territories of varied geographical
(Pudukottai district) two important places nature, mainly hilly and forest areas, that were
from a Vel chief. He is praised as the lord of in between the muvendar’s fertile territories.
Korkai, and as the overlord of the southern Chiefs like Athiyaman, Pari, Ay, Evvi and Irungo
Paratavar, a martial and fishing community of each commanded a big area, rich in natural
the Tirunelveli coast. resources. They were generous patrons of the
poets and bards. They had military power and
5.4 Social Formation in there were frequent wars among these chiefs on
account of capture of cattle. On many occasions
Tamil Eco-zones
they seem to have united and confronted one or
Sangam poems help other of the three kings.
us understand the social There are differing views among scholars,
formation of the time. with regard to the political organization of the
According to the thinai three kingdoms. The earlier and dominant
concept, Tamilagam was view is that the Sangam Age society was a well-
divided into five landscapes organised state society. The other view which is
or eco-regions, Ainthinai namely Kurinji, put forward in recent decades is that the polities
Mullai, Marutam, Neythal and Palai. Each of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas were pre-state
region had distinct characteristics – a chiefdoms. The arguments for the latter view are:
presiding deity, people and cultural life
1. No social stratification is noticed.
according to the environmental conditions,
as follows: 2. Proper territorial association is absent.
Kurinji hilly region: hunting and gathering 3. Destructive warfare did not allow the
development of agriculture and surplus
forested region: pastoralism
Mullai production for the emergence of the state.
combined with shifting cultivation
4. No evidence of taxation as in the
riverine tract: agriculture using
Marutham governments of North India.
plough and irrigation.
coastal land: fishing and salt The following counter arguments are
Neythal presented in response:
making.
parched land: Unsuitable for A closer look at the Sangam literature
Palai cultivation and hence people took reveals that social differentiation is
to cattle lifting and robbery. evident in the Marutham region.
The territorial associations are very clear
5.5 Tamil Polity in the case of the Muvendar, and their
important position is corroborated by
In a way this thinai classification is said to the Greco-Roman texts from the first
reflect the uneven socio-economic developments century CE.
of the different localities. That is seen in the
political forms too. Three levels of rulers are Warfare for territorial expansion was a
found:1) Kizhar, 2) Velir, 3) Vendar. Kizhar were major theme of Puratthinai
the heads of the villages or a small territory, later Evidence for taxation at the highways and in
known as nadu. They were the chiefs of tribal the port of Kaviripattinam is cited. The Chera
communities living in specific areas. The Vendar king is spoken as receiving the resources
were kings controlling larger, fertile territories. from the hills and the port of Musiri.

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Trade played an important role between the There is evidence of craft production
late first century BCE and third century CE. such as bronze vessels, beads and gold works,
textiles, shell bangles and ornaments, glass,
Political Ascendancy of the Vendar iron smithy, pottery making. Craft production
From the chiefs of the Iron Age (c. 1100- was common in the major urban centres
300 BCE) emerged the Vendar of the early such as Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram,
historic period. While certain chiefs attained Kaviripattinam, Madurai, Korkai, and
higher status (vendar) through the larger and Pattanam in Kerala. Maduraikanchi speaks
effective control of pastoral and agricultural about day markets as well as and night markets
regions, others in the marginal regions selling several craft goods. Raw materials
remained as chieftains (velir). For example, for the production of various objects and
Athiyamans, mentioned as Satiyaputra in the ornaments were not available everywhere.
Ashoka inscriptions, became weak and did Precious and semi-precious stones were
not attain the status of kings like the Chola, collected, which were exchanged for other
Pandya and Chera vendar. commodities. Such raw materials reached the
The Vendar subjugated the chieftains industrial centres, where various objects were
and fought with the other two Vendars. made, and they were again exchanged for
For this they mobilized their own warriors, some other produce.
besides seeking the support of some Velir The names of persons mentioned in
chiefs. The adoption of titles was one of the inscriptions on pottery reveal the presence of
measures adopted by the Sangam Age Vendar non-Tamil speakers, mostly traders, in certain
to display their power. Titles such as Kadungo, craft centres and towns. Traders from faraway
Imayavaramban and Vanavaramban and regions were present in the Tamil country.
PeruVazhuthi distinguished themselves from Manimegalai refers to Magadha artisans,
the ordinary people and the Velirs. Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths and Yavana
The patronization of bards and poets and carpenters working in co-operation with
entertaining them in their courts (avaiyam) Tamil craftsmen. Trade-related terms such
was probably a step undertaken by the kings as vanikan, chattan and nigama appear in the
to glorify their name and fame and also their Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions. Salt merchants
territories and towns. For example, the Chola called umanar, travelled in bullock carts along
king Karikalan is said to have offered a huge with their families for trade activities. Chattu
amount of gold coins to Uruttirankannanar referred to the itinerary or mobile merchants.
who composed Pattinappalai.
In trade, barter system was much in
vogue, though coins were also in use. Roman
5.6 Society and Economy
coins circulated as bullion. Long distance
In the Sangam Age the wars waged by trade existed and the connections with the
the Vendar were involved in expanding their Roman empire and southeast Asia are in
territorial base by annexing the enemy’s evidence at many archaeological sites. The
territories. Endemic warfare presumably southern part of India, because of its easy
created conditions for social disparities. War access to the coast and location in the maritime
captives serving in some cult centres are trade route connecting the East and the West,
mentioned. Some references to slaves are also played an important role in the overseas
found there.Women were actively engaged contacts. The major early historic ports have
in economic production and there were a evidence of Roman amphora, glassware and
significant number of women poets in the other materials suggesting active maritime
Sangam Age. activities. The wealth brought by the Romans

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Salient features of the Report on 4th Season

of Keeladi Excavations by the Department of
Archaeology, Government of Tamil Nadu.
The six carbon samples collected from the fourth season (2018) of
excavations at Keeladi were sent to Beta Analytic Lab at Miami, Florida,
USA for AMS dating and the reports have been received. The Report
reveals that the sample collected at the depth of 353cm goes back to
580 BCE .
LITERACY
Potsherds inscribed with Tamil-Brahmi script have

been unearthed. One of these dated to 580 BCE
indicates the high literacy level of Tamil people by
sixth century BCE Graffiti kuvira³-āta[³]
AGRARIAN SOCIETY AND CATTLE REARING
The Post-graduate and Research Institute, Deccan College,
Pune, based on its lab test of 70 samples of animal skeletal
fragments, collected from Keeladi, has reported that the species
such as Cow/Ox (Bos indicus), Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), Sheep
(Ovis aries), Goat (Capra hircus), Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus),
Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), Wild boar (Sus scrofa) and Peacock
Bos indicus Horns (Pavo cristatus) were identified.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
The bricks unearthed in Keeladi excavations are similar in sizes to that of other
excavated sites of the Sangam Age with the ratio of 1:4:6. This reveals that the Tamils
had mastery of the construction technology. Brick Walls
WEAVING INDUSTRY
Discovery of 180 spindle whorls, 20 sharpened bone tips (used in
pre-historic times as needle to make designs on clothes), hanging
loom weights, made of stone or baked clay, copper needle, reveals the
engagement of people in cloth making at different stages of spinning,
warping, weaving and dyeing.
Spindle Whorls
COMMERCE
Excavation has brought to light beads of agate and
carnelian. The raw materials for the making of these
beads could have been probably brought from North Agate and Beads
West India through Maharashtra and Gujarat.
In uniqueness red earthenware unearthed in Keeladi are
akin to Arretineware used in Rome in 2nd century BCE.
Rouletted ware (Indigenous)

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ORNAMENTS AND BEADS
Carnelian Crystal
Pendants
Ring Needle
Soapstone Glass beads
The occurrence of gold ornaments(seven pieces), and copper objects in bits and pieces, beads of semi
precious stones and glass, bangles and combs made of ivory and shell, indicates the cultural richness
and economic prosperity in the region. The beads accounting to 4,429 include beads of glass, paste,
quartz, faience, agate, carnelian and terracotta.
IRON OBJECTS
Iron nails and parts of knives have also been

located
TERRACOTTA FIGURINES
Figurines made of terracotta representing human

beings(13), animals(3) gamesmen (chessman)
and toys (600) and ear ornaments (28) have
been found.
Terracotta Figurines
GAMESMEN AND PASTIMES
The occurrence of artefacts such as dice, hopscotches and

gamesmen, really reflects the lifestyles and the pastime activities
of the ancient people.
The flat portions of the potsherds were generally grounded and

Gamesmen
the edges were smoothened to bring a round shape locally called
'sillu'. They were used by children as game pieces.
Hopscotches
Keeladi Excavation on the banks of Vaigai river clearly suggests that urbanization
happened in Tamil Nadu too around 6th century BCE as found in Gangetic plains.

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Stones for ornaments, Pattanam Roman Amphora Roman Glass Bowls
and the arrival of foreign merchants is Evidence of Buddhism is widely

evidenced in archaeology as well as literature. found in south India. The Krishna and
Roman gold and silver coins have been found Godavari delta of Andhra had many
in many hoards in the Coimbatore region and important Buddhist centres. Archaeological
in many other places in south India.
excavations conducted in Amaravathi,
5.7 Ideology and Religion Nagarjunakonda, etc. show how deep-
The earliest evidence of the appearance rooted was Buddhism. In Tamil Nadu,
of formal religious activities appears in Kaviripattinam and Kanchipuram have
the time of the Ashoka, when Buddhism evidence of Buddhist Stupas. But compared
reached south India and Sri Lanka. Asoka’s to Jainism, the evidence for Buddhism is
daughter is considered to have taken a restricted to a few sites in Tamil Nadu. The
sapling of the Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka. There numerous cave shelters with Tamil Brahmi
is a legend associated with the movement of
inscriptions found in Tamil Nadu show that
Chandragupta Maurya to Karnataka region
Jainism was more influential in the Tamil
before the time of Ashoka. The Satavahanas,
country. Their influence on the common
Sangam kings and Ikshvahus supported Vedic
sacrifices. The evidence for the movement people is not known but we have evidence for
of Brahmins and the performance of Vedic the merchants and lay devotees supporting
ritual practices is found in the Sangam texts. Jain monks by providing rock shelters and
But the varnasrama ideology was yet to take offerings. In the post-Sangam centuries Jains
root in the Tamil region. contributed substantially to Tamil literature.
Amaravathi Stupa Buddha Statue, Nagarjunakonda

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5.8 Age of Kalabhras - SUMMARY

Post Sangam Period The history of south India can be traced
The period between the Sangam Age and clearly from about the third century BCE,
the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly between as script was adopted for writing Tamil, and
c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known as the age of written evidence in the form of inscriptions
Kalabhras in the history of Tamizhagam. As the and literature are available.
three traditional kingdoms disappeared in this The Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas,
interval due to the occupation of their territory by who were at the level of chiefdoms in the
a warlike group called the Kalabhras, this period Iron Age, became kings with the title of
was called an interregnum or 'dark age' by earlier Vendar in the Sangam Age.
historians. It was also supposed that many good The Satavahanas who ruled Andhra,
traits of earlier Tamil culture disappeared in this Karnataka and Maharashtra regions were
interval. This idea of the Kalabhra interregnum is contemporary rulers.
no more accepted as correct. Buddhism and Jainism had a strong
Rather this is the time when the greatest presence in south India. Vedic ideas started
Tamil work Tirukkural was written along with to influence the ruling class.
many other works grouped as the eighteen Sea-borne trade in the Indian Ocean regions
minor works. The epics Silappathikaram and and with the Roman world developed.
Manimekalai also belong to this period. As this The idea of Kalabhra interregnum is
was the time when the non-orthodox religions, contested as cultural activities continued as
Jainism and Buddhism became more influential, before this period.
the scholars of the orthodox Vedic-Puranic school
seem to have created the impression that the ruling
Kalabhras of the time were evil in nature. EXERCISE
The recent interpretation of the period takes Q.R.Code
I. Choose the
it as a period of transition leading to enlarged state
societies under the Pallavas ruling over northern Correct Answer
Tamilnadu and the Pandyas in the south from the 1.
Karikala was the son of
sixth century onwards. To start with, the rulers of _________
these new states were patrons of the Jain and Buddhist
(a) Sengannan (b) Kadungo
religions and gradually they came under the spell of
the orthodox Vedic-Puranic religion emerging in the (c) Ilanjetchenni (d) Athiyaman
form of the Bhakti cults of Saivism and Vaishnavism. 2. Which of the following pairs is not correct?
But the influence of Jain and Buddhist religions on (i) Talayalanganam - Nedunchezhiyan
the general society was so strong as to evoke much
aversion from the Bhakti saints. (ii) Pattinapalai - Uruttirankannanar
A group of inscriptions found at Pulangurichi (iii) Gajabahu - Ceylon

in Sivagangai district datable to about the (iv) Tiruvanchikalam - Cholas
middle of the fifth century, name two kings.
(a) (i) (b) (ii) (c) (iii) (d) (iv)
They are Chendan and Kurran. Though there
is no mention about their family or dynasty 3. _________ performed Rajasuya sacrifice
name, some scholars identify them as Kalabhra (a) Perunarkilli
rulers. The Kalabhra kingdom seems to have
(b)Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi
been uprooted by Pandyas around the third
quarters of sixth century CE. (c) Simuka
(d) Athiyaman

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4. Ikshavakus wielded power in _________. 3. Who were the Kalabhras? What do we know
(a) Andhra-Karnataka region about them from Pulankurichi inscriptions.
(b) Odisha 4. Attempt an account of traders and their long
(c) Deccan region distance trade during the Sangam and the
(d) Banavasi immediate post-Sangam period.
5. Read the following and pick out the wrong Activity
statement
1. Deliberations on various ideas articulated in
(i) Kalabhras were Saivites
Thirukkural
(ii) Kalabhras defeated Pallavas and Pandyas
2. Visit to ancient port-towns in the neighbourhood
(iii) Ikshvakus supported vedic sacrifices
to compile an account of the ruins and the
(iv) Salt merchants were called umanar. memories of the local people there.
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iii) (d) (iii) and (iv) REFERENCE BOOKS
II. Write Brief Answers 1. R.Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology
1. Explain Barter System. and Urbanization in South India. Oxford
2. What do you know from Madurai Kanchi? University Press, 1996.
3. Identify Adukotpattu Cheralathan. 2. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South
India. Oxford University Press, 1955.
III. Write Short Answers
3. Noboru Karashima, ed., A Concise History
1. The five eco-zones of Tamil land during of South India: Issues and Interpretations.
Sangam Age Oxford University Press, 2014.
2. Karikala as the greatest of early Chola rulers. 4. Rajan Gurukkal, Social Formation in
3. Achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarani. South India. Oxford University Press,
4. Distinction between Khizhar and Velir. 2009.
IV. Answer the following in detail 5. Romila Thapar, Early India. Penguin.
1. Sangam polity should be considered pre-state 6. R. Sathyanathier, History of India, Vol. I,

chiefdom. Give your reasons in support of or 1972 (Reprint).
against this statement? 7. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient
2. Describe the administrative structure in the and Early Medieval South India. Pearson
kingdom of Muvendars. Longman, 2009.
GLOSSARY
numismatic study of coins நாணயங்கள் பற்றி படிப்பது

munificence generosity க�ொடை, வள்ளன்மை
corroborate confirm உறுதிப்படுத்து
exalted dignified உயர்ந்த
insignia emblem அதிகாரச் சின்னம்
interregnum the interval இடைப்படு காலம்
amalgamate combine, come together இணை
commemoration celebration in honour of or in memory of க�ொண்டாட்டம்

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UNIT Polity and Society in

Post-Mauryan Period
6
Learning Objectives
To learn the cultural influence of Greeks on India
To know the Indo-Greek rulers and their contributions
To have knowledge about invasion of Sakas, Pahlavis of Parthians and Kushanas from
Central Asia
To gain understanding of the importance of contact between India and Central Asia
To understand the reciprocal influence on art and literature
To gain insight into the magnitude of trade with Rome and its impact on economy
Introduction Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander’s most

capable generals, succeeded in making himself
In the four centuries following the death
the master of a vast territory from Phrygia
of Emperor Ashoka and the resulting decline of
(Turkey) to the river Indus after 311BCE.
the Mauryan Empire, parts of India were subject
Within a few years, probably around 305 BCE,
to the invasion of the Indo-Greeks, Sakas and
Chandragupta waged a war against Seleucus and
Kushanas from West and Central Asia. All of
defeated him. However, this was not the savage
them established themselves as rulers over large
defeat that happened to Alexander’s governors.
parts of India. This strengthened the process of
acculturation and the assimilation of foreign Instead, Chandragupta made a peace treaty
cultures and art forms into Indian society. It with Seleucus. Seleucus surrendered the land he
also resulted in the integration of India with had conquered up to the Indus and received 500
the Mediterranean world and Central Asia and war elephants in return. There is also mention
China through extended trade linkages. of a marriage agreement. The treaty also led
to the establishment of diplomatic relations
6.1 Indo-Greek Relations between the Greeks and the Mauryan emperor.
Megasthenes was sent to the Mauryan capital
The Beginnings Pataliputra as the first Greek ambassador.
India’s interaction with the Greeks began Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son, continued
with the invasion of north-western India by to maintain friendly ties with the Greek
Alexander (327–325 BCE) and his conquest of kingdoms in West Asia. Greek historians refer
the Punjab region. When he began his return to ambassadors sent by Ptolemy II of Egypt and
march to the West, he left the conquered to Bindusara’s correspondence with Antiochus
territories under provincial governors. One of Syria. Ashoka also continued the tradition
of Chandragupta Maurya’s early military of friendly relations with the Greek Kingdoms.
expeditions was against these foreign intruders. His Rock Edict (13) mentions five yona kings,
77

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identified as Antiochus II Theos of Syria, Ptolemy The Seleucid emperor Antiochus III was unable
II Philadelphus of Egypt, Antigonus Gonatas of to subjugate Euthydemus and agreed to negotiate
Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of a settlement with him, since Antiochus himself
Corinth. This also indicates that the relations of needed to turn his attention to his dominions
Ashoka with the Greeks extended beyond West in the West. But Antiochus III did come down
Asia well into the heartland of Greece. the Kabul river and managed to defeat the local
We now come across the term yavana (or Indian king, known as Subhagasena. Nothing
yona) for Greeks, which was used throughout much is known about this king. It can be inferred
India. The word was derived from the Persian that the mention of an independent king in the
word yauna, which referred to Greeks. In India region might be an indication of the weakening
the term yavana was used to denote all persons of the central authority of the Mauryan Empire
of Greek origin, including those of mixed race after Ashoka’s death.
and even the Phoenicians.
Demetrius
This regular interchange of ambassadors
and correspondence, as well as the extension Euthydemus’s son Demetrius succeeded
of the Mauryan Empire till Afghanistan, him (c. 200 BCE), and another Demetrius,
facilitated regular trade from India to the West probably Demetrius II, was the first known Indo-
as far as Egypt. Trade was carried on by the Greek king (c. 175 BCE). The distinguishing
overland route via north-west Afghanistan feature of the reign of the Indo-Greek kings was
(Bactria) and also partly by the coastal route their exquisite coinage. Minted in the same style
along the Persian Gulf and Red Sea. A variety as Greek coins of silver, they carried the portrait
of luxury goods, including ivory, tortoise of the reigning king on one side with his name.
shell, pearls, indigo and other dyes, aromatic The coins thus give us a visual picture of the
substances like spikenard or nard (a fragrant oil kings, who are represented in various kinds
from the Gangetic region) and malabathrum of headgear and with distinctive facial and
(leaf of cinnamon, used as an aromatic) and physical features. Extensive collections of these
rare woods were exported from India. coins have been found from the period, which
makes it possible to reconstruct the lineage of
The cultural influence of the Greeks is the Indo-Greek kings with certainty.
evident from the capitals of monuments at
Pataliputra. Many historians argue that the Indian accounts of the period refer to
elaborate administrative institutions of the the yavana invasion of Ayodhya (Saketa)
Mauryan Empire drew inspiration from the and further east into the Magadha territory.
administrative systems of the Persians and However, since the Greeks seem to have been
Greeks. The eventual rise of Indo-Greek beset by internal dissensions, they did not
kingdoms in western India strengthened these retain any of this territory. They ceded land
cross-cultural influences and gave rise to a to Pushyamitra, the Sunga emperor who had
distinct school of art. usurped the throne after the last Mauryan ruler.
Numismatic evidence also proves Demetrius’s
Indo-Greek kings
The Seleucid Empire, which extended
from northern Afghanistan (Bactria) to Syria,
began to weaken and disintegrate after 250
BCE. The governor of Bactria, Diodotus,
revolted against Antiochus II and became the
independent ruler of Bactria. In 212 BCE, the
king of Bactria was a Greek named Euthydemus. Demetrius II
78 Polity and Society in Post-Mauryan Period

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association with India. He issued bi-lingual Another Indo-Greek king whose name is
square coins with Greek on the obverse and remembered is Antialcidas (or Antialkidas), (c.
Kharoshti (the local language of north-western 110 BCE). He is known to us primarily because
Pakistan) on the reverse. his emissary, Heliodorus, who was sent to the
At about 165 BCE, Bactria was lost to the court of King Bhagabhadra erected a pillar or
Parthians and Sakas. After this, the yavanas garuda-dhvaja with its capital adorned by a
continued to rule in central and southern figure of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna
Afghanistan and north-western India. The (Vasudeva). Heliodorus had evidently become
Greeks continued to be beset with internal a follower of Vishnu. (The pillar stands in
squabbles among many claimants to power, isolation in the middle of a open ground in
and the names of more than thirty kings can Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.)
be identified from their coins. It is possible that Indian interactions with the Greeks was not
they all ruled small pockets as autonomous limited to the Indo-Greek kings. Greeks were
rulers and issued their own coinage. becoming known and their presence recorded
throughout the sub-continent. Merchants,
Menander sailors and many others of Greek origin were
Menander (c.165/145–130 BCE) was the travelling to India, so there was a continued
best known of the Indo-Greek kings. He is said interaction with the Greeks.
to have ruled a large kingdom in the north-west
of the country. His coins have been found over 6.2 Sakas, Parthians and
an extensive area ranging from the valleys of the Kushanas
Kabul and Indus rivers to as far as western Uttar The Indo-Greek kingdoms in north-
Pradesh. This gives a good indication of the western India were ousted by various nomadic
extent of his kingdom. He is said to have raided tribes from Central Asia, known as the Sakas
the Gangetic region along with the kings of (Scythians), Parthians (Pahlavis) and Kushanas
Panchala and Mathura. King Kharavela of (yueh-chi or yuezhi tribes in Chinese). In spite
Kalinga, mentioned in the Hathigumpa of the fact that they followed the Greek practice
inscription, was not able to stop him. Menander of issuing vast amounts of coinage with their
successfully attacked Pataliputra, but retreated names and titles (mostly “king of kings”), this
without consolidating his conquest. is a very confusing period in our history. It is
Interestingly, in his coins, he is described as a daunting task to try and work out the lineage
“king” and “soter” or saviour, and not as a great
conqueror.
Menander is
mainly remembered
as the eponymous
hero of the Buddhist
text, Milinda-
pinha (questions of
Milinda), in which
he is engaged in
a question-and-
Menander
answer discussion
on Buddhism with the teacher Nagasena. He
is believed to have become a Buddhist and
promoted Buddhism.
Junagath Inscription of Rudradaman
Polity and Society in Post-Mauryan Period 79

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of various ruling clans and dynasties that came Kushanas

into India. The Sakas were displaced by the Parthian
The first question that arises is: why and how Gondophernes, who first conquered Kabul (c.
did nomadic tribes turn to war and conquest? 43 CE). He lost the Kabul valley to the Kushanas,
The advent of these tribes in India arose as a but he was successful against the Sakas in India.
result of a complex sequence of migrations Records of his rule have been discovered in
and political developments in Central Asia. In Peshawar district. The Sakas approached the
the eastern part of Central Asia, the Yueh-chi Kushanas (yueh-chi) for war help against the
were being pushed westward by the Chinese Parthians. The first Kushana king who conquered
who had built the Great Wall to p out nomads Afghanistan was Khujula Kadphises, followed
and to protect their villages and agriculture by Wima Kadphises. The two kings extended
from their raids. The Yueh-chi, in turn, turned Kushana territory to Gandhara, Punjab and as
westward and pushed the Sakas towards eastern far to the east as the Ganga-Yamuna doab till
Iran, where the Parthians had become rulers Mathura in Uttar Pradesh.
following the collapse of the Seleucid empire.
Kanishka
Sakas The best known of the Kushana kings was
The Sakas were pushed back from eastern Kanishka, who is thought to have ruled from 78
Iran by the Parthian ruler Mithradates and they CE till 101 or 102 CE. Ironically, 78 CE is held to
then turned to north-western India and finally be the beginning of the “Saka era” in the Indian
settled in the region between the Indus valley calendar. Historians are, hence, divided about
and Saurashtra. The first Saka ruler in India was Kanishka’s period. His rule is said to have started
Maues or Moa/Moga (c. 80 BCE). He occupied anywhere between 78 and 144 CE. Kanishka
Gandhara, driving a wedge into the Indo-Greek was an ardent follower of Buddhism and hosted
kingdoms, but it was his successor Azes who the fourth Buddhist mahasangha or council
finally destroyed the last remnants of the Indo- (the third council had been held in Pataliputra
Greek kingdoms and extended Saka rule as far during Ashoka’s reign). By now Mahayana
as Mathura. Buddhism had become the dominant sect, and
Kanishka supported the missions sent to China
In India, the Sakas became assimilated to preach Buddhism.
into Hindu society. They began to adopt Hindu
names and religious beliefs, so much so that
their coins had representations of Hindu gods
on one side. The Sakas appointed kshatrapas or
satraps as provincial governors to administer
their territories. Many of the kshatrapas titled
themselves mahakshatrapas and were virtually
independent rulers. Kanishka Kanishka Coin
One of the most famous of the Saka Kushana coins were of the highest quality
kshatrapas was Rudradaman (130–150 CE). and conformed to the weight standards of
His exploits are celebrated in the famous rock Roman coins. In the coins, Kushana rulers are
inscription of Junagadh (in Gujarat). According referred to as “king of kings”, “Caesar”, “lord of all
to this inscription, he had even defeated the lands” and by other such titles. Unfortunately, the
Satavahanas in battle. His name indicates that titles did not leave much room on the coins for the
the process of assimilation into Indian society actual name of the ruler. Hence our information
was complete by that time. on the Kushana kings tends to be very uncertain.

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HINDU KUSH KUSHAN EMPIRE N
Bagram KASHMIR W E
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Peshawar s
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GANDHARA S
Ch Kushan Empire
KAPICA en
eb
us
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Ind
Capital cities
a
vi
Be
Ra
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Sut
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Sui Vihar Mirath
Indraprastha
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Ya Nigliva
m
G
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ba un
an
a
MARU m a aputr
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a m
SIND s Ch Sarnath Brah
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Bana Prayaga
Patliputra
Kasi MAGADHA
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KACHHA C H
Sanchi
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SURASHTRA U
AR Narmada AVANTI
Junagadh BH Mahanadi
Tapti
Go
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A BENGAL
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Kr
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Kanishka’s coins as well as his statue found near merchants established themselves in various
Mathura show him dressed in a belted tunic towns in Central Asia and seized the opportunity
along with overcoat and wearing boots, testifying to become intermediaries in the luxury trade
to his Central Asian origins. between China and the Roman Empire, since
merchants from the West did not want to venture
The Karakoram highway, a joint project
further east beyond Central Asia.
between China and Pakistan, which was
completed in 1979, has yielded great dividends Kushana kings, mostly with their names
for archaeologists and historians. The rock of ending with –shka (among them Huvishka and
Hunza mentions the first two Kadphises and Vasishka as well as later Kanishka and even
the Kusanadevaputra (son of God) Maharaja Vasudeva), ruled for at least one century more,
Kaniska. This inscription confirms that but nothing much is known about them. Clearly
Kanishka’s empire stretched from Central Asia the empire was beginning to break down, and
till eastern India. Buddhist sources record that the satraps (the Kushanas also continued the
he had conquered Magadha and Kashmir and practice of appointing satraps to govern the
Khotan in Sinkiang. provinces) were able to set themselves up as
independent rulers in various regional capitals.
The artefacts found along the Karakoram
highway also establish that this was the route Art and Literature
taken by Buddhist monks travelling to China on
During the reign of
their mission to spread Buddhism. Merchants
Kushanas, there was great
followed the missionaries, so this became a major
creative energy when art
commercial route for the import of Chinese silk
and literature flourished.
and horses from the West into India. Indian

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This was partly due to ago in South India, most probably belonged to
royal patronage and partly this period. Among the Hindu treatises, we find
due to other factors, like the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra and
the growing ascendancy Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape by the
of Mahayana Buddhism, second century CE.
which allowed the
representation of the person 6.3 The Tamil Kingdoms
of Buddha in human form.
Southern India remained immune to the
The Greek influence led
political changes taking place in the northern part
to an Indo-Greek style of Gandhara Art
of the country. Around the first century CE, the
sculpture and art commonly
Satavahana kingdom was established in the
referred to as Gandhara art. Statues of Buddha,
Deccan area, comprising the modern states of
sculpted particularly in Taxila and the north-
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. This, however,
western regions, show him in graceful garments,
was not like the centralised empire of the Mauryas,
surrounded by cherubs and leaves inspired by the
and the provincial governors of the Satavahanas
Greek tradition. But mention must also be made
had a considerable degree of autonomy.
of the red sandstone sculpture with intricate
carving produced near Mathura. The political
landscape of the Tamil
The Buddhists began to carve out rock
region was fragmented
caves in the hills of western India, which served
into small kingdoms,
as religious centres with chaityas and viharas,
in contrast to the north
stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri
where extensive empires
caves in Mumbai. Large statues of Buddha were
flourished. The Tamil
sculpted in these caves as a part of the Mahayana Image of Satavahana
region was ruled by King Gautami Putra
tradition, and in later centuries, they were further
muvendar, the three Satakarni
embellished with murals of extraordinary beauty,
kings – the Pandyas
as seen in the Ajanta caves.
from their capital Madurai, the Cholas from
Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist their capital Uraiyur (now a suburb of the city of
philosophers such as Asvaghosha, Parsva and Tiruchi), and the Cheras from Vanji (modern-
Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist teacher day Karur). We know that these kings were
Nagarjuna. Asvaghosha is known for his known to the Mauryas even in the 3rd century
Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the author BCE and Ashoka’s second rock edict mentions
of the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in them as kingdoms bordering his empire.
nine acts. The great dramatist Bhasa, whose plays However, there were many war lords and chiefs
were re-discovered only about a hundred years (often referred to as velir) who were ruling over
smaller principalities in the region.
Gandhara Art : Situated in the cross-
roads of cultural influences, Gandhara We have extensive information about
region was influenced by Greek and Roman the Tamil region coming from the corpus of
culture. Gandhara school of art developed Tamil poetry collectively known as the Sangam
in the first century Common Era. During literature, dating from the third century BCE to
the time of Kushana Empire, in view of its the third century CE. To these we can add the
contact with Rome, the techniques of Roman epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai, which
art were assimilated and applied in north- were written somewhat later. The very large
western India. The Gandhara art is famous volume of trade with the Tamil region evoked
for the portrayal of Buddha in a spiritual a great deal of interest among the Roman and
state, eyes half-closed in meditation. Greek historians and geographers, and their

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accounts complement the information in Further, this also meant that the overland route
the Tamil sources, especially with respect to could be circumvented completely, since traders
trade. A first century CE account in Greek, on that route were also vulnerable to attacks
the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (Periplus by Parthians in Iran. The ultimate result of
Maris Erythraei), is the most reliable source of the combination of the growing demand from
information on the ports of the Indian coast Rome and the opening of the direct sea route to
and trade. Archaeological findings confirm the western India was a increase in the number of
information from all these sources. ships sailing to India from about twenty ships a
Contours of International Trade year to almost one ship a day.
Two major developments changed the 6.4 Trade Between
contours of trade between Europe and India Tamizhagam and Rome
towards the beginning of the Common Era. By
the end of the last century BCE, Rome emerged Trade had flourished between the Tamil
as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, country and Rome even when Rome was a
displacing the Greek kingdoms, and the republic republic. Roman coins and artefacts of the
became an empire in 27 BCE under Emperor period have been excavated at Arikamedu, near
Augustus. Rome was the largest and, probably, Pondicherry, which is said to have been an
the wealthiest city in the world commanding Indo-Roman trading station. Before the first
huge resources realised through conquests century of the Common Era, Roman ships did
in Europe and North Africa. The wealth of not venture past the western coast of India
Rome greatly increased the demand for various around Cape Comorin. So the ports on the west
products from India, especially the spices and coast were the main ports involved in trade with
textiles of the Tamil country, resulting in a great Rome. From the west coast, the Roman traders
expansion of trade. travelled overland through the Palghat pass to
production centres further east. Kodumanal in
Erode, Padiyur in Tiruppur and Vaniyampadi
near Vellore had mines producing beryl, which
was a gemstone in high demand in Rome. In
addition, Chennimalai near Erode produced
iron and steel (remnants of furnaces and slag
have been found here), which was also exported
to Rome. This is the reason why the finds of
Roman Trade-Ship Roman coins of the earlier period are
The second development was the discovery concentrated in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem and
of the pattern of monsoon winds in the Arabian Karur districts.
Sea in the first century CE by Hippalus, an By the end of the first
Egyptian sailor. Till then, the sea trade between century CE, however, Roman
India and the Mediterranean world was ships had begun to sail to
controlled by the Arabs. Arabs had a monopoly ports on the Coromandel
of the knowledge of the source regions of (east) coast of Tamil Nadu,
products such as cinnamon and pepper, which and many of these ports are
formed the main export to Rome. But when the mentioned in the Periplus.
information about the direct sea route became On the west coast, the main ports were Naura
common knowledge, Roman ships began to sail (Cannanore) and Tyndys/Tondi (Ponnani),
directly to the western coast of India. They could which were said to be on the northern border
thus avoid sailing close to the coastline, which of the Tamil country of the Cheras. Musiri or
made them vulnerable to attacks by pirates. Muziris was an important port located further

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Rome, and the volume of trade peaked in the

second half of the first century CE, during the
reign of Emperor Tiberius. The growing trade
imbalance, which had to be met through exports
of coins or silver, became a source of concern.
There was a complaint that each year the trade
to India caused a drain of 55 million sesterces
to Rome. Ultimately Emperor Vespasian passed
laws to curb the luxury consumption of the
wealthier classes in Rome, and imports from
India subsequently comprised only cotton
textiles and pepper, which were relatively low-
value commodities.
A further change in the trading pattern
Muziri papyrus document evolved because of the increased vulnerability
south. Traditionally identified as Kodungallur, of the traditional overland silk route. Silk cloth
and yarn from China were carried by sea to
the recently undertaken Muziris excavation
the Coromandel ports, from where they were
locates the port at Pattanam, a few kilometers
transshipped to Rome. Information about
away. Musiri was probably the busiest port on
the trade relations of the Tamil region with
the coast. A recently discovered trade agreement
the south-east and further east is very scanty.
written on papyrus between a merchant of
However, tortoiseshell (an important export to
Muziris and a merchant of Alexandria indicates
Rome) was sourced from islands near Malaya in
the large consignments of cargo carried even
the Indian Ocean, while silk came from China.
by individual merchants. According to Sangam
There was also constant interaction with Java
poetry, Musiri was the centre of two circuits of and Sri Lanka, which are mentioned in Tamil
trade. Boats came in from the interior carrying literature almost as extensions of Tamil Nadu,
rice and took back fish, which indicates a kind of and Buddhism was probably the connecting
barter trade in the primary consumption goods. link, which brought these countries together.
At the same time, sacks of pepper were brought to
the market and were exchanged for gold, which Foreign merchants (yavanas)
came in the ships, which in turn, was transported The expansion of overseas trade and
on barges to the shore. shipping brought foreign merchants and sailors
to the Tamil region. Because of the seasonal
The ships sailing from India to Rome carried nature of the monsoon winds, and the prevailing
pepper, a large quantity of pearls, ivory, silk cloth, levels of technology, long voyages necessitated
spikenard (a fragrant oil from the Gangetic region long periods of stay in host countries. We find
which was much in demand for personal use interesting insights into the response of Tamil
among wealthy Romans) malabathrum, the leaf society to the presence of these foreign merchants.
of the cinnamon tree, again used as an aromatic, Puhar was the most important port on the
sapphire, beryl, diamonds and tortoiseshell. Coromandel coast. Here, yavana merchants lived
As Roman ships began to trade with the in especially ear-marked residential quarters in
Coromandel coast, the fine cotton textiles of the the harbour area. Though they were allowed to
region were also exported. From Rome, the main trade freely, and were noted for their attractive
imports were coin, topaz, antimony, coral, crude goods, there was a good deal of reserve in the
glass, copper, tin and lead and wine. Clearly, the attitude of the local Tamils to foreign merchants
value of the exports from the Tamil region was who were considered an alien, barbaric people,
much higher than the value of imports from who spoke a harsh-sounding language.

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Other yavanas also came with the necessities, rather than selling the salt for money.
merchants. The fortress of Madurai was guarded However, the extent of the overland and overseas
by yavanas carrying large swords. There are trade, as well as the descriptions of the city markets
also references to yavana metal workers and in the literature would imply that money was the
carpenters, who were described as “hard-eyed” main medium of exchange.
probably because they had grey or blue eyes.
All these may not have been strictly of Greek
origin, as implied by the term yavana, which
had become a generic word to denote persons
from the eastern Mediterranean regions.
Trade and the Economy: The

Roman coins
Larger Picture
The magnitude of the expansion of trade
that is evident in this period could have been
achieved only through major changes to the
production base of the economy. Even in the
case of primary products like mined gemstones
like beryl, increased demand would have Chera coins
involved more labour to work the mines, more The Roman coins that have been found
implements and more capital. In the case of in various centres substantiate this inference.
textiles, there would have been a considerable Locally, imitations of Roman coins were also
increase in weaving activity and in the subsidiary minted, primarily to increase the supply of money
activities like spinning to produce the yarn in circulation. Fairly large volumes of Chera coins
for weaving, and perhaps even growing more have also been found in the bed of the Amaravati
cotton to increase the supply of the raw material. river. The very large quantities of Indo-Greek
Growing trade thus would lead to a considerable and Kushana coins found in North India would
degree of expansion of the economy. lead to a similar conclusion about the level of
monetisation. All this would lead to the inference
Merchants became more visible and
that there was considerable use of money as the
important as trade grew. There were merchants
medium of exchange in the ancient period.
dealing with specific products like food grains,
cloth, gold and jewellery in the markets of the Conclusion
big cities. Merchants were also involved in The centuries in discussion in this chapter
overseas trade, as well as overland trade. Thus, were not a period of great political stability. With
the circuits of trade became more specialised the exception of Kanishka, the invaders in North
with institutionalised arrangements to support India did not consolidate their conquests by
the expanding commercial activities. establishing large, stable empires. Even Kanishka
One of the most important questions that ruled only for a relatively short period, and his
arises is what was the extent to which money was empire slowly fell apart after his death. The
used in commerce. This is difficult to answer. In all Tamil region did not have the unifying force of a
pre-modern economies, barter was an important large empire and was fragmented into relatively
medium of exchange. For instance, salt merchants small kingdoms and even smaller principalities.
of the Tamil region carried salt in their carts from The most important development of this period
the coastal areas of the east inland, travelling both for the north and the south was the great
together in groups. It is more than probable that expansion of trade. From the north, trade
they exchanged their salt for other goods and relations extended to China in the east and up

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to the known Mediterranean world in the west.

For the south, in addition to internal trade and EXERCISE
circuits of exchange, there was exponential
Q.R.Code
growth in overseas trade to the west, and also to
the east up to China. The result would be seen I. Choose the
in a considerable degree of economic growth and correct answer:
increased prosperity, which is evident from the 1. ______________ was one of the most capable
excavations of cities as well as the descriptions of generals of Alexander.
urban centres in Tamil poetry.
(a) Seleucus Nicator (b) Antigonus
SUMMARY (c) Antiochus (d) Demetrius
2. Megasthenes was sent by Seleucus Nicator to
In India, after Alexander’s death, his the capital Pataliputra as the ______________
general Seleucus Nicator, succeeded to ambassador.
the region across north-western India
(a) Roman (b) Greek
as a ruler and consequently diplomatic
relations were established. (c) Chinese (d) British
3. The regular interchange of ambassadors and
The Seleucid Empire got weakened and
correspondence______________.
as a result, following a couple of his
successors, Menander, the best known of (a) affected the regular trade from India to
Indo-Greek Kings ruled the empire. the West
The Indo-Greek kingdom was ousted (b) facilitated regular trade from India to the
by the Sakas followed by the Parthians West
and the Kushanas. The Sakas appointed (c) facilitated regular trade from India to the
kshatraps or provincial governors to East
administer the territories. (d) none of the above
Rudradaman was the most famous Saka 4. ______________ was the best known of the
ruler. After him, the Sakas were displaced Indo-Greek kings.
by the Parthians who were succeeded by (a) Euthydemus (b) Demetrius
the Kushanas. (c) Menander (d) Antialcidas
The best known of the Kushanas was 5. Kushana coins were of higher quality than
Kanishka who was an ardent follower of that of ______________ coins.
Mahayana form of Buddhism. Gandhara
(a) Roman (b) Greek
art developed during his period.
(c) Gupta (d) Satavahana
Buddhist philosophers such as
6.
Indo-Greek style of art and sculpture is
Asvaghosha, Parsva, Vasumitra and
referred to as ______________.
Nagarjuna were patronised by Kanishka.
In South India, Satavahana kingdom (a) Mathura art (b) Gandhara art
was established in the first century CE. (c) Bagh art (d) Pala art
Muvendar (Chola, Chera and Pandya) 7. Which of the following is not correctly matched?
were dominant in this region. (a) Buddhacharita - Asvagosha
Trade developed between the Tamil (b) The Periplus of
country and Rome. Puhar became an the Erythrean Sea - Megasthenes
important port on Coramandel coast. (c) Arthasastra - Kautilya
Yavana merchants lived in port towns. (d) Kamasutra - Vatsyayana

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The most famous Saka kshatrap was

8. 3. “The Roman coins of the earlier period are
______________. concentrated in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem
and Karur districts.” Why?
(a) Moga (b) Rudradaman
4. “Muziri was the centre of two circuits of
(c) Azes (d) Yesovarman
trade.’” How?
9. The contours of trade between Europe and
5. Explain the importance of money as medium
India was changed towards the beginning of
of exchange.
the Common Era because
6. Highlight the cultural influence of India’s
(i) Rome emerged as the super power of the contact with Greeks.
Mediterranean world by the end of the last
century BCE. IV. Answer the following in detail
(ii) The discovery of the pattern of the monsoon 1. “The rise of Indo-Greek kings in Western
winds in the Arabian Sea by Hippalus was India strengthened trade and cultural
in the first century CE. contacts”. Explain.
(a) (i) is correct 2. Discuss the contribution of Kanishka to art
and literature.
(b) (ii) is correct
3. Explain how Rome emerged as the super
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct
power of the Mediterranean world.
(d) Both (i) and (ii) are wrong
4. Given an account of the Tamil Kingdoms of
10.
Roman coins have been excavated at
first century CE.
______________.
(a) Arikamedu (b) Adhichanallur Activity
(c) Puhar (d) Pallavaram 1. Collect interesting information about India
by Megasthenes.
II. Write Brief Answers 2. Explore the coinage of Indo-Greeks.
1. What led to the integration of India with the 3. Compare and contrast Mahayana and
Mediterranean world, Central Asia and China? Hinayana forms of Buddhism.
2.
What was the result of the war between 4. Locate Rome as an important commercial
Chandragupta and Seleucus Nicator? hub on the world map.
3. What is meant by the term Yavana?
4. “Menander is said to have ruled a large kingdom REFERENCE BOOKS
in the North West of the country.” Elaborate. 1. John Keay, India: A History. Harper Collins.
5. Write a short note on “Kshatraps”. 2. R.C. Majumdar, History and Culture of
6. Make a list of the following: Items exported to the Indian People: The Age of Imperial
Rome; Items imported into India from Rome. Unity (vol. II). Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan’s
7. Explain the contribution of merchants to the 3. Kanakalatha Mukund, Merchants of
expanding trade and commerce. Tamilakam: Pioneers of International
Trade. Penguin Books India.
III. Write Short Answers 4. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Age of the
1.
Point out the speciality of the coins of Nandas and Mauryas. Motilal Banarsidass.
Demetrius. 5. Romila Thapar, Early India: From the
2. What do you know of Menander? Origins to A.D.1300. Penguin Books India.

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GLOSSARY
acculturation adapting to the surrounding culture பிற பண்பாடு ஏற்றல்

eponymous the person after whom someone is ெபயருக்குரிய
named
daunting discouraging ஊக்கம் இழக்கத்தக்க
embellished add beauty அழகு படுத்து
squabble argument சச்சரவு
doab a fertile tract of land between two இரு நதிகளுக்கிைடயில்
adjacent rivers காணப்படும்
ெசழுைமயான நிலப்பகுதி
ICT CORNER
Polity and society in Post-Mauryan Period
This activity is to explore Maps.

You can know about countries,
capitals, flags and cities in all
the continents using Educational
Interactive Game Settera Map
Quiz.
Steps:
• Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
• Free Map Quiz page will appear on the screen.
• Scroll down and you can select any continent or country (ex. Indian Cities)
• Explore various places on the map, play and engage in quiz activities
Browse in the link

Web: https://online.seterra.com/en/
Mobile : https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.seterra.free
*Pictures are indicative only.

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UNIT
The Guptas
7
Learning Objectives
To learn the importance of Guptas rule in Indian history.
To understand the significance of land grants and its impact on
agricultural economy of the empire.
To acquaint ourselves with the nature of the society and the socio-economic life of the
people of the time.
To know the development of culture, art and education during the period.
Introduction Sources
There are three types of sources for
After the Mauryan empire, many small reconstructing the history of the Gupta period.
kingdoms rose and fell. In the period from c.
I. Literary sources
300 to 700 CE, a classical pattern of an imperial
rule evolved, paving the way for state formation Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati and Katyayana
smritis.
in many regions. During this period, the
Kamandaka’s Nitisara, a work on polity
Gupta kingdom emerged as a great power and
addressed to the king (400 CE)
achieved the political unification of a large part Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshasam
of the Indian subcontinent. It featured a strong by Vishakadutta provide details about the
central government, bringing many kingdoms rise of the Guptas.
under its hegemony. Feudalism as an institution Buddhist and Jaina texts
began to take root during this period. With Works of Kalidasa
an effective guild system and overseas trade, Accounts of the Chinese traveller Fahien
the Gupta economy boomed. Great works in II. Epigraphical Sources
Sanskrit were produced during this period and
Mehrauli Iron
a high level of cultural maturity in fine arts,
Pillar inscription
sculpture and architecture was achieved. – achievements of
The living standards of upper classes Chandragupta I.
reached a peak. Education, art and study of Allahabad Pillar
science progressed, but the feudal system of inscription –
describing
governance put people in some form of hardship.
Samudragupta’s
Although some historians proclaim that Gupta
personality and
period was a golden age, it is not entirely achievements in
accurate. Many scholars would, however, agree 33 lines composed Mehrauli Iron Pillar
that it was a period of cultural florescence and a by Harisena and
classical age for the arts. engraved in Sanskrit and in Nagari script.
89

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III. Numismatic Sources lengthy eulogy on him, inscribed on an Ashokan

pillar, suggests that he was claiming the legacy of
Coins issued by Gupta
kings contain legends the Mauryan kingdom. This inscription gives an
and figures. These gold impressive list of kings and regions that succumbed
coins tell us about to Samudragupta’s march across the country.
the titles the Guptas Four northern kings were conquered
assumed and the Vedic mainly in the area around Delhi and western
rituals they performed. Uttar Pradesh. The kings of the south and the
east were forced to pay homage, and from the
Origins of the Gupta Dynasty places mentioned, it appears that Samudragupta
Evidence on the origin and antecedents of campaigned down the eastern coast as far as
the Gupta dynasty is limited. The Gupta kings Kanchipuram. Nine kings of the western half
seem to have risen from the modest origins. of the Ganges Plain were violently uprooted.
Chandragupta I, who was the third ruler of the The forest kings (tribal chiefs of Central India
Gupta dynasty married Kumaradevi, a Lichchavi and the Deccan) were forced to pay tribute.
princess. The marriage is mentioned in the records The kings of Assam and Bengal in eastern India
of his successors with pride indicating that that and those of small kingdoms in Nepal and the
royal connection would have contributed to the Punjab also paid tribute by submission. Nine
rise of Guptas. Lichchavi was an old, established Republics in Rajasthan, including the Malavas
gana-sangha and its territory lay between the and Yaudheyas, were forced to accept Gupta’s
Ganges and the Nepal Terai. According to suzerainty. In addition, foreign kings, such
Allahabad pillar inscription Samudragupta, the as the Daivaputra Shahanushahi (a Kushana
illustrious son of Chandragupta I, had conquered title), the Sakas and the king of Lanka also paid
the whole fertile plains west of Prayag to Mathura tribute, as mentioned in the eulogy.
and launched a spectacular raid through Kalinga
into the south as far as Kanchipuram, the
Pallava capital. The Puranas mention Magadha,
Allahabad and Oudh as the Gupta dominions.
7.1 Chandragupata I and

Empire Building
The first ruler of the Gupta Empire was Sri
Gupta (240–280 CE) who was succeeded by his
son Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE). Both Sri Gupta
and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharajas
in inscriptions. Chandragupta I, the son of
Ghatotkacha, ruled from 319 to 335 CE and is
considered to be the first great king of the Gupta
Empire. Chandragupta held the title of maharaja-
adhiraja (great king over other kings). His imperial Allahabad Pillar
position is inferred from the records of others. No Historians call Samudragupta the
inscriptions or coins have survived from his reign. Napoleon of India. This statement is
undeniable. The southern kings paid tribute,
7.2 Samudragupta while the northern kingdoms were annexed to
Chandragupta I appointed his son the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta. His
Samudragupta to succeed him in 335 CE. A direct control was confined to the Ganges valley,
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EMPIRE OF GUPTAS N
W E
Empire of Guptas S
Ancient towns
Temples
Buddhist temple
Stupas
Cave temple
YAUDHEYAS
Indraprastha
KOSALA
Mathura Kapilavastjhu a
p utr
ARJUNAYANAS ma
MALAVAS Kushinagar ah
Br
Mandasaur Ayodhya
Prayaga Nalanda
Kashi GayaRajgriha
Ujjayini
Bharut
Valabhi Sanchi Tamralipti
Girnar
MAHAKOSALA BAY
OF
Ajanta A
G BENGAL
G
Ellora N
od
L I
KA Puri
av
VAKATAKAS
Kri
ar
ARABIAN shn
i
Nagarjunakonda a Vengi
SEA
Srisailam Amaravati
AS
LAV
L
PA Kanchi
An
da
CHOLAS
ma
Lakshad weep isla
CH
Tanjore
a n
ER
(I N D I A )
d
(I N D I A )
n ic ob a
AS
Madurai
S
YA
r
ND
is l
n
A
ds
P
an
SRI
ds
LANKA
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since the Sakas remained unconquered in alliances. He married off his daughter
western India. The tribes of Rajasthan paid Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, who ruled the
tribute, but the Punjab was outside the limits strategic lands of Deccan. This alliance was
of his authority. Samudragupta’s campaign highly useful when he proceeded against the
broke the power of the tribal republics in those Saka rulers of western India. Chandragupta
regions that led to repeated invasions from the II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat by
Huns. defeating the Saka rulers who had reigned for
The relationship with Kushanas is not about four centuries in the region.
certain, but with regard to Lanka, its ruler The kingdom’s prosperity grew out of
Meghavarman sent presents and requested its trade links with Roman Empire. After
permission from Samudragupta to build a establishing himself in eastern and western
Buddhist monastery at Gaya. Samudragupta’s India, Chandragupta II defeated northern
reign lasted for about 40 years, which must have rulers like the Huns, Kambojas and Kiratas.
given him ample time to plan and organise these He was a great conqueror and an able
campaigns. He performed the horse-sacrifice administrator as well. His other names
ritual to proclaim his military conquests. (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama,
Devagupta, Devaraja, Simhavikrama,
Fahien’s account on Mathura

and Pataliputra
At Mathura,
the people are
numerous and
happy; they do not
Samudragupta playing the vina
have to register
Samudragupta patronised scholars their household.
and poets like Harisena and thus promoted Only those who
Sanskrit literature. Though an ardent follower cultivate the
of Vaishnavism, he also patronised the great royal land have
Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu. As a lover to pay a portion
of poetry and music, he was given the title of the grain from
it. Criminals are
“Kaviraja”. His coins bear the insignia of him
fined both lightly
playing the vina (lute). and heavily
depending on the
7.3 Chandragupta II circumstances.
Name d af ter In the case of repeated rebellion, their
h is g r and f at he r, right hands are cut off. Throughout the
Chandragupta II was whole country, the people do not kill any
a capable ruler, who living creatures or drink any intoxicant.
ruled for 40 years from The inhabitants of Pataliputra are rich
c. 375 to 415 CE. He and prosperous and vie with one another
came to power after a in the practice of benevolence. In the cities,
Chandragupta II the Vaisya families establish houses for
succession struggle with
dispensing charity and medicines. All the
his brother Rama Gupta. He is also known as
poor and destitute, orphans, widows and
Vikramaditya. With the capital at Pataliputra, childless, maimed and cripples are provided
Chandragupta II extended the limits of the with every kind of help.
Gupta Empire by conquest and matrimonial
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Vikramaditya and Sakari. His court had nine 7.4 Gupta’s Administrative
jewels or navaratnas, that is, nine eminent System
people in various fields of art, literature and
science. This included the great Sanskrit poet The King
Kalidasa, the Sanskrit scholar Harisena, the
lexicographer Amarasimha, and the physician During the Gupta age, political hierarchies can
Dhanvantari. Fahien, the Buddhist scholar be identified by the titles adopted. Kings assumed
from China, visited India during his reign. He titles such as maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka
records the prosperity of the Gupta Empire. and parameshvara. They were also connected with
Chandragupta II was the first Gupta ruler to gods through epithets such as parama-daivata (the
issue silver coins. His rule thus formed the foremost worshipper of the gods) and parama-
peak period of Gupta’s territorial expansion. bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva
Krishna). Some historians have suggested that the
Chandragupta II was succeeded by Gupta Kings claimed divine status. For example,
his son Kumara Gupta I, who founded the Samudragupta is compared to Purusha (Supreme
Nalanda University. He was also called Being) in the Allahabad inscription. These
Sakraditya. The last great king of the Gupta assertions can be seen as reflections of an attempt to
dynasty, Skanda Gupta, was the son of claim divine status by the king.
Kumara Gupta I. He was able to repulse an
attack by the Huns, but the recurrence of Ministers and other Officials
Huns’ invasion strained his empire’s coffers.
Seals and inscriptions make a mention
The Gupta Empire declined after the death
of official ranks and designations, whose
of Skanda Gupta in 467 CE. He was followed
precise meaning is often uncertain. The term
by many successors who hastened the end of
“kumaramatya” occurs in six Vaishali seals, which
the Gupta Empire. The last recognised king
suggests that this title represented a high-ranking
of the Gupta line was Vishnu Gupta who
officer associated with an office (adikarana) of
reigned from 540 to 550 CE.
his own. The designation “amatya” occurs on
The origin of Huns is not definitely known. several Bita seals, and the “kumaramatya” seems
According to Roman historian Tacitus, they to have been pre-eminent among amatyas and
were a barbarian tribe living near Caspian equivalent in status to princes of royal blood.
Sea and contributed to the fall of Roman Kumaramatyas were attached to the king, crown
Empire. They organised under Attila and prince, revenue department or a province. One
were known for their savagery and bestiality of the Vaishali seals refers to a kumaramatya who
in Europe. One branch of Huns, know as seems to have been in charge of the maintenance
white Huns, moved towards India from
of the sacred coronation tank of the Lichchavis.
Central Asia and their invasion began about
a hundred years after the Kushanas. Individuals holding the ranks of kumaramatya
sometimes had additional designations as well,
and such ranks were hereditary. For example,
Harisena, composer of the Allahabad prashasti
(inscriptions of praise), was a Kumaramatya,
Sandhivigrahika and Mahadandanayaka, and was
the son of Dhruvabhuti, a mahadandanayaka.
Council of Ministers
The Gupta king was assisted by a council of
mantrins (ministers). The Allahabad prashasti
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refers to an assembly or council, presumably of Administrative Units below the

ministers, which was known as the Sabha. The District level
various high-ranking functionaries included
the sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika The administrative units below the district
(minister for peace and war), who seems to level included clusters of settlements known
have been a high-ranking officer in charge of variously as vithi, bhumi, pathaka and peta. There
contact and correspondence with other states, are references to officials known as ayuktakas
including initiating wars and concluding and vithi-mahattaras. At the village level,
alliances and treaties. villagers chose functionaries such as gramika
and gramadhyaksha. The Damodarpur copper
High-ranking officials were called plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions an
dandanayakas, and mahadandanayakas were ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members)
high-ranking judicial or military officers. One of headed by the mahattara. Mahattara has a range
the seals mentions a mahadandanayaka named of meanings including village elder, village
Agnigupta. The Allahabad prashasti refers to three headman, and head of a family community. The
mahadandanayakas. All these suggest that these Sanchi inscription of the time of Chandragupta
posts were hereditary by nature. Another person II mentions the panch-mandali, which may have
had a designation mahashvapati (commander of been a corporate body.
the cavalry), indicating military functions.
Army
Division of the Empire
The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces Seals and inscriptions mention military
known as deshas or bhuktis. They were administered designations such as baladhikrita and
by governors who were usually designated as mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and
cavalry). The standard term “senapati” does
uparikas. The uparika was directly appointed by
not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term
the king and he, in turn, frequently appointed the
could be found in some Vakataka epigraphs.
head of the district administration and the district
A Vaishali seal mentions the ranabhandagar-
board. Uparika carried on the administration
adhikarana, which is the office of the military
“with the enjoyment of the rule consisting of
storehouse. Another Vaishali seal mentions the
elephants, horses and soldiers”, indicating his
adhikarana (office) of the dandapashika, which
control over the military machinery as well. The
may have been a district-level police office.
fact that the uparika had the title maharaja in three
of the Damodarpur plates indicates his high status The officials connected specifically with the
and rank in the administrative hierarchy. The Eran royal establishment included the mahapratiara
pillar inscription of Budhagupta, dated Gupta year (chief of the palace guards) and the khadyatapakita
165 CE, refers to maharaja Surashmichandra as a (superintendent of the royal kitchen). A Vaishali
lokpala, governing the land between the Kalinndi seal mentions a person both as a mahapratihara
and Narmada rivers. Lokpala here seems to refer and a taravara. The top layer of the administrative
to a provincial governor. structure also included amatyas and sachivas,
who were executive officers in charge of various
The provinces of the Gupta Empire were
departments. The system of espionage included
divided into districts known as visayas, which
spies known as dutakas. The ayuktakas were
were controlled by officers known as vishyapatis.
another cadre of high-ranking officers.
The vishyapatis seems to have been generally
appointed by the provincial governor. Sometimes,
7.5 Economic Condition
even the kings directly appointed the vishyapatis.
Prominent members of the town assisted the Kamandaka wrote Nitisara. It emphasises
vishyapati in administrative duties. the importance of the royal treasury and
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mentions various sources of revenue. The many Irrigation

ambitious military campaigns of kings like
The importance of irrigation to agriculture
Samudragupta must have been financed through
was recognised in India from the earliest times.
revenue surpluses. Gupta inscriptions reveal
From the Narada Smriti, we understand that
some details about the revenue department.
there were two kinds of dykes: the bardhya,
The akshapataladhikrita was the keeper of royal
which protected the field from floods, and the
records. Gupta inscriptions mention the terms
khara, which served the purpose of irrigation.
klipta, bali, udranga, uparikara, and iranyavesti
To prevent inundation, jalanirgamah (drains)
meant forced labour.
were constructed, which is mentioned by
Agriculture and Agrarian Structure Amarasimha. Canals were constructed not only
from rivers but also from tanks and lakes. The
Agriculture flourished in the Gupta period
most famous lake was the Sudarsana lake at the
due to establishment of irrigation works. Apart
foot of Girnar Hills in Gujarat.
from the state and individual cultivators,
Brahmins, Buddhists and Jain sanghas brought Position of Peasantry
waste lands under cultivation when they were The position of peasantry was undermined.
donated to them as religious endowments. They were reduced to the position of serfs due
Cultivators were asked to maintain their crops to the caste classification and also due to the
properly from damages and those who indulged granting of various privileges and lands to
in damaging the crops were punished. Likewise, others. The practice of lease-holding reduced
crops and fields were fenced. the permanent tenants to tenants at will (which
The crops cultivated during the Gupta means tenants could be evicted without notice).
period were paddy, wheat, barley, peas, lentils, The farmers were required to pay various taxes.
pulses, sugarcane and oil seeds. From Kalidasa,
we come to know that the south was famous Industry: Mining and Metallurgy
for pepper and cardamom. Varahamihira gives Mining and metallurgy was one of the most
elaborate advice on the plantation of fruit trees. flourishing industries during the Gupta period.
The Paharpur copper plate inscription Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa make
indicates that the king was the sole proprietor frequent mention of the existence of mines. The
of the land. Even when he made land grants, he rich deposits of iron ore from Bihar and copper
reserved his prerogatives over it. The location from Rajasthan were mined extensively during
and boundaries of individual plots were marked this period.
out and measured by the record keepers and The list of metals used apart from iron
influential men in the locality. As stated in were gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bell-
Paharpur plates, an officer called ustapala metal, mica, manganese, antimony, red chalk
maintained records of all the land transactions in (sanssilajata) and red arsenic.
the district and the village accountant preserved
Blacksmiths were next only to
records of land in the village. During the Gupta
agriculturists in importance in the society.
period, the land was classified as detailed below.
Metal was used for the manufacture of various
Kshetra Cultivatable land domestic implements, utensils and weapons.
The improvement in the ploughshare, with the
Khila Waste land discovery of iron, for deep ploughing and for
Aprahata Jungle or waste land increasing cultivation happened during this
period.
Vasti Habitable land
The most important and visible evidence of
Gapata Saraha Pastoral land
the high stage of development in metallurgy is
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Different Land Tenures

Types of Tenures Nature of Holding
Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent in North
Nivi dharma
and Central India and Bengal.
Nivi dharma A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of income derived
aksayana from it.
Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipient is not permitted to
Aprada dharma
gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either.
Bhumichchi Right of ownership acquired by a person making barren land cultivable for
dranyaya the first time. This land was free from any rent liability.
Other Land Grants

Agrahara grants Given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free.
A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants
Devagrahara grants
for the repair and worship of temples.
Secular grants Grants made to feudatories of Guptas.
List of Different Kinds of Taxes

Tax Nature
King’s customary share of the produce normally amounting to one-sixth of
Bhaga
the produce paid by cultivators
Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the village had to
Bhoga
provide to the king
Kara A periodic tax levied on the villagers (not a part of the annual land tax)
A voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory.
Bali
It was an oppressive tax.
Either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police stations or a water
Udianga
tax. Hence, it was also an extra tax.
Also an extra tax. Scholars give different explanations about what it was
Uparikara
collected for.
Literally, it means tax payable on gold coins, but in practice, it was probably
Hiranya
the king’s share of certain crops paid in kind.
Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for the winds (vata) and the
Vata-Bhuta
spirits (bhuta)
Halivakara A plough tax paid by every cultivator owning a plough
A royal share of merchandise brought into a town or harbour by merchants.
Sulka
Hence it can be equated with the customs and tolls.
Klipta and
related to sale and purchase of lands.
Upakilpta
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the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of Chandragupta II in The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis
the Qutb Minar Complex in Delhi, identified describe the organisation and activities of
with Chandragupta II. This monolith iron guilds. They mention that the guild had a
pillar has lasted through the centuries chief and two, three or five executive officers.
without rusting. It is a monument to the great Guild laws were apparently laid down in
craftsmanship of the iron workers during the written documents. The Brihaspati Smriti
Gupta period. Coin casting, metal engraving, refers to guilds rendering justice to their
pottery making, terracotta work and wood members and suggests that these decisions
carving were other specialised crafts. should, by and large, be approved by the king.
A significant development of the period There is also mention of the philanthropic
in metal technology was the making of the activities of guilds, for instance, providing
seals and statutes of Buddha and other gods. shelter for travellers and building assembly
It was laid down that the people had to pay for houses, temples and gardens. The inscription
the wastage in the process of smelting of iron, also records that the chief of the guilds
gold, silver, copper, tin and lead. played an important role in the district-level
administrative bodies. There is also mention
Trade and Commerce of joint corporate bodies of merchant-bankers,
caravan merchants and artisans. The guilds
The contribution of traders to the
also acted as banks. The names of donors are
soundness of the Gupta economy is quite
mentioned in this inscription.
impressive. Two distinctive types of traders
called sresti and sarthavaha existed. Sresti Usury (the lending of money at an
was usually settled at a particular place and exorbitant rate of interest) was in practice
enjoyed an eminent position by virtue of his during the Gupta period. The detailed
wealth and influence in the commercial life and discussion in the sources of that period
administration of the place. The sarthavaha indicates that money was used, borrowed and
was a caravan trader who carried his goods to loaned for profit. There were many ports that
different places for profitable sale. facilitated trade in the western coast of India
such as Calliena (Kalyan), Chaul port and the
Trade items ranged from products for
markets of Mabar (Malabar), Mangarouth
daily use to valuable and luxury goods. They
(Mangalore), Salopatana, Nalopatana and
included pepper, sandalwood, ivory, elephants,
Pandopatana on the Malabar coast. Fahien
horses, gold, copper, iron and mica. The
refers to Tamralipti in Bengal as an important
abundant inscriptions and seals mentioning
centre of trade on the eastern coast. These
artisans, merchants and guilds are indicative of
ports and towns were connected with those of
the thriving crafts and trade. (Guild is a society
Persia, Arabia and Byzantium on the one hand
or other organisation of people with common
and Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia on
interests or an association of merchants.)
the other. Fahien describes the perils of the
There are several references in several sources
sea route between India and China. The goods
to artisans, traders and occupational groups
traded from India were rare gems, pearls, fine
in the guilds. Guilds continued as the major
textiles and aromatics. Indians imported silk
institution in the manufacture of goods and
in commercial enterprise. They remained and other articles from China.
virtually autonomous in their internal
organisation, and the government respected The Guptas issued many gold coins but
comparatively few silver and copper coins.
their laws. These laws were generally drafted
However, the post-Gupta period saw a
by a larger body, the corporation of guilds, of
decline in the circulation of gold coins.
which each guild was a member.
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7.6 Cultural Florescence Sculpture: Stone Sculpture

A good specimen of stone sculpture is the
Art and Architecture well-known erect Buddha from Sarnath. Of the
By evolving the Nagara and the Dravida puranic images, perhaps the most impressive is
styles, the Gupta art ushers in a formative and the great Boar (Varaha) at the entrance of a cave
creative age in the history of Indian architecture at Udayagiri.
with considerable scope for future development.
Metal statues
Rock-cut and Structural Temples The technology of casting statues on a
The rock-cut caves continue the old forms large scale of core process was practised by the
to a great extent but possess striking novelty craftsmen during the Gupta period with great
by bringing about extensive changes in the workmanship. Two remarkable examples of
ornamentation of the facade and in the designs of Gupta metal sculpture are (1) a copper image of
the pillars in the interior. The most notable groups the Buddha about eighteen feet high at Nalanda
of the rock-cut caves are found at Ajanta and Ellora in Bihar and (2) the Sultanganj Buddha of
(Maharashtra) and Bagh (Madhya Pradesh). The seven-and-a-half feet in height.
Udayagiri caves (Odisha) are also of this type.
Painting
The art of painting
seems to have been in
popular demand in the
Gupta period than the
art of stone sculptures.
The mural paintings of
this period are found at
Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and
other places. Ajantha Painting
Ajantha Rock-Cut Caves From the point of technique, the surface

of these paintings was perhaps done in a very
The structural temples have the following simple way. The mural paintings of Ajanta are
attributes: (1)flat-roofed square temples; (2) not true frescoes, for frescoes is painted while
flat-roofed square temple with a vimana (second
the plaster is still damp and the murals of Ajanta
storey); (3) square temple with a curvilinear
were made after it had set. The art of Ajanta and
tower (shikara)above; (4) rectangular temple;
Bagh shows the Madhyadesa School of painting
and (5) circular temple.
at its best.
The second group of temples shows many Terracotta and Pottery
of the characteristic features of the Dravida style.
The importance of the third group lies in the Clay figurines were used both for religious
innovation of a shikhara that caps the sanctum and secular purposes. We have figurines of
sanctorum, the main feature of the Nagara style. Vishnu, Karttikeya, Durga, Naga and other
gods and goddesses.
Stupas Gupta pottery remains found at Ahchichhatra,
Stupas were also built in large numbers but Rajgarh, Hastinapur and Bashar afford proof of
the best are found at Samat (Uttar Pradesh), excellence of pottery. The most distinctive class of
Ratnagiri (Odisha) and Mirpur Khas (Sind). pottery of this period is the “red ware”.
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Sanskrit Literature Buddhist Literature

The Guptas made Sanskrit the official The earliest Buddhist works are in Pali, but
language and all their epigraphic records were in the later phase, Sanskrit came to be used to a
written in it. The period saw the last phase of the great extent. Most of the works are in prose with
Smriti literature. verse passages in mixed Sanskrit. Arya Deva
and Arya Asanga of the Gupta period are the
Smritis are religious texts covering a wide most notable writers. The first regular Buddhist
range of subjects such as ethics, politics, work on logic was written by Vasubandhu.
culture and art. Dharmasastras and puranas Vasubandhu’s disciple, Dignaga, was also the
form the core of this body of literature. author of many learned works.
Sanskrit Grammar Jaina Literature

The Gupta period also saw the development The Jaina canonical literature at first took
of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini who shape in Prakrit dialects. Sanskrit came to be
wrote Ashtadhyayi and Patanjali who wrote the medium later. Within a short time, Jainism
Mahabhashya on the topic. This period is produced many great scholars and by their
particularly memorable for the compilation efforts the Hindu itihasa and puranas were recast
of the Amarakosa, a thesaurus in Sanskrit, by in Jaina versions to popularise their doctrines.
Amarasimha. A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Vimala produced a Jaina version of Ramayana.
Chandrogomia, composed a book on grammar Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic
named Chandravyakaranam. among the Jainas.
Puranas and Ithihasas Secular Literature

The Puranas, as we know them in their Samudragupta himself had established
present form, were composed during this his fame as Kaviraja. It is widely believed
time. They were the legends as recorded by that his court was adorned by the celebrated
the Brahmins. They were originally composed navaratnas like Kalidasa, Amarasimha,
by bards (professional storytellers), but now, Visakadatta and Dhanvantri. Kalidasa’s famous
having come into priestly hands, they were dramas are Sakunthalam, Malavikagnimitram
rewritten in classical Sanskrit. Details on Hindu and Vikramaurvashiyam. The works of
sects, rites and customs were added in order Sudraka (Mrichchhakatika), Visakhadatta
to make them sacrosanct religious documents. (Mudraraksasa and Devichandraguptam) and
The succession of dynasties was recorded in the the lesser known dramatists and writers also
form of prophesies. Thus what began as popular contributed to the literary and social values in
memories of the past were revived and rewritten the classical age. An interesting feature of the
in prophetic form and became the Brahmanical dramas of this period is that while the elite
interpretation of the past. The Mahabharata and spoke in Sanskrit, the common people spoke
the Ramayana also got their final touches and Prakrit.
received their present shape during this period.
Prakrit Language and Literature
Eighteen major puranas are listed. Of them
In Prakrit, there was patronage outside
the well known are: Brahma Purana, Padma
the court circle. The Gupta age witnessed
Purana, Vishnu Purana, Skanda Purana, Shiva
Maha Purana, Markendeya Purana, Agni the evolution of many Prakrit forms such as
Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Matsya Purana Suraseni used in Mathura and its vicinity, Ardh
and Shrimad Bhagavat Purana. Magadhi spoken in Awadh and Bundelkhand
and Magadhi in modern Bihar.
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Nalanda University for a little longer, it was eventually abandoned

and forgotten. The site was accidentally
Nalanda was an acclaimed Mahavihara,
discovered when the Archaeological Survey of
a large Buddhist monastery in the ancient
India surveyed the area. Systematic excavations
kingdom of Magadha in India. The site is located
commenced in 1915, which unearthed 11
about ninety five kilometres southeast of Patna
monasteries and 6 brick temples situated on 12
near the town of Bihar Sharif and was a centre
hectares (30 acres) of land. A trove of sculptures,
of learning from the fifth century CE to c. 1200
coins, seals and inscriptions have also been
CE. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
discovered since then and all of them are on
The highly formalised methods of Vedic display in the Nalanda Archaeological Museum
learning helped inspire the establishment of large situated nearby. Nalanda is now a notable tourist
teaching institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda destination and a part of the Buddhist tourism
and Vikramashila, which are often characterised circuit. Recently, the government of India, in
as India’s early universities. Nalanda flourished cooperation with other South and South-east
under the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the Asian countries, has revived this university.
fifth and sixth centuries and later under Harsha,
the emperor of Kanauj. The liberal cultural Gupta Sciences
traditions inherited from the Gupta age resulted
in a period of growth and prosperity until the Mathematics and Astronomy
ninth century. The subsequent centuries were a The invention of the theory
time of gradual decline, a period during which of zero and the consequent
Buddhism became popular in eastern India evolution of the decimal system
patronised by the Palas of Bengal. are to be credited to the thinkers
of this age. In the Surya Siddanta,
Aryabhatta (belonging to late
fifth and early sixth century
CE) examined the true cause of the solar eclipses.
In calculation of the size of the earth, he is very
close to the modern estimation. He was the first
astronomer to discover that the earth rotates on its
own axis. He is also the author of Aryabhattiyam,
which deals with arithmetic, geometry and algebra.
Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita (sixth century
Nalanda University CE) is an encyclopaedia of astronomy, physical
At its peak, the Nalanda attracted scholars geography, botany and natural history. His other
and students from near and far with some works are Panch Siddhantika and Brihat Jataka.
travelling all the way from Tibet, China, Korea Brahmagupta (late sixth and early seventh century
and Central Asia. Archaeological findings CE) is author of important works on mathematics
and astronomy, namely Brahmasphuta-siddhanta
also confirm the contact with the Shailendra
and Khandakhadyaka.
dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a
monastery in the complex. Medical Sciences
Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by Metallic preparations for the purpose of
an army of the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi medicine and references to the use of mercury
Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khalji in c. 1200 CE. and iron by Varahamihira and others indicate
While some sources note that the Mahavihara that much progress was made in chemistry. The
continued to function in a makeshift fashion Navanitakam was a medical work, which is a
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manual of recipes, formulation and prescriptions. SUMMARY

Hastyayurveda or the veterinary science authored
by Palakapya attests to the advances made in After the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta
medical science during the Gupta period. kingdom emerged as a great power.
Sri Gupta founded the Gupta dynasty.
7.7 Decline of the Gupta Samudragupta (335–375 CE) conquered and
Empire consolidated the empire.
Chandragupta II through his conquests and
The last recognised king of the Gupta line matrimonial alliances extended the empire
was Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550 further.
CE. Internal fighting and dissensions among the Kumara Gupta founded the Nalanda
royal family led to its collapse. During the reign University.
of a Gupta king, Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler Skanda Gupta repulsed the Huns but Huns’
Narendrasena of western Deccan, attacked Malwa, invasion strained his treasury.
Mekala and Kosala. Later on, another Vakataka king The Gupta kings claimed divine status and
Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat from the were assisted by Council of Ministers and a
Guptas. During Skanda Gupta’s reign, the grandson band of officials.
of Chandragupta II, the Huns invaded northwest The Gupta rulers patronised art, literature and
India. He was successful in repulsing the Huns, but science. Kalidasa, Harisena, Amarasimha,
consequently his empire was drained of financial Dhanvantri and Varahamihira adorned their
resources. In the sixth century CE, the Huns court.
occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab and Gandhara. As The drain of treasury because of Huns’
the Hun invasion weakened the Gupta hold in the invasion and the weak successors of later
country, independent rulers emerged all over the Guptas led to the decline of the Gupta Empire.
north like Yasodharman of Malwa, the Maukharis
of Uttar Pradesh, the Maitrakas in Saurashtra and
others in Bengal. In time, the Gupta Empire came
to be restricted to only Magadha. They did not
EXERCISE
focus on empire building and military conquests. Q.R.Code
So, weak rulers along with incessant invasions from I. C
hoose the
foreign as well as native rulers caused the decline correct answer
of the Gupta Empire. By the beginning of the sixth
1. Which is the least reliable
century, the empire had disintegrated and was ruled
of the sources for the study of Gupta period?
by many regional chieftains.
(a) Literary sources
Feudalism : The social formation of (b) Epigraphical sources
feudalism was the characteristic of the (c) Numismatic sources
medieval society in India. Feudal features
(d) Myths and legends
listed by historian R.S. Sharma are: royal
grants of land; transfer of fiscal and judicial 2. Choose and match:
rights to the beneficiaries; the grant of Author Literary Works
their rights over peasants, artisans and (A) Dhanvantri - 1. SuryaSiddantha
merchants; an increased incidence of forced
labour; appropriation of surplus by the state; (B) Varahamihira - 2. Amarakosha
a decline in trade and coinage; payment of (C) Aryabhatta - 3. BrihadSamhita
officials through land revenue assignments; (D) Amarasimha - 4. Ayurveda
and the growth of the obligations of the
(a) 4, 3, 1, 2 (b) 4, 1, 2, 3
samantas (subordinate or feudatory rulers).
(c) 4, 2, 1, 3 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1
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3. __________ was given the title “Kaviraja”. 5. What could be the reasons for the decline
(a) Chandragupta I (b) Samudragupta of the Gupta Empire? Point out any three
(c) Chandragupta II (d) Srigupta reasons.
4. __________, a Chinese traveller, presented IV. Answer the following in detail
an idyllic picture of Indian society in the fifth
century CE. 1. “Gupta period is called the Golden Age of
Ancient India.” Give reasons.
(a) Itsing (b) Hieun-Tsang
2. Describe the land classification and land
(c) Fahien (d) Wang-Hieun-Tse
tenures followed in Guptas’ times.
5. Which one of the following is the wrong 3. Examine the role of guilds during Gupta
option for the rock-cut cave temple of Gupta
period.
Period?
(i) Udayagiri cave (Odisha)
(ii) Ajanta and Ellora caves (Maharashtra) REFERENCE BOOKS
(iii) Elephanta cave (Maharashtra)
1. R.Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and
(iv) Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) Urbanization in South India 300 BC to
(a) i (b) ii 1300, Oxford University Press, 1996
(c) iii (d) iv 2. Kulke Herman (ed), The State in India
6. The first regular Buddhist work on logic was (1000-1700), Oxford University Press,
written by __________. 1997.
(a) Dignaga (b) Vasubandhu
3. Romila Thapar, A History of India, Vol. I,
(c) Chandrogamia (d) Varahamihira Penguin, 1980.
II. Write Brief Answers 4. Romila Thapar, Early India: From the
1. Write down the names of Gupta rulers in Origins to AD 1300 (Penguin Paperback),
chronological order until Skanda Gupta. 2003.
2. What do you know about Huns? 5. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and
3. Write a brief account of Fahien on Mathura. Early Medieval India from the Stone Age to
the 12th Century, Pearson, 2009
4. List down the Buddhist scholars along with
their literary works. 6. R.S.Sharma, Indian Feudalism, Macmillan,
5. Discuss the importance of Allahabad Pillar 1980
Inscription. 7. KesavanVeluthat, The Political Structure of
Early Medieval South India, Orient
Longman, 1993.
1. Describe the administrative divisions of
Gupta Empire.
INTERNET RESOURCES
2. Write a short note on Vikramashila University.
3. Gupta period also recorded the growth of
Jaina literature. Elaborate. 1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_
4. Comment on the scientific advancement Empire
made during Gupta period. 2. https://www/ancient.eu/Gupta_Empire
102 The Guptas

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GLOSSARY
hegemony dominance ேமலாதிக்கம்

lexicographer compiler of a dictionary அகராதி தயாரிப்பவர்
epithet title அைடெமாழி
coffer treasury கருவூலம்
perpetual everlasting எப்ேபாதும் நிைலத்திருக்கும்
exorbitant excessive மிகவும் அதிகமான
facade front முகப்பு
ransack plunder சூைறயாடு
dissension disagreement கருத்து ேவற்றுைம
incessant ceaseless இைடயறாத
ICT CORNER
The Guptas
Through this activity you will

know about world historic events
through Interactive timeline.
Steps:
• Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR Code.
• Timeline page will appear on the screen.
• Click Search Options and Enter any Timeline (Ex. Gupta Empire)
• Explore the Timeline events of any empire with pictorial descriptions.
Browse in the link

Web: https://www.timetoast.com/categories
The Guptas 103

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UNIT Harsha and Rise of Regional

Kingdoms
8
Learning Objectives
I Harsha
To know the ancestors and contemporaries of Harsha
To learn about the military conquests of Harsha
To understand the nature of Harsha’s administration
To obtain knowledge of the religious policy of Harsha
To become aware of the socio-cultural life of the people in India from the accounts of
Hieun Tsang
II The Palas
To know the history of Palas as a strong regional power in eastern India
To learn the contribution of prominent Pala rulers such as Dharmapala, Devapala and
Mahipala I in administering their kingdom
To understand the significance of their role in the spread of Mahayana Buddhism in the
Ganges plain
To gain knowledge about the contribution of Palas to literature, art and architecture
III The Rashtrakutas
To know the greatness of the Rashtrakutas
To learn the fact that successful rulers, Krishna I through Krishna III, prevented the Pallava
expansion northward.
To apprise yourself of the development of Kannada literature under the patronage of
Rashtrakutas.
I Harsha their capital. Agra and Awadh were organised

into an independent and sovereign state by the
Introduction Maukharis. The Vakatakas had recovered their
North India splintered into several position of ascendency in the western Deccan.
warrior kingdoms after the downfall of the Despite political rivalry and conflict among
Gupta Empire. Excepting in the areas that these states, Thaneswar, lying north of Delhi
were subdued by the Huns (modern Punjab, between Sutlej and Yamuna, was formed into
Rajasthan and Malwa), regional identity became an independent state by Pushyabhutis. It rose
pronounced with the emergence of many small to prominence under Harsha. Harsha ruled the
states. Maithrakas had organised a powerful kingdom as large as that of the Guptas from 606
state in Sourashtra (Gujarat), with Valabhi as to 647 CE.
104

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Sources
Harsha as King of Kanauj :
I. Literary sources The magnates of Kanauj (the capital of
Bana’s Harshacharita Maukhari kingdom), on the advice of their
Hieun Tsang’s Si-Yu-ki minister Poni, invited Harsha to ascend
the throne. A reluctant Harsha accepted
II. Epigraphical sources the throne on the advice of Avalokitesvara
Madhuban copper plate inscription Bodhisatva with the title of Rajputra
Sonpat inscription on copper seal and Siladitya. Thus the two kingdoms of
Thaneswar and Kanauj became united
Banskhera copper plate inscription under Harsha’s rule. Consequently, Harsha
Nalanda inscription on clay seals transferred his capital to Kanauj.
Aihole inscription
8.2 Harsha’s Military
ana’s Harshacharita was the first formal
B
biography of a king. It inaugurated a Conquests
new literary genre in India. On his accession in 606 CE Harsha focused
his attention on the affairs of his sister Rajyasri
8.1 Pushyabhutis who had fled to Vindhya mountains to escape
from the evil design of Deva Gupta of Malwa
The founder of the Vardhana dynasty was to covet her. Harsha went to Vindhya mountain
Pushyabhuti who ruled from Thaneswar. He ranges and succeeded in saving his sister who was
served as a military general under the imperial about to burn herself after killing Deva Gupta.
Guptas and rose to power after the fall of the Harsha consoled Rajyasri and brought her back
Guptas. With the accession of Prabakara to the kingdom of Kanauj. Later Rajyasri took to
Vardhana (580–605 CE), the Pushyabhuti Buddhism and was instrumental in converting
family became strong and powerful. Prabakara Harsha to Buddhism.
Vardhana fought against the Gurjaras and the
Huns and established his authority as far as Malwa
and Gujarat. He gave his daughter Rajyasri in
marriage to the Maukhari king, Grahavarman,
of Kanauj (near modern Kanpur), thus making
Kanauj his ally. Prabakara Vardhana’s dream of
building an empire was eventually realised by
his younger son Harsha-vardhana. Harsha Coin
Rajavardhana (605-606 CE), the eldest son According to Bana, Harsha, in an effort
of Prabhakaravardhana, ascended the throne
to build an empire, sent an ultimatum to
after his father’s death. He was treacherously
the following kings to either surrender or be
murdered by Sasanka, the Gauda ruler of Bengal.
prepared for a battle:
This resulted in his younger brother Harsha-
vardhana becoming the king of Thanesar. 1. Sasanka, the Gauda ruler of Bengal.
Harsha had known the weakness of a group of 2. The Maithrakas of Valabhi and Gurjara of
small kingdoms and conquered his neighbours Broach region.
to integrate them into his empire. As Thanesar
was too close to the threats from the north- 3. The Chalukya king, Pulikesin II, in the Deccan
west, Harsha shifted his capital from Thanesar 4. Rulers of Sindh, Nepal, Kashmir, Magadha,
to Kanauj. Kanauj was located in the rich Odra (northern Odisha) and Kongoda
agricultural region of the western Ganges Plain. (another geographical unit in ancient Odisha).
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Harsha’s immediate task was to take Extent of Harsha’s Empire

revenge on Sasanka. Harsha entered into Harsha ruled for 41 years. His feudatories
an alliance with the king of Kamarupa included those of Jalandhar (in the Punjab),
(Pragiyaotisha), which is today the modern Kashmir, Nepal and Valabhi. Sasanka of Bengal
Assam. But there is hardly any detail of the remained hostile to him. Though it is claimed
war between Harsha and Sasanka. However, that Harsha’s Empire comprised Assam, Bengal,
Harsha seems to have successfully subjugated Bihar, Kanauj, Malwa, Odisha, the Punjab,
the Gauda Empire, which included Magatha, Kashmir, Nepal and Sindh, his real sway did
Gouda, Odra and Kongoda only after the death not extend beyond a compact territory between
of Sasanka. the Ganges and Yamuna rivers. The kingdom of
Harsha disintegrated rapidly into small states
after his death.
Harsha’s Relations with China
Harsha had cordial relations with China. The
contemporary T’ang emperor, Tai Tsung, sent an
embassy to his court in 643 and again in 647 CE.
On the second occasion, the Chinese ambassador
Coins of Sasanka found that Harsha had recently died. On
learning that the throne had been usurped by an
The hostilities between Harsha and undeserving king, the Chinese ambassador rushed
the Maithrakas ended in the marriage of to Nepal and Assam to raise a force to dislodge
Dhruvabhatta with the daughter of Harsha. the usurper. Later, the king who had usurped the
Soon, Valabhi became a subordinate ally of throne was taken to China as a prisoner.
Harsha.
Administration
Pulikesin II, the Chalukya King According to historian Burton Stein, a
Harsha sought to extend his authority centralised administration did not even exist
southward into the Deccan. However under the powerful Guptas. It was restricted
the Chalukya king Pulikesin II, who only to the central part of the Gangetic plain
controlled the region, humbled Harsha. In between Pataliputra and Mathura. Beyond
that zone, there was no centralised authority.
commemoration of his victory over Harsha,
The only difference between Guptas and
Pulikesin assumed the title of “Parameswara”.
Vardhanas is that the former had formidable
Inscriptions in Pulikesin’s capital Vatapi
enemies like Huns, while the latter had no such
attest to this victory. opponents. The copper plates of 632 CE record
a gift of land to two Brahmans. The names of
certain political personages with state power,
as protectors of the gift, are mentioned in
them. Some were mahasamantas, allied to the
king but of a subordinate status. Others were
independent maharajas but acknowledged
feudatories of Harsha. There was yet another
category of rulers who pledged their loyalty
to Harsha and professed to be at his service.
This is the characteristic of Harsha’s imperial
Pulikesin II (modern representation) authority in North India.
106 Harsha and Rise of Regional Kingdoms

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EMPIRE OF HARSHAVARDHANA N
W E
PURUSHAPURA S
KASHMIR Harsha’s empire
m b Harsha’s capital
e lu ena
Jh C h
vi Other cities
Ra
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In
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tlu
Sa Thaneswar
Indraprastha
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Mathura ma
ah
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Br
Ga a
m
ng
un
KAMARUPA
a
Prayag
Nalanda
Udaipur Kashi
Vidisha SUVARNA
Budh Gaya Rajgrika
VALABHI Tamralipti
Bhirukachachha Ujjayini Ma
ha
na
di
Ajanta A
O
D BAY
CHALUKYAS G
KO
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EASTERN BENGAL
Go
A
CHALUKYAS G
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va
Kris Vengi K
r
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SEA
Pattadakal
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Badami
Kanchipuram
An
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PALLAVAS
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Lakshad weep isla
Kaveri
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(I N D I A )
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(I N D I A )
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Madurai
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Map not to scale


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Council of Ministers cutting of limbs of the body were the usual

punishments. Trial by ordeal was in practice.
It appears that the ministerial administration
Life imprisonment was the punishment for the
during the reign of Harsha was the same as
violations of the laws and for plotting against
that of the imperial Guptas. The emperor
the king.
was assisted by a council of ministers(Mantri
Parishad)in his duties. The council played an Hieun Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim,
important role in the selection of the king as spent nearly 13 years in India (630–643 CE),
well as framing the foreign policy of the empire. collecting sacred texts and relics which he took
The prime minister was of the most important back to China. He was known as the“ prince of
position in the council of ministers. pilgrims” because he visited important pilgrim
centres associated with the life of Buddha. His
Key Officials Si-Yu-Ki provides detailed information about
1. Avanti -
Minister for Foreign the social, economic, religious and cultural
Relations and War conditions during the reign of Harsha.
2. Simhananda - Commander-in-Chief According to Hieun Tsang, perfect law

and order prevailed throughout the empire, as
3. Kuntala - Chief Cavalry Officer the law-enforcing agencies were strong. The
4. Skandagupta -
Chief Commandant of pilgrim records the principal penalties and
Elephant Force judicial ordeals practised in India at that time.
Corporal punishment for serious offences was
5. Dirghadhvajas - Royal Messengers
in practise. But the death penalty was usually
6. Banu - Keeper of Records avoided. Offences against social morality and
7. Mahaprathihara -
Chief of the Palace defiance of law were punished by maiming.
Guard Harsha travelled across the kingdom frequently
to ensure his familiarity with his people. He was
8. Sarvagata - S ecret S er vice accessible to people and kept a closer watch on
Department his tributary rulers.
Revenue Administration Administration of Army
Bhaga, Hiranya and Bali were the three kinds Harsha paid great attention to discipline
of tax collected during Harsha’s reign. Bhaga and strength of the army. The army consisted
was the land tax paid in kind. One-sixth of the of elephants, cavalry and infantry. Horses were
produce was collected as land revenue. Hiranya imported. Ordinary soldiers were known as
was the tax paid by farmers and merchants in Chatas and Bhatas. Cavalry officers were called
cash. There is no reference to the tax Bali. The Brihadisvaras. Infantry officers were known as
crown land was divided into four parts. Baladhikritas and Mahabaladhikritas. Hieun
Tsang mentions the four divisions (chaturanga)
Part I - for carrying out the affairs of the state
of Harsha’s army. He gives details about the
Part II - for paying the ministers and officers strength of each division, its recruitment system
of the crown and payment for the recruits.
Part III - for rewarding men of letters
Division of the Empire
Part IV - for charity to religious institutions
The empire was divided into several
Administration of Justice
provinces. The actual number of such provinces
Criminal law was more severe than that is not known. Each province was divided into
of the Gupta age. Mimamsakas were appointed Bhuktis. And each Bhukti was divided into
to dispense justice. Banishment and the several Vishayas. They were like the districts.

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Each vishaya was further divided into Pathakas. and the poor. Free hospitals and rest houses
Each such area was divided into several villages (dharmasalas) in all the towns were constructed
for the sake of administrative convenience. where the travellers or the outsiders could
Harsha Charita refers to a number of officials stay. Hospitals were built to provide medical
who took care of the local administration. treatment free of charge.
Only their titles are known. What they did
Religious Policy
isn’t available in Harsha Charita. We learn that
bhogapathi, ayuktha, pratpalaka-purusha and Harsha was a worshipper of Siva at least
the like looked after the local administration. up to 631 CE. But he embraced Buddhism
under the influence of his sister Rajyasri
Cities and Towns and the Buddhist monk Hieun Tsang. He
Hieun Tsang describes the structure, subscribed to the Mahayana school of thought.
aesthetics and safety measures of the cities, Yet he held discourses among learned men
towns and villages of India. In his view, India of various creeds. Slaughter of animals and
was the land of innumerable villages, numerous consumption of meat was restricted. Harsha
towns and big cities like China. He pointed out summoned two Buddhist assemblies (643 CE),
that Pataliputra lost its prominence and its place one at Kanauj and another at Prayag.
was taken by Kanauj. The elegance of Kanauj The assembly at Kanauj was attended
with its lofty structures, beautiful gardens and by 20 kings including Bhaskaravarman of
the museum of rare collections is described. The Kamarupa. A large number of Buddhist, Jain
refined appearance of its residents, their costly and Vedic scholars attended the assembly. A
dressings and love for learning and art are also golden statue of Buddha was consecrated in
pointed out in his account. a monastery and a small statue of Buddha
Most of the towns, according to Hieun (three feet) was brought out in a procession.
Tsang, had outer walls and inner gates. Though The procession was attended by Harsha and
the walls were wide and high, the streets and other kings.
lanes were narrow. Residential houses had
Buddhist Assembly at Prayag
balconies made of wood and coated with lime
mortar. Floors were smeared with cow dung for Harsha convened
the purpose of purity and hygiene. Big mansions, quinquennial assemblies
public buildings and Buddhist monasteries known as Mahamoksha
and viharas were magnificent multi-storeyed Parishad at Prayag (at the
structures. They were built of kiln-fired bricks, confluence of the Ganges
red sandstone and marble. Harsha constructed and Yamuna). He distributed
a large number of viharas, monasteries and his wealth among Buddhists,
stupas on the bank of the Ganges. Vedic scholars and the poor people. Harsha
offered fabulous gifts to the Buddhist monks on
Harsha built charitable institutions for the
all the four days of the assemblage.
stay of the travellers, and to care for the sick
Hiuen Tsang, hailed as the prince of pilgrims, visited India during the reign
of Harsha. Born in China in 612 CE he became a Buddhist monk at the age
of twenty. During his travels, he visited various sacred places of northern and
southern India. Hieun Tsang spent about five years in the University of Nalanda
and studied there. Harsha admired him for his deep devotion to Buddha and his
profound knowledge of Buddhism. Hieun Tsang carried with him 150 pieces of
the relics of Buddha , a large number of Buddha image in gold, silver, sandalwood
and above all 657 volumes of valuable manuscripts. Hieun Tsang

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Hieun Tsang observed that the principles Dietary Habits

of Buddhism had deeply permeated the
Hieun Tsang also noted that Indians were
Hindu society. According to him, people were mostly vegetarians. The use of onion and garlic
given complete freedom of worship. Social in the food preparation was rare. The use of
harmony prevailed among the followers of sugar, milk, ghee and rice in the preparation
various creeds. Harsha treated the Vedic of food or their consumption was common.
scholars and the Buddhist bikshus alike and On certain occasions, fish and mutton were
distributed charities equally to them. eaten. Beef and meat of certain animals were
Caste System forbidden.
Caste system was firmly established in Education

the Hindu society. According to Hieun Tsang, Education was imparted in the monasteries.
the occupations of the four divisions of society Learning was religious in character. Much
continued to be in practice as in the previous religious literature were produced. The Vedas
times. People were honest and not deceitful were taught orally and not written down.
or treacherous in their conduct. The butchers, Sanskrit was the language of the learned people.
fishermen, dancers and sweepers were asked An individual took to learning between 9 and
to stay outside the city. Even though the caste 30 years of age. Many individuals devoted their
system was rigid, there was no social conflict whole life to learning. The wandering bhikshus
among the various sections of the society. and sadhus were well known for their wisdom
and culture. The people also paid respect to
Status of Women
such people of moral and intellectual eminence.
Hieun Tsang’s account also provides us
information on the position of women and the Harsha as a Patron of Art and
marriage system of the times. Women wore Literature
purdah. Hieun Tsang, however, added that Harsha patronised literary and cultural
the purdah system was not followed among activities. It is said the state spent a quarter of
the higher class. He pointed out that Rajyasri its revenue for such activities. Bana, the author
did not wear purdah when listening to his of Harshacharita and Kadambari, was a court
discourse. Sati was in practice. Yasomatidevi, poet of Harsha. The emperor himself was a
wife of Prabhakara Vardhana, immolated renowned litterateur, which is evident from the
herself after the death of her husband. plays he wrote such as Priyadarsika, Rathnavali
and Nagananda. Harsha gifted liberally for
Lifestyle
the promotion of education. Temples and
The life pattern of the people of India monasteries functioned as centres of learning.
during the rule of Harsha is known from Renowned scholars imparted education in the
the accounts of Hieun Tsang. People lived a monasteries at Kanauj, Gaya, Jalandhar, Manipur
simple life. They dressed in colourful cotton and other places. The Nalanda University reached
and silk clothes. The art of weaving fine cloth its utmost fame during this period.
had reached perfection. Both men and women
adorned themselves with gold and silver Nalanda University
ornaments. The king wore extraordinary Hieun Tsang recorded the fame of the
ornaments. Garlands and tiaras of precious Nalanda University. Students and scholars
stones, rings, bracelets and necklaces were from the Buddhist countries like China, Japan,
some of the ornaments used by the royalty. Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Tibet and some other
The wealthy merchants wore bracelets. countries of Central and Southeast Asia stayed
women used cosmetics. and studied in the university. Shilabhadra, a

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reputed Buddhist scholar, who probably hailed Pala Rulers

from Assam, was the head of the University Gopala I was succeeded by his son
during the visit of Hieun Tsang. As an educational Dharmapala (770–815 CE) who made the
centre of international fame, Nalanda had 10,000 Pala kingdom a force to reckon with. Bengal
students on its rolls. Dharmapala, Chandrapala, and Bihar were directly ruled by him. Kanauj
Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari, Jayasena, Devakara was ruled by his nominee. The rulers of
and Matanga were important teachers in the the Punjab, Rajaputana, Malwa and Berar
university receiving royal patronage. accepted his suzerainty. He assumed titles
II The Palas like Paramesvara, Parambhattaraka and
Maharajadhiraja.
After the death of Harsha, the Pratiharas
(Jalore-Rajasthan), the Palas (Bengal) and the Dharmapala proved to be a great patron
Rashtrakutas (Deccan) engaged in a triangular of Buddhism. He founded the Vikaramasila
contest for the control of the Ganga–Yamuna monastery in Bhagalpur district in Bihar,
doab and the lands adjoining it. The Palas which developed into a great centre of
Buddhist learning and culture. He built a grand
controlled vast areas of the eastern Gangetic
vihara at Somapura in modern Paharapura
Plain. Apart from earning revenue from
(present-day Bangladesh). Dharmapala also
agriculture, Palas also derived income from
built a monastery at Odantapuri in Bihar. He
their wide commercial contacts in South-east
patronised Harisbhadra, a Buddhist writer.
Asia. Buddhism in Bengal provided a link
between eastern India and Java and Sumatra. Dharmapala’s son Devapala extended
Pala control eastwards up to Kamarupa
8.3 Establishment of Pala (Assam). He defeated Amoghavarsha, the
Rule in Bengal Rashtrakuta ruler, by allying with all the
states that regarded the Rashtrakutas as
Sashanka, the Gauda ruler, believed to have their common enemy. Devapala was also a
ruled between 590 and 625 CE, is considered great patron of Buddhism. He granted five
the first prominent king of ancient Bengal. After villages to Balaputradeva, the king of the
the fall of the Gauda kingdom, there was no Sailendra dynasty of Suvarnadipa (Sumatra),
central authority, which led to recurring wars to maintain a monastery built by him at
between petty chieftains. So, in 750 CE, a group Nalanda. Nalanda continued to flourish as the
of chiefs met and decided on a “Kshatriya chief ” chief seat of Buddhist learning even during
named Gopala to be their ruler. There is a story the Pala reign.
that Gopala was elected because of his ability to
Devapala was succeeded by Vigramapala,
kill a “demoness” that had killed those who were
who abdicated his throne after ruling for
previously elected like him. Though Gopala
a few years and went to lead an ascetic life.
did not have royal antecedents, he succeeded Narayanapala, son of Vigramapala, was also
in acquiring a kingdom. Gopala’s political a man of pacific and religious disposition.
authority was soon recognised by several The Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas took
independent chiefs. His original kingdom was advantage of Narayanapala’s disposition and
in Vanga or East Bengal. defeated the Palas. The rise of the Pratiharas
in Jalore under Mihira Bhoja and the advance
The Palas ruled eastern India from
of the Rashtrakutas into Pala territories
Pataliputra between the ninth and the early
inevitably brought about the decline of the
twelfth centuries. Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali
were the languages in use in their kingdom. Palas. The petty chiefs, who formerly owed
Palas followed Mahayana Buddhism. allegiance to the Palas, also started asserting
their independence.

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The slide of the Pala dynasty was

accelerated during the rule of his three
successors – Rajyapala, Gopala III and
Vigramapala II. The fortunes of the dynasty,
however, were revived by Mahipala I, son of
Vigramapala II. The most important event
of his period was the invasion of northern
India by Rajendra Chola sometime between Somapura Mahavihara (Bangladesh)
1020 and 1025 CE. However, the advance of
Literature
the Cholas beyond the Ganges was checked
by Mahipala I. The prominent Buddhist scholars of
Vikramashila and Nalanda universities were
After 15 years of Mahipala’s rule, four
Atisha, Saraha, Tilopa, Dansheel, Dansree,
insignificant rulers followed. Ramapala was
Jinamitra, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Virachan
the last ruler who tried to recover the lost
and Silabhadra. The notable Pala texts
glory of the dynasty. He ruled for about 53
on philosophy include Agama Shastra by
years and after his death, the presence of Pala
Gaudapada, and Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar
dynasty was confined to only a portion of
Bhatta. Many texts on medicine were compiled
Magadha (Bihar) and continued to exist only
by Chakrapani Datta, Sureshwar Gadadhara
for a short period. Vijayasena of the Sena Vaidya and Jimutavahana. The Palas also
dynasty who had become powerful by then patronised Sanskrit scholars. Many Buddhist
in northern Bengal expelled the last ruler tantric works were authored and translated into
Madanapala (1130–1150 CE) from Bengal Sanskrit. The original tantric works comprise a
and established his dynastic rule. varied group of Indian and Tibetan texts. The
Religion “Mahipalageet” (songs on Mahipala), a set of
folk songs, are still popular in the rural areas of
The Palas were great patrons of Mahayana Bengal. Sandhyakar Nandi’s epic Ramacharitam,
Buddhism. The Buddhist philosopher a biography of a later Pala ruler Ramapala,
Haribhadra was the spiritual preceptor of describes how forest chiefs were brought into
Dharmapala, the founder of the Pala kingdom. their alliance through lavish gifts.
Bengal remained one of the few places where
Buddhist monasteries continued to exist. The
kingdom as well as Buddhism soon suffered
decline because of large-scale conversion of
merchants and artisans to Islam.
Art and Architecture

Two artists of this period were Dhiman
and his son Vitapala. They were great painters, Vikaramashila University
sculptors and bronze statue makers. The Pala
school of sculptural art was influenced by III The Rashtrakutas
the Gupta art. Mahipala I constructed and The rivalry between the Pratiharas and
repaired several sacred structures at Saranath, the Rashtrakutas proved to be destructive
Nalanda and Bodh Gaya. Gopala founded the to both the dynasties. The Arab traveller Al-
famous monastery at Odantapura (Bihar). Masudi who visited Kanauj recorded the
Dharmapala established the Vikramashila and enmity between the two ruling dynasties. The
the Somapura Mahaviharas (Bangladesh). Rashtrakutas who were bidding their time to

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capture Kanauj from Pratiharas succeeded Vatsarya, the Prathihara king, and Dharmapala,
in their motive and continued to rule until the Pala ruler, who were contenders for
10th century CE. They claimed descent from supremacy in the region, were defeated by
the Rastikas or Rathikas, an important clan Dhruva. He nominated his third son Govinda
domiciled in the Kannada-speaking region III as the heir-apparent.
and mentioned in the edicts of Ashoka. The accession of Govinda III (794–814 CE)
to the throne heralded an era of success like never
8.4 Rise of Rashtrakuta before. Dantika, the Pallava king, was subdued by
Dynasty Govinda III. Vishnuvardana, the ruler of Vengi,
The Rashtrakutas were originally known turned out to be his maternal grandfather and so
to be the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas he did not challenge his authority. Thus Govinda
of Vatapi. Though Rashtrakutas were early III became the overlord of the Deccan. The
rulers, the greatest ruler of the dynasty was Rashtrakuta Empire reached its height of glory.
Dandidurga. Ruling from a smaller part of Govinda III was succeeded by his son
Berar, Dandidurga built his career of territorial Amoghavarsha (c. 814–878 CE). Amoghavarsha
conquest after the death of Vikramaditya II ruled for 64 years and his first twenty years of
(733–746 CE), the Chalukya ruler. He captured the rule witnessed endless wars with the Western
Gurjara Kingdom of Nandipuri, Malwa and Gangas. Peace returned when Amoghavarsha
eastern Madhya Pradesh and the whole of Berar. gave his daughter in marriage to a Ganga prince.
By 750 CE, he had become the master of central Amoghavarsha was a patron of literature and
and southern Gujarat and the whole of Madhya he patronised the famous Digambara acharya
Pradesh and Berar. Jinasena, Sanskrit grammarian Sakatayana
After consolidating his position, and after and the mathematician Mahaviracharya.
defeating Kirthivarman II (746–753 CE), the last Amoghavarsha was himself a great poet and
Chalukya ruler of Vatapi, Dandidurga assumed his Kavirajamarga is the earliest Kannada work
the titles of Maharajadhiraja, Parameshwara and on poetics. After Amoghavarsha, his successors
Paramabhattaraha. He developed relationships were able to sustain the vast empire, but the ablest
with the Pallava ruler Nandivarman II by giving among them was Krishna III (939–968 CE).
his daughter in marriage to the Pallava king. Krishna III was the last great ruler of
After Dandidurga’s death in 756 CE, his uncle the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Soon after his
(father’s brother) Krishna I ascended the throne. accession, he invaded the Chola kingdom
along with his brother-in-law Butunga.
Krishna I and His Successors
Kanchi and Thanjavur were captured in 943
Krishna I (756–775 CE) defeated the CE. His army remained in effective control
Gangas of Mysore. His eldest son Govinda II of Thondaimandalam, consisting of Arcot,
succeeded him in 775 CE. He defeated the Chengalpattu and Vellore. In 949 CE, he
Eastern Chalukyas. He left the affairs of country defeated the Chola army of Rajadithya
to his brother Dhruva who eventually crowned in the battle of Takkolam (in present day
himself as the ruler. During the reign of Dhruva Vellore district). Krishna III marched upto
(780–794 CE), the Rashtrakuta power reached Rameshvaram where he built a pillar of
its zenith. After humbling the western Ganga victory. Thus he succeeded in establishing
king, Dhruva defeated Dantivarman, the Pallava his suzerainty over the entire Deccan
king. The ruler of Vengi (modern Andhra) also region. It was under him the Rashtrakutas
had to accept his suzerainty. After establishing joined the contest that was held then among
his hegemony in the south, Dhruva turned his the northern ruling dynasties for control
attention towards the regions around Kanauj. of Kanauj. The continued conflict over the

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possession of Kanauj emboldened some of work, and Kavirajamarga, a Kannada work.

the local rajas to assert their independence. Jinasena wrote the Adipurana of the Jains.
Their defiance destroyed the possibility Krishna II’s spiritual guide, Gunabhadra, wrote
of a single kingdom ruling northern India the Mahapurana of the Jains. The three gems of
with its centre at Kanauj. Invasions from ancient Kannada literature – Kavichakravarthi
the north-west also prevented any such Ponna, Adikavi Pampa and Kavichakravarti
attempts to create a powerful state. But the Ranna – were patronised by Rashtrkuta king
successors of Krishna III were too weak to Krishna III, as well as by Tailapa and Satyashraya
save the kingdom from its decline. of Western Chalukyas.
Religion Architecture
The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular The Rashtrakutas made
during the Rashtrakuta reign. The famous rock-cut splendid contributions
Shiva temple at Ellora was built by Krishna I. The to Indian art. The rock-
seals have the pictures of Garudavahana of Vishnu cut shrines at Ellora and
or of Shiva seated in yogic posture. Dantidurga Elephanta located in
performed the Hiranyagarbha ritual at Ujjayini. present-day Maharashtra
There are references to Tula-danas gift or offer of belong to their period. The
gold equal to one’s own weight to temple deities. Ellora cave complex contains the features of
Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments and
Hiranyagarbha literally means golden art work. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism
womb. A person coming out of this golden and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora
womb, after elaborate rituals performed
ascribed to his period.
by priests, is declared as reborn possessing
a celestial body. The Satavahana king The most striking structure at Ellora is
Gautamiputra Sathakarni performed this the creation of the Monolithic Kailasanath
ritual to claim kshatriya status. Temple. The temple was hewn out of a single
Jainism was patronised by later rulers such rock during the time of Krishna I in the
as Amoghavarsha I, Indra IV, Krishna II and 8th century. It is similar to the Lokesvara
Indra III. Buddhism had declined and its only temple at Pattadakal, in Karnataka, built
important centre was at Kanheri. by Chalukya king Vikramaditya II to
commemorate his victory over the Pallavas.
Literature The sculptured panels of Dasavatara Bhirava,
The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of Ravana shaking the Mount Kailasa, dancing
learning. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made Shiva and Vishnu, and Lakshmi listening to
great progress during their reign. Amoghavarsha I music are the best specimens of sculpture
was the author of Prasnottaramalika, a Sanskrit inside the temple.
Kailasanath Temple - Ellora Ellora Sculptures Elephanta Cave

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The main shrine at Elephanta is artistically

superior to the shrines at Ellora. The sculptures EXERCISE
such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel even that of
the Ellora sculptures in beauty and craftsmanship. Q.R.Code
I. Choose the
Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurti are the
other famous sculptures. The latter, a three-faced correct answer
bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet tall and considered 1. P r a b a k a r a v a r d h a n a
one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. The gave his daughter Rajyasri in marriage
paintings are still seen in the porch of the temple to____________.
of Kailasa and ceilings of the Mahesamurti shrine (a) Grahavarman (b) Deva Gupta
at Ellora.
(c) Sasanka (d) Pushyaputi
2. Harsha accepted the throne of Kanauj on the
SUMMARY
advice of______________.
I Harsha (a) Grahavarman
The period between the Guptas and
(b) Avalokitesvara Bodisatva
the Vardhanas saw many independent
principalities. North India lacked a strong (c) Prabakaravardhana
central power. (d) Poni
The Huns, Maithrakas of Valabhi, Maukharis 3. ________was the minister for Foreign
of Kanauj, Yasodharman of Mandasor, Relations and War.
Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar and Later Guptas
(a) Kuntala (b) Banu
of Magadha were sub-regional kingdoms.
Harsha maintained cordial relations with (c) Avanti (d) Sarvagata
China and the Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang 4. Which of the following was written by
recorded the socio-religious conditions of the Harsha?
people of that period. (a) Harsha Charitha (b) Priyadharsika
Harsha patronised Buddhism and convened
(c) Arthasastra (d) Vikramorvasiyam
Buddhist assemblies at Kanauj and Prayag.
II Palas 5. Which one of the following statements is
The founder of Pala dynasty Gopala was wrong?
elected to rule by the chieftains and rulers of (a) Dharmapala established Somapura
little kingdoms. Mahavihara.
Dharmapala, Devapala and Mahipala I ruled (b) Ramapala wrote Ramacharitam.
ably and kept their domain under effective
(c) Mahipala Songs are still popular in rural
control.
parts of Bengal.
The patronage of Palas to Vikramashila
and Nalanda universities paved the way for (d) Agama Shastra was written by Gaudapada.
the progress of Buddhist, Jain and Sanskrit
literature. II. Write Brief Answers
III Rashtrakutas 1. What are the epigraphical sources for the
Rashtrakutas emerged as the most feared and study of Harsha's Empire?
powerful kingdom during the reign of a series 2. How did Harsha become the king of Kanauj?
of successful rulers from Krishna I through
3. Discuss the greatness of Mahipala I.
Krishna III.
Rashtrakutas patronised Sanskrit and 4. Point out the significance of the battle of
Kannada scholars. Takkolam.
The art found at Ellora and Elephanta are 5. Highlight the significance of Nalanda
their contributions. University during the Pala dynasty.

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REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Harsha’s relationship with the Chinese.
2. Importance of Harsha’s criminal justice system. 1. Burton Stein (2004), A History of India,
3. S hrines at Elephanta and at Ellora. Oxford University Press.
4.
Contribution of Rashtrakutas to Kannada 2. R.K. Mukerjee, A History of India.
literature. 3. Romila Thapar (2002), Early India, Penguin,
Haryana.
5. Patronage of Rashtrakutas to Jains.
4. R.Sathianthaier (1972),History of India, Vol. I,
IV. Answer the following in detail S. Viswanathan Printers, Chennai.
1. Give an account of the military expeditions of 5. A.S.Altekar (1934), The Rastrakutas and Their
Times, Poona.
Harsha in northern India.
6. V.D.Mahajan (1990), Ancient India, Chand &
2. Explain the religious policy of Harsha.
Co., New Delhi.
3. Highlight the condition of North India as
7. T.V.Mahalingam (1955), The South Indian
described by Hieun Tsang.
Polity, Madras.
4.
What were the contributions of Palas to 8. R.D. Banerjee (1915), The Palas of Bengal,
Buddhism? Calcutta.
5. Account for the greatness of Rashtrakutas. 9. R.C.Majumdar (1915), History of Bengal,
Calcutta.
Activity
1. Enact a drama on a Buddhist Assembly Meeting. INTERNET RESOURCES
2.Debate:
1. https://en.m.wikipedia.org.....wiki>pala
(i) Bakthiyar Khalji attacked Nalanda University
thinking that it was a fort. 2. https://www.tutorialsprint.com>anicient....
(ii)
Hieun Tsang's visit to India to collect 3. https//www.brittannica.com
Buddhist texts. 4. https//en.m.wikipedia.org
GLOSSARY
ஐந்தாண்டிற்கு ஒருமுறை
quinquennial occurring once in five years நிகழும்
bhikshu Buddhist monk ப�ௌத்தத் துறவி
killing oneself by jumping into
immolate தீப் பாய்தல்
fire
reckon calculate கணக்கிடு
preceptor teacher ஆசிரியர்
ப�ோரின் மூலம்
booty plunder க�ொள்ளையடிக்கப்பட்டவை
ஒரு காரியத்திற்கு அல்லது
espoused supporting a cause செயல்பாட்டிற்கு ஆதரவு
க�ொடுத்தல்
hewn chiselled செதுக்கப்பட்ட
ascribed assigned சார்ந்தது

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UNIT Cultural Development

in South India
9
Learning Objectives
To understand state and society in early medieval south India
To know the nature of political conflict between Chalukyas and Pallavas
To understand the cultural exchanges occurring in south India under the two antagonistic
kingdoms
To study the artistic greatness of monuments at Ajantha, Ellora and Mamallapuram
To study the devotional movements and impressive growth of vernacular literature in early
medieval south India.
Introduction in Kannada, Vikramarjuna-vijayam, also

called Pampa-bharata, by Pampa in Kannada,
The political history of south India during which were all of a later period, and Nannaya’s
the sixth century to ninth century CE was marked Mahabharatam in Telugu also provide useful
by conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami historical data.
(Vatapi) (also known as Western Chalukyas),
and the Pallavas of Kanchi. At the same time, However, pride of place must go to
the period also saw great advancements in the Tamil literature. The Bhakti movement which
field of culture and literature. It also broke new originated in South India found its greatest
grounds in areas like devotional literature, art expression in the songs composed by the
and architecture. The Bhakti movement, which Azhwars and Nayanmars. The poems of the
impacted the entire sub-continent, originated Vaishnavite Azhwars were later compiled as
in the Tamil country during this period. the Nalayira Divya Prabhandam. The Saiva
literature was canonized as the Panniru
Sources Tirumurai. The Thevaram, composed by
Inscriptions on copperplates, on temple Appar (Thirunavukkarasar), Sambandar
walls and pillars form a major source of historical (Thirugnanasambandar) and Sundarar; and
information for this period. Inscriptions issued Thiruvavasagam by Manickavasagar are
by Chalukyas in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and prominent texts which are read as sacred
Sanskrit languages, and Pallavas in Tamil and literature to this day. Periyapuranam written
Sanskrit, recording land grants to Brahmins, as by Sekizhar, in a later period, also provides
well as the royal and the non-royal gifts made much historical information. The Mathavilasa
to religious establishment are equally important Prahasanam written by Mahendravarman
sources. The Aihole inscription of Pulikesin II I in Sanskrit, is an important source for the
composed by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit Pallava period.
is among the most important of Chalukyan Many inscriptional sources including the
inscriptions. Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta
117

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From Kuram Copper Plate : (Line 12). The grandson of Narasimhavarman, (who
arose) from the kings of this race, just as the moon and the sun from the eastern mountain; who
was the crest-jewel on the head of those princes, who had never bowed their heads (before); who
proved a lion to the elephant-herd of hostile kings; who appeared to be blessed Narasimha himself,
who had come down (to earth) in the shape of a prince; who repeatedly defeated the Cholas,
Keralas, Kalabhras, and Pandyas; who, like Sahasrabahu (i.e., the thousand-armed Kartavirya),
enjoyed the action for a thousand arms in hundreds of fights; who wrote the (three) syllables of
(the word) vijaya (i.e., victory), as on a plate, on Pulikesin’s back, which was caused to be visible
(i.e., whom he caused to turn his back) in the battles of Pariyala, Manimangala, Suramara, etc., and
who destroyed (the city of) Vatapi, just as the pitcher-born (Agastya) (the demon) Vatapi.
and the Aihole inscription of the Chalukya on the banks of the Narmada. The kings of
king Pulakisin II provide details of Pallava - Malwa, Kalinga, and eastern Deccan accepted
Chalukya conflict. The Kuram copper plates of his suzerainty. His victories over Kadambas of
Parameshwaravarman and the Velurpalayam Banvasi, and Gangas of Talakad (Mysore) are also
copper plates of Nandivarman III record their worthy of note. However, his attempt to attack
military achievements. Coins help us to under- Kanchipuram was thwarted by Mahendravarma
stand the economic condition of the period. Pallava. This led to a prolonged war between the
Buddhist sources such as Deepavamsa and Chalukyas and the Pallavas. Narasimha Varman I
Mahavamsa, written in Pali, the accounts of (630-668), the Pallava King, attacked and
Chinese travellers Hiuen Tsang and Itsing give occupied Badami. Pulikesin II died in the battle.
us details about the socio-religious and cultural Pallava control over Badami and the southern
conditions of the Pallava times. The ninth and parts of the Chalukya empire continued for
tenth century writings of Arab travellers and several years. In the mid-eighth century, the
geographers such as Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, and Badami Chalukyas were overpowered and
Ibn Hauka also tell us about the socio-political replaced by the Rashtrakutas.
and economic conditions of India of this period.
Chalukya Administration
The sculptures in the temples in Aihole, Badami,
Pattadakal reflect the culture of the times. State
I Chalukyas and Pallavas The king was the head of the administration.
In dynastic succession primogeniture was not
9.1 Chalukyas strictly followed. Generally, the elder was to be
There are two Chalukya families: Chalukyas appointed as yuvaraja while the king was in the
of Badami (Vatapi) and Chalukyas of Kalyani. office. The heir apparent got trained in literature,
This lesson concerns only the Chalukyas of law, philosophy, martial arts and others.
Badami. Chalukya dynasty emerged as a strong Chalukyan kings claimed to rule according
power with its founder Pulikesin I (c. 543-566 to dharma-sastra and niti-sastra. Pulikesin I
CE) fortifying a hill near Badami. He declared was well-versed in manu-sastra, puranas, and
independence from the Kadmabas. It is said itihasas. In the beginning, the Chalukya kings
that he conducted yagnas and performed the assumed titles such as Maharajan, Sathyasrayan
asvameda sacrifice. The capital Badami was and Sri-Pritivi-Vallaban. After defeating
founded by Kirtivarman (566-597). Pulikesin I’s Harshavardhana, Pulikesin II assumed the
grandson Pulikesin II (609-642), after defeating title of Parameswaran. Bhattarakan and
Mangalesha, proclaimed himself as king, an event Maharajathirajan, soon became very popular
that is described in the Aihole inscription. One titles. In the Pallava kingdom, kings took high-
of the most outstanding victories of Pulikesin II sounding titles such as Dharma maharajaadhi
was the defeat of Harshavardhana’s army raja, Maharajadhiraja, Dharma maharaja,
118 Cultural Development in South India

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CHALUKYA DYNASTY N
W E
Chalukya dynasty
MAGADHA
Narmada Tamralipti
Tapti nadi
BHOJAKAS ha
Ma
PITINKAS Toshali BAY
Godavari
OF
BENGAL
Vatapi KALINGA
ARABIAN Kris ANDHRA
hna
SEA
Suvarnagiri
PULINDAS
An
SATHYA PUTRA
da m
Lakshad weep isla
Kaveri
an and n ic ob ar i
CHOLA
(I N D I A )
(I N D I A )
PANDYA
KERALAPUTRA
nd
sl
Anuradhapura
an
s
ds
Maharaja. In the Hirahadagalli plates the king part in the administration of the kingdom, but
is introduced as the performer of agnistoma, they built shrines, and installed images of various
vajapeya and asvamedha sacrifices. deities, and endowed temples. The image of
Queen Rangapataka, the queen of Rajasimha, is
The wild boar was the royal insignia of the
found in the inscription in Kailasanatha temple
Chalukyas. It was claimed that it represented the
in Kanchipuram.
varaha avatar of Vishnu. The bull, Siva’s mount,
was the symbol of the Pallavas. The King and His Ministers
All powers were vested in the king.
Royal Women
Inscriptions do not specifically speak of a council
Chalukya dynasty of Jayasimhan I line of ministers, but they do refer to an official called
appointed royal ladies as provincial governors. maha-sandhi-vigrahika. Four other categories
They also issued coins in some instances. of ministers are also referred to in the epigraphs:
Vijya Bhattariga, a Chalukya princess, issued Pradhana (head minister), Mahasandhi-
inscriptions. Pallava queens did not take active vigrahika (minister of foreign affairs),
Aihole Inscription of Pulikesin II : The Megudi temple at Aihole (in Karnataka) stands
on top of a hill. On the eastern wall of this Jaina temple is a 19-line Sanskrit inscription (dated to
Saka era: 634-635 AD (CE)). The composer is a poet named Ravikriti. The inscription is a prashasti
of the Chalukyas especially the reigning king Pulikesin II, referred to as Sathyasraya (the abode of
truth). It highlights the history of the dynasty, defeat of all his enemies, especially Harshavardhana.
Cultural Development in South India 119

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Amatya (revenue minister), and Samaharta became centres for popularising Saivism.
(minister of exchequer). Chalukyas divided Chalukyas patronised heterodox sects also
the state into political divisions for the sake and lavishly donated lands to the Jain centres.
of administration: Vishayam, Rastram, Nadu Ravikirti, the poet-laureate of Pulikesin II,
and Grama. Epigraphs speak of the officials was a Jain scholar. In the reign of Kirtivarman II
like vishayapatis, samantas, gramapohis and a Jain village official built a Jain temple in a
mahatras. Vishayapatis exercised the power at place called Annigere. The prince Krishna
the behest of the kings. Samantas were feudal appointed Gunapatra, a Jain monk, as his
lords functioning under the control of the state. master. According to Hiuen Tsang, there
Grampohis and gramkudas were village officials. were many Buddhist centres in the Chalukya
Mahatras were the prominent village men. territory wherein more than 5000 followers of
Provincial and District the Hinayana and Mahayana sects lived.
Administration Literature and Education
Generally, the king appointed his sons as Chalukyas used Sanskrit in pillar
the provincial governors. The governors called inscriptions such as in Aihole and Maha-
themselves raja, marakka-rajan and rajaditya- kudam. A seventh-century inscription of a
raja-parameswaran. Some governors held the Chalukya king at Badami mentions Kannada as
title maha-samanta and maintained troops. The the local prakrit, meaning the people’s language,
chief of vishaya was vishayapati. In turn, vishaya and Sanskrit as the language of culture. A
was divided into pukti. Its head was pogapati. chieftain of Pulikesin II authored a grammar
work Saptavataram in Sanskrit.
Village Administration
The traditional revenue officials of the Chalukya Architecture
villages were called the nala-kavundas. The Historically, in Deccan, Chalukyas
central figure in village administration was introduced the technique of building temples
kamunda or pokigan who were appointed by the using soft sandstones as medium. In Badami,
kings. The village accountant was karana and he two temples are dedicated to Vishnu and one
was otherwise called gramani. Law and order of each to Siva and to the Jaina tirthankaras.
the village was in the hands of a group of people Their temples are grouped into two: excavated
called mahajanam. There was a special officer cave temples and structural temples. Badami is
called mahapurush, in charge of maintaining known for both structural and excavated cave
order and peace of the village. Nagarapatis or temples. Pattadakal and Aihole are popular for
Purapatis were the officials of the towns. structural temples.
Religion Aihole (Ayyavole)
The Chalukyas patronised both Saivism
Built in 634, Aihole, the headquarters
and Vaishnavism. They built temples for Siva and
of the famous medieval Ayyavole merchants’
Vishnu. Brahmin groups were invited from the
guild was an important commercial centre.
Gangetic regions and settled to perform regular
About seventy temples are located in Aihole.
pujas and conduct festivals and ceremonies
The earliest stone-built temple is Lad Khan
in the temples. Notable Chalukya rulers like
temple. Its unique trait is a stucco pillar with
Kirtivarman I, Mangalesa (597-609), and
a big capital distinct from northern style.
Pulikesin II (609-642) performed yagnas. They
A temple dedicated to the goddess Durga
bore titles such as parama-vaishana and parama-
was built on the model of Buddha Chaitya.
maheswara. Chalukyas gave prominent place
It stands on a raised platform in the form of
to Kartikeyan, the war god. Saiva monasteries
semi-circle. Another temple, dedicated to the

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same goddess is called Huccimalligudi, which

is rectangular in shape. Chalukyas also built
Jain temples. Megudi Jain temple is illustrative
of the evolution of temple architecture under
the Chalukyas. The mandapa-type caves are
preserved at Aihole.
Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal
the title Tribhuvacharya (maker of the three

worlds). Several reliefs on the temple walls bear
signatures of the sculptors who carved them.
At the south-eastern corner of the village is

the Papanatha temple. Similar to the Virupaksha
temple in its basic plan, it has a shikara in
Aihole Durga Temple the northern style. The outer walls are richly
decorated with many panels depicting scenes
Vatapi (Badami)
and characters from the Ramayana. The eastern
There are four caves in Badami. The largest wall has a short Kannada inscription, giving
cave temple built by Mangalesa is dedicated to the name of the architect Revadi Ovajja, who
Vishnu. The reclining posture of Vishnu on the designed the shrine. In Pattadakal, Chalukyas
snake bed and Narasimha are exquisite examples built more than ten temples which demonstrate
of Chalukya art. Irrespective of religion, the evolution in Chalukya architecture. On the
architectural features share a common style. It basis of style these temples are classified into
establishes the technical importance and the two groups: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian.
secular attitude of both patron and architect.
Painting
Pattadakal Paintings are found in a cave temple
Pattadakal, a quiet village in Bagalkot dedicated to Vishnu in Badami. Chalukyas
district of Karnataka, is famous for its exquisite adopted the Vakataka style in painting. Many
temples. Pattadakal was a centre for performing of the paintings are of incarnations of Vishnu.
royal rituals. The Virupaksha temple was The most popular Chalukya painting is in the
built at the order of queen Lohamahadevi to palace built by the King Mangalesan (597-609).
commemorate the conquest of Kanchipuram It is a scene of ball being watched by members
by her husband Vikramaditya II. The unique of royal family and others.
feature of the structural temple built by
Rajasimha at Mamallapuram was adopted here 9.2 Pallavas
by the Chalukyas. Monuments are generally There is no scholarly consensus about the
associated with the rulers who built them. origin of the Pallavas. Some early scholars held
However, here we also have signatures of the the view that the word Pallava was a variant
architects who conceived the edifices and the of Pahlava, known as Parthians, who moved
skilled craftspeople who created them. The east from western India to the eastern coast of the
porch of the Virupaksha temple has a Kannada peninsula, during the wars between the Sakas
inscription eulogizing the architect who and the Satavahanas in the second century CE.
designed the temple. The architect was given But many scholars today regard them native

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PALLAVA TERRITORIES N
W E
Pallava Territories
S
Narmada Mahanadi
God
ava
ri
Bijapur
hna
Arabian Kris Bay of
Masulipatnam
Sea Bengal
Sira PALLAVA
CauvVellore KANCHI
ery
Anda
L a ks h a d weep
Calicut
(I n d ia)
m n an d N ico b a r
a
(I n d ia)
PANDIYA
Madurai
Quilon
Indian Ocean
to south India or “with some mixture of north Pallava capital of Kanchipuram. Subsequently,
Indian blood”. during the reign of Narasimhavarman I (630-
668), the Pallavas managed to settle scores by
The Pallavas were associated with
winning several victories over the Chalukyas
Tondaimandalam, the land between the north
with the aid of their ally Manavarman, a Sri
Pennar and north Vellar rivers. Simhavishnu is
Lankan prince, who later
believed to have conquered the Chola country
became ruler of the island
up to the Kaveri and consolidated his dynastic
kingdom. The climax
rule, started by his father Simhavarman.
was Narasimhavarman’s
Simhavishnu, vanquishing the Kalabhras,
invasion of the Chalukyan
conquered the land up to the Kaveri, thereby
kingdom and his
coming into conflict with the Pandyas.
capturing of the Badami.
Simhavishnu’s successor Mahendravarman I
Narasimhavarman
(590-630), whom Appar, converted from
claims to have defeated
Jainism to Saivism, was a patron of arts, and a
the Cholas, Cheras and
poet and musician in his own right.
Kalabhras. Two naval
During Mahendravarman’s reign, the expeditions despatched
army of Pulikesin II annexed the northern part to help Manavarman
of Pallava kingdom and almost reached the were successful, but Narasimhavarman

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this Sri Lankan ruler subsequently lost his of ministers. Rahasyadhikrita was a private
kingdom. secretary of the king. Manikkappandaram-
The Pallava-Chalukya conflict continued Kappan was an officer in charge of the treasury
(Manikka - valuables; Pandaram - treasury;
during the subsequent decades, with some
Kappan – keeper). Kodukkappillai was the
intermittent peace. During the reign of his
officer of gifts. They were central officers
grandson, Paramesvaravarman I (670-700),
under the Pallava king. Kosa-adhyaksa was
Vikramaditya of the Chalukya kingdom invaded
the supervisor of the Manikkappandaram-
the Pallava country. Paramesvaravarman fought
kappan. Judicial courts were called Adhikarna
against him with the support of the Gangas
Mandapa and judges called Dharmadhikarins.
and Pandyas. As a result, the Pallavas came
Fines are mentioned in the Kasakudi plates of
into conflict with the Pandyas in the south. In
Nandivarma Pallava as Karanadandam (fine in
the early ninth century, the Rashtrakuta king,
superior/higher court) and Adhikaranadandam
Govind III, invaded Kanchi during the reign
(fine in district level).
of the Pallava Dantivarman. Dantivarman’s
son Nandivarman III aided by western Gangas The governor of a province was advised
and Cholas, defeated the Pandyas at the battle and assisted by officers in charge of districts
of Sripurambiyam or Thirupurambiyam. who worked in close collaboration with local
Aparajita, grandson of Nandivarman III, lost autonomous institutions, largely in an advisory
his life in a battle fought against Aditya I of the capacity. They were built on local relationship
Chola kingdom who invaded Tondaimandalam. of caste, guilds, craftsmen and artisans (such
This sealed the fate of the Pallavas. Thereafter, as weavers and oil-mongers), students, ascetics
control over Tondaimandalam passed into the and priests. There were assemblies of villagers
hands of the Cholas. and also representatives of districts. General
body meetings of the assembly were held
About the Cheras: Though the annually, and meetings of smaller groups were
Kerala region seems to have been under responsible for implementing policy.
the rule of the Chera Perumals during the
Land Grants
period from sixth to ninth century little is
known about its history until the beginning Land ownership was with the king, who
of the ninth century. could make revenue grants to his officers and
land-grants to Brahmans, or else continue to
Pallava Administration have land cultivated by small-scale cultivators
and landlords. The latter was the most
Under the Pallavas, kinship was held to be
common practice. Crown lands were leased
of divine origin and was hereditary. The king
out to tenants-at-will. The status of the village
took high-sounding titles, some of which, such
varied according to the tenures prevailing. The
as maharajadhiraja, were borrowed from north
village with an inter-caste population paid land
Indian traditions. The king was assisted by a
revenue. The brahmadeya villages were donated
group of ministers, and in the later Pallava period
to a single Brahman or a group of Brahmans.
this ministerial council played a prominent part
These villages tended to be more prosperous
in state policy. Some of the ministers bore semi-
than the others because no tax was paid. There
royal titles and may well have been appointed
were devadana villages, donated to a temple,
from among the feudatories. and the revenue was consequently received
Distinctions are made between amatyas by the temple authorities and not by the state.
and mantrins. While a mantri is generally The temple authorities assisted the village by
understood to be a diplomat, amatya is a providing employment in the service of the
counsellor. Mantri Mandala was a council temple. This last category of villages gained

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greater significance when in later centuries the cultivators. The maintenance of these tanks
temples became the centres of rural life. During was essential to the village. Practically every
the Pallava period the first two types of villages inscription from the Pallava period pertaining
were predominant. to the rural affairs refers to the upkeep of the
tank. Next in importance came wells. Water was
In 1879, eleven plates held together by a distributed by canals, which were fitted with
ring of copper, its two ends soldered and sluices to regulate the water level and prevent
stamped with a royal seal depicting a bull overflowing at the source. The distribution of
and a lingam (the Pallava symbol) were
water for irrigation was supervised by a special
discovered in Urrukkattukottam, near
tank committee appointed by the village.
Puducherry. It records a grant of a village
made in the twenty-second year of the king Water taken in excess of allotted to a particular
Nandivarman (753 CE). The inscriptional cultivator was taxed.
text commences with a eulogy of the king in
Revenue and Taxation
Sanskrit, followed by the details of the grant
in Tamil, and a concluding verse in Sanskrit. Land grants recorded mainly on
copperplates provide detailed information on
Village Life land revenues and taxation. Revenue came
almost exclusively from rural sources, mercantile
In the village, the basic assembly was the
and urban institutions being largely unplanned.
sabha, which was concerned with all matters
Two categories of taxes were levied on the village.
relating to the village, including endowments,
The land revenue paid by the cultivator to the
land, irrigation, cultivated, punishment of crime,
state varied from 1/6th to 1/10th of the produce,
the keeping of a census and other necessary
and was collected by the village and paid to the
records. Village courts dealt with petty criminal
state collector. In the second category were local
cases. At a higher level, in towns and districts,
taxes, also collected in the village but utilized for
courts were presided over by government
services in the village itself. The tax money was
officers, with the king as the supreme arbiter
spent for repairing irrigation works, illuminating
of justice. The sabha was a formal institution
the temple, etc. When the state land tax was
but it worked closely with the urar, an informal
inadequate, the revenue was supplemented
gathering of the entire village. Above this was
by additional taxes on draught cattle, toddy-
a district council which worked with nadu or
drawers, marriage-parties, potters, goldsmiths,
district administration. Villages populated
washermen, textile-manufacturers, weavers,
entirely or largely by Brahmans preserved
brokers, letter-carriers, and the makers of ghee.
records of the functioning of assemblies and
councils. The link between the village assembly The loot and booty obtained in war added to
and the official administration was the headman the revenue of the state. Pallava considered war
of the village.
Tank Irrigation
A special category of land, eripatti or tank
land, was known only in south India. This land
was donated by individuals, the revenue from
which was set apart for the maintenance of the
village tank. Rainwater was stored in the tank so
that land could be irrigated during the annual
long, dry spell. The tank, lined with brick or
stone, was built through the cooperative effort
of the village, and its water was shared by all Vaikunta Perumal temple - Kanchipuram

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to be very important and a series of sculptures Maritime Trade

depicting the important events connected with
Unlike in the Ganges plain, where large
the reign of Nandivarama Pallava, notably
areas were available for cultivation, the regions
Pallava troops attacking a fort are seen in the
controlled by the Pallavas and the Chalukyas
Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchipuram.
commanded a limited income from land.
This fort is depicted in the sculptures as having
Mercantile activity had not developed sufficiently
high ramparts with soldiers attacking it and
to make a substantial contribution to the
elephants standing near it.
economy. The Pallavas had maritime trade with
Pallava Army south-east Asia, where by now there were three
major kingdoms: Kambuja (Cambodia), Champa
Much of the state revenue went to maintain
(Annam), and Srivijaya (the southern Malaya
the army. The king maintained a standing army
peninsula and Sumatra). On the west coast, the
under his direct control. The army consisted
of foot-soldiers, cavalry and a small force of initiative in the trade with the West was gradually
elephants. Chariots were by now almost out of passing into the hands of the foreign traders
use and in any case were ineffective in the hilly settled along the coast, mainly Arabs. Indian
terrains, as much of the fighting took place there. traders were becoming suppliers of goods rather
Cavalry, though effective, was expensive, as horses than carriers of goods to foreign countries, and
had to be imported. The Pallavas developed a communication with the west became indirect,
navy and built dockyards at Mamallapuram and via Arabs, and limited to trade alone.
Nagapattinam. However, the Pallava navy was Society
inconsiderable compared to the naval strength of
the Cholas who succeeded them. Brahmins as learned scholars in literature,
astronomy, law and others functioned as the
Trade royal counsellors. Not only were they in the
Kanchipuram was an important trading teaching profession, they were also involved in
centre in the Pallava period. The merchants had agriculture, trade and war. They were exempted
to obtain license to market their goods. Barter from paying taxes and capital punishment. The
system generally prevailed but later the Pallavas next important social group which ruled the state
issued gold and silver coins. Merchants had was called sat-kshatryas (quality kshatriyas).
their own organizations such as Manigramam. Not all the kshatryas were of warring groups;
In foreign trade, spices, cotton textiles, precious some of them were involved in trading as well.
stones and medicinal plants were exported to They also enjoyed the right to read the Vedas,
Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, China a privilege denied to lower varnas. The trading
and Burma (Myanmar). Mamallapuram was an group maintained warriors for protection and
important seaport. founded trade guilds. The people who were at
the bottom of the society worked in agriculture,
Traders founded guilds and called
animal husbandry, and handicraft works. People
themselves as sudesi, nanadesi, ainurruvar and
engaged in scavenging, fishing, dry-cleaning
others. Their main guild functioned at Aihole.
and leather works were positioned outside the
Foreign merchants were known as Nanadesi. It
varna system.
had a separate flag with the figure of bull at the
centre, and they enjoyed the right of issuing vira- Most scholars agree that Aryanisation or
sasanas. The jurisdiction of this guild stretched the northern influence on the south picked up
over entire south-east Asia. The chief of this guild pace during the Pallava period. This is evident
is registered in the inscriptions as pattanswamy, from the royal grants issued by the kings. The
pattnakilar, and dandanayaka. Its members caste structure had firmly established. Sanskrit
were known as ayyavole-parameswariyar. came to be held in high esteem.

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Kanchipuram continued to be a great seat was fighting a losing battle. Royal patronage,
of learning. The followers of Vedic religion were which the Buddhists lacked, gave an edge to the
devoted to the worship of Siva. Mahendravarman protagonists of Vedic religions.
was the first, during the middle of his reign, to Apart from the university at Kanchi, which
adopt the worship of Siva. But he was intolerant acquired a fame equal to that the Nalanda,
of Jainism and destroyed some Jain monasteries. there were a number of other Sanskrit colleges.
Buddhism and Jainism lost their appeal. However, Sanskrit was the recognized medium, and was
Hiuen-Tsang is reported to have seen at Kanchi also the official language at the court, which led
one hundred Buddhist monasteries and 10,000 to its adoption in literary circles. In the eighth
priests belonging to the Mahayana school. Many century the mathas (mutts) became popular.
of the great Nayanmars and Alwars, Saiva and This was a combination of a rest house, a
Vaishanava poet-saints lived during his time. feeding-centre, and an education centre, which
indirectly brought publicity to the particular
Growing influence of Brahmanism
sect with which it was associated.
Perhaps the most obvious sign of the
influence of Aryan culture in the south was the Growing Popularity of Sanskrit
pre-eminent position given to Brahmins. They Mahendravarman I composed Mathavilasa
gained materially through large gifts of land. Prahasanam in Sanskrit. Two extraordinary
Aryanisation is also evident in the evolution of works in Sanskrit set the standard for Sanskrit
educational institutions in the Pallava kingdom. literature in the south: Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya
In the early part of this period education was and Dandin’s Dashakumaracharita. Dandin of
controlled by Jains and Buddhists, but gradually Kanchipuram, author of the great treatise on
the Brahmins superseded them. The Jains rhetoric Kavyadarsa, seems to have stayed in
who had brought with them their religious Pallava court for some time.
literature in Sanskrit and Prakrit, began to use
Rock-cut Temples
Tamil. Jainism was extremely popular, but the
competition of Hinduism in the succeeding Mahendravarman I is credited with the
centuries greatly reduced the number of its introduction of rock-cut temples in the Pallava
adherents. In addition, Mahendravarman I territory. Mahendravarman claims in his
lost interest in Jainism and took up the cause Mandagappattu inscription that his shrine to
of Saivism, thus depriving the Jains of valuable Brahma, Isvara and Vishnu was made without
royal patronage. The Jains had developed a using traditional materials such as brick,
few educational centres near Madurai and timber, metal and mortar. Mahendravarman’s
Kanchi, and religious centres such as the one rock-cut temples are usually the mandapa type
at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. But a vast with a pillared hall or the mandapa in front and
majority of the Jaina monks tended to isolate a small shrine at the rear or sides.
themselves in small caves, in hills and forests.
Monasteries and Mutts
Monasteries continued to be the nucleus
of the Buddhist educational system and
were located in the region of Kanchi, and
the valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari
rivers. Buddhist centres were concerned
with the study of Buddhism, particularly as
this was a period of intense conflict between
Rock-cut temple of Mahendravarma Pallava
orthodox and heterodox sects. But Buddhism

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II. Ellora – Ajanta and Mamallapuram trained in religious treatises and scriptures. The
Aurangabad district in Maharashtra is the main hall in the centre and the cubical rooms on
centre of the groups of caves in Ellora and Ajanta. either side were used as monasteries for teaching
The Ellora group of caves are famous for sculptures and preaching. This is attested by a figure, in cave
while the Ajanta group of caves are famous for number six, of man reading a manuscript on a
paintings. The dates of these temples range from folding table. The panels in these caves portray
c. 500 to c. 950 CE. But the activity of creating scenes from the life of the Buddha. Three different
cave temples may have started two hundred years characters are indentified by the sculptures in
earlier. The first cave temple was created for the the caves. The central figure is Buddha found in
Ajivikas. Some of the temples are incomplete. three sagacious postures: meditating (dhyana
mudra), preaching (vyakhyana mudra) and
9.3 Ellora touching the earth by index finger of right hand
(bhumi-sparsha mudra).
The rock-cut cave temples in Ellora
are in 34 caves, carved in Charanadri hills.
Without knowledge of trigonometry, structural
engineering, and metallurgy, the Indian
architects could not have created such exquisite
edifices. The patrons of these caves range from
the dynasties of Chalukyas to Rashtrakutas. The
heterodox sects first set the trend of creating this
model of temples. Later, orthodox sects adopted
it as a medium of disseminating religious
ideologies. These temples were linked to
Buddha in Meditation-Ellora
Ajivikas, Jainism, Buddhism, and Brahmanism.
The earliest temples are modest and simple with Goddesses
no artistic claims. But, the later temples are
Buddhist caves represented goddesses by
elegant edifices.
way of the carved images of Tara, Khadiravani-
Mural paintings in Ellora are found in five tara, Chunda, Vajradhat-vishvari, Maha-
caves, but only in the Kailash temple are they mayuri, Sujata, Pandara and Bhrikuti. In
preserved. Some murals in Jain temples are well cave twelve, a stout female figure is depicted
preserved. Not only animals, birds, trees, flowers wearing a waistband and headgear of a cobra.
are pictured elegantly, but human emotions and Khadrivani-tara also holds a cobra in one of her
character - greed, love, compassion-are depicted hands in the same cave.
with professional skill.
Heterodox II / Jain caves
The Ellora caves were designated A few Jain caves are also seen in Ellora
as a UNESCO World Heritage Site group and are distinct from others. But they
in 1983. are incomplete. The figures of Yaksha-matanga,
Mahavira, Parsvanatha, and Gomatesvara are
Heterodox I / Buddhist caves surrounded by attendants.
There are 12 Buddhist caves. Every Buddhist
Caves of Vedic Religions
cave temple is of a unique model in architecture.
Some are modest; while others are double- The earliest caves in these groups are modest
storeyed or triple-storeyed. The plans of the caves and simple. Mostly, they are square-shaped
demonstrate that these were designed as religious except Kailasanatha cave (cave-16), which is a
centres where monks stayed and the disciples were massive monolithic structure, carved out of a

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single solid rock. This temple is said to represent they plastered the ridged surface of the volcanic
Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva. The temple is rock. This plaster was made of vegetable fibres,
two storeyed and the Kailasa temple is on the paddy husk, rock-grit, and sand. This surface was
first one. The lower storey has carved life-size overlaid with a thin layer of lime, ready to receive
elephants, which looks like they are holding up the pigment. Recently it was noticed that a stretch
the temple on their backs. The temple exterior has of cloth was reinforced on the surface for the
richly carved windows, images of deities from the application of pigment.
Hindu scriptures and Mithunas (amorous male The colours were extracted out of natural
and female figures). Most of the deities to the left objects and minerals. The prominent colours
of the temple entrance are Saivite and the deities used are black, red, white, yellow, blue and
to the right of the entrance are Vaishnavite. The green. The aesthetic features of the paintings
courtyard has two huge pillars with the flagstaff are garland, necklaces, headgear, ear-rings and
and a Nandi mandapa. The wedding ceremony of the perfection of the movements of the human
Siva-Parvati, the attempted lifting of the Kailasa hands. The story panels are attractive and
mountain by Ravana, and the destruction of informative. Scenes from the Jataka stories and
Mahisasura by the goddess Durga are beautiful select episodes from the life history of Buddha
specimens. Weapons and musical instruments are the central theme of the paintings.
of the gods are also depicted through the panel
sculptures. An interesting sculpture is that of the The celestial figures of Kinnaras,
river goddess Ganga mounted on a crocodile and Vidyadharas and Gandharvas are depicted in
the river goddess Yamuna mounted on a tortoise. paintings and sculptures. In the paintings of
the later period Bodhisattva is shown in larger
9.4 Ajanta relief. Though a variety of human moods are
presented, the dominant ones are of compassion
The Ajanta caves are situated at a distance
and peace. Light and shadow are intelligently
of about 100 km north of Aurangabad in
used. Human figures depicted in different
Maharashtra. Totally 30 caves have been scooped
colours have been interpreted to mean that they
out of volcanic rocks. Though chiefly famous
are from different ethnicities.
for mural paintings, there are some sculptures
too. The Hinayana sect of Buddhism started the Architecture and Sculpture
excavation of caves in Ajanta. The patrons were Architecturally, Ajanta caves are grouped
the kings who ruled the Deccan plateau during into two: chaityas and viharas. The chaityas
the period c. 200 BCE to 200 CE. Inscriptions have vaulted ceilings with long halls. In the rear
speak of the patrons who range from kings to end of the halls the statue of Buddha is seen. The
merchants. First phase of the caves belong to the sculpture of Buddha in the garba-griha is in the
period from c. 200 BCE to 200 CE. The second classical model. His image is the embodiment of
phase started from c. 200 CE to 400 CE. benevolence. Heaviness is the general character
Paintings of the sculptures. Sculptures of Yakshis and
Ajanta caves are the
repository of rich mural
paintings. Paintings of the
early phase are mostly in
caves nine and ten, which
belong to the period of the
Satavahanas. The authors of
Ajanta paintings followed
ingenious techniques. First, Ajantha: Bodhisatva Ajantha Cave 12: Vihara Cells

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Hariti with children are significant. Bodhisattva

carved out independently is another important
feature. The popular Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara
is depicted in painting and sculpture.
9.5 Mamallapuram
The iconic Shore Temple of Pallavas
at Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) was Panchapandava Rathas
constructed during the reign of Rajasimha The sculptural panel in the Krishna mandapa,
(CE 700-728). The temple comprises three where village life with cows and cowherds is
shrines, where the prominent ones are depicted with beauty and skill, is yet another
dedicated to Siva and Vishnu. The exterior artistic wonder to behold.
wall of the shrine, dedicated to Vishnu, and the
interior of the boundary wall are elaborately Conclusion
carved and sculpted. In southern India, this is Rock-cut temples were common in the
one amongst the earliest and most important Pallava period. The structural temples and the
structural temples. Unlike other structures of free-standing temples at Aihole and Badami in the
the region, the Shore Temple is a five-storeyed Deccan and at Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram
rock-cut monolith. The monolithic vimanas provide testimony to the architectural excellence
are peculiar to Mamallapuram. achieved during the period.
The monolithic rathas are known as the The Deccan style of sculpture shows a close
Panchapandava Rathas. The Arjuna Ratha affinity to Gupta art. Pallava sculpture owed a
contains artistically carved sculptures of Siva, lot to the Buddhist tradition. Yet the sculpture
Vishnu, mithuna and dwarapala. The most and the architecture of the Deccan and Tamil
exquisite of the five is the Dharmaraja Ratha, Nadu were not mere offshoots of the northern
with a three-storied vimana and a square base. tradition. They are distinctly recognizable
The Bhima Ratha is rectangular in plan and as different and have an originality of their
has beautiful sculptures of Harihara, Brahma, own. The basic form was taken from the older
Vishnu, Skanda, Ardhanarisvara and Siva as tradition, but the end result unmistakably
Gangadhara. The most important piece of reflected its own native brilliance.
carving in Mamallapuram is the Descent of III. Devotional Movement and
the Ganga (variously described as ‘Bhagirata’s
Literature
Penance’ or ‘Arjuna’s Penance’). The portrayal
of puranic figures with popular local stories 9.6 Tamil Devotionalism
reveals the skill of the artists in blending The emergence of regional polities in south
various aspects of human and animal life. India necessitated the establishment of states
based on a certain ideology. In the context of
the times religion alone could be the rallying
point. The Pallavas of Kanchipuram in north
and the Pandyas of Madurai in south of Tamil
country patronised the religious movement of
Bhakti, spearheaded by the elite and the wealthy
merchant class. The local temple became the
nucleus of this movement. Bhakti became
the instrument to touch the hearts of people
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram emotionally, and mobilize them.

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Bhakti cult as a religious movement opened of religious themes as apparent in the final
a new chapter in the history of Tamilnadu in the form. From the Pallava period onwards trained
early medieval period. A strong wave of Tamil groups of dancers were maintained by the more
devotionalism swept the country from the sixth prosperous temples. Classic scenes from puranas,
through the ninth centuries. The form was in and itihasas were sculpted on the walls of the
hymns of the Nayanmars and the Azhwars. The temples, in bronze and stone. Subsequently,
saints of Saivism and Vaishnavism simplified artists were attached to the temples with state
the use of Tamil language with the application patronage in order to promote the fine arts like
of music. They brought the local and regional music, dance and others. Religious hymns set
ethos into the mainstream. Azhwars (totally 12) to music were popularized by the Tamil saints,
and Nayanmars (totally 63), came from different and the singing of these hymns became a regular
strata of Tamil society, such as artisans and feature of the temple ritual. The veena was
cultivators. There were women saints as well probably the most frequently used instrument.
like Andal, an Azhwar saint. The poet Karaikkal Sometime around the fifth century CE, it was
Ammaiyar (Tilakawathi), and the Pandya queen replaced in India by a lute with a pear-shaped
Mangayarkkarasiyar were prominent female body. Some two centuries later it took the form
Nayanmar saints.The refashioning of Saivism in which it is found today-a small gourd body
and Vaishnavism by the Bhakti saints effectively with a long finger-board.
challenged Buddhism and Jainism. The influence
of the Bhakti movement is still discernable in 9.7 Azhwars and
Tamilnadu. Nayanmars
Sources Azhwars
Hymns of Thevaram corpus; Nalayira- Azhwars composed moving hymns
div yaprapandam; Per iyapuranam; addressed to Vishnu. They were compiled in the
Tiru-thondarthogai; Manickavasakar’s Nalayira Divviyaprabandham by Nadamuni, at
Tiruvasagam; Hymns engraved on the walls the end of the ninth century. Nadamuni who
of temples. Miniature sculptures in the served as a priest at the Ranganatha temple in
circumambulation of temples; paintings in the Srirangam is credited with compiling this work
temples. comprising four thousand poems. Periyalvar
lived in Srivilliputtur during the reign of
Bhakti as Ideology Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha in the ninth
The term Bhakti has different connotations. century. The themes are mostly Krishna’s
It includes service, piety, faith and worship. childhood. Krishna is the hero in Andal’s hymns.
But it also has an extended meaning. It is an Her songs convey her abiding love for Krishna.
enactment of emotion, aesthetics and sensitivity. Nammalvar, from Kurugur (Alvar Tirunagari),
Bhakti hymns have three major themes: First now in Thoothukudi district, is considered the
and foremost is the idea of devotion to a personal greatest amongst Alvars. Nammalvar authored
god. The second is a protest against orthodox
Vedic Brahmanism and the exclusiveness of the
Brahmans in their access to divine grace and
salvation. The third is the outright condemnation
of Jains and Buddhists as heretics.
Bhakti and the Arts
Originating with folk dancing, the
choreography of temple dancing became
highly sophisticated and complex renderings Azhwars

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four works that include the Tiruvaymoli. up the emergence of state in Tamil country
Vaishnava devotees believe that his hymns distil and indirectly integrated the different social
the essence of the four Vedas. From the twelfth groups into the religious fold through the
century, the Vaishnava hymns were the subject instrumentality of temple institutions. Over
of elaborate and erudite commentaries. the centuries the Bhakti movement spread all
Nayanmars over India, and resulted in a transformation of
Hinduism.
The prominent Saiva poets include
Tirunavukarasar (Appar), Tirugnanasambandar
9.8 Adi Sankara (788-820)
and Sundarar, and Manikkavasagar. Nambi
Andar Nambi compiled their hymns into an Bhakti or devotional movement
anthology of eleven books, towards the end of incorporated different sections of the society
tenth century. The first seven books, commonly into mainstream politics through the motto of
known as Thevaram, contain the hymns of service, surrender and sacrifice. Every layman
Sambandar (I to III), Appar (books IV to VI) could understand this motto because Bhakti
and Sundarar (book VII) and Manikkavasagar literary canons were composed in Tamil in
(book VIII). Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam is the simple syntactic and semantic style. But, with
twelfth thirumurai of the Saiva canon. It is a the arrival of Adi Sankara Bhakti discourse
hagiography of the sixty-three Nayanmars began in Sanskrit in a philosophical mode.
but contains an undercurrent of historical
information as well. This collection of 12 books is Advent of Adi Sankara
named Panniru Tirumurai. The Periyapuranam Against the background of the emerging
relates many stories about Nayanmars and the pan-Indian need for an ideology to evolve
miraculous episodes in their lives. statehood, a new doctrine was expounded by
Sankara from Kaladi, Kerala. With his new
doctrine of Maya (illusion) he held debates
with his counterparts from different sects of
religions and won over them. Fundamentally,
Sankara’s Advaita or non-dualism had its roots
in Vedanta or Upanishadic philosophy. His
attempts to root out Buddhism and to establish
smarta (traditionalist) mathas resulted in
Nayanmars
the establishment of monasteries in different
Impact places viz., Sringeri, Dvaraka, Badrinath, and
The devotional movement manifested itself Puri, which were headed by Brahmin pontiffs.
as a great social transformation. The apogee of Sankara looked upon Saiva and Vaishnava
its movement was the coming up of temples worship as two equally important aspects of
that became prominent in the Tamil landscape. the Vedic religion. Monastic organization and
Temples, in later Chola times, became great preservation of Sanskrit scriptures were the two
social institutions. Politically, the Bhakti major thrusts of Sankara school.
movement prompted the rulers to establish
the settlements for the invited Brahmin groups 9.9 Sri Ramanujar
from the north of the Indian sub-continent.
(1017-1138)
Royal members, local administrative bodies and
individuals initiated the calendrical celebrations Sri Ramanujar, a native of Sriperumpudur,
and festivals to be conducted in the temples underwent philosophical training under
for which they started making endowments Yatavaprakasar in Kanchipuram in Sankara
to meet their expenditure. It directly speeded school of thought. The young Ramanujar did

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not agree with the Kesavan Veluthat, we can sum up the significance
teachings of his guru of bhakti ideology as ‘the cementing force
and was fascinated bringing together kings, Brahmin priests and
by the teachings the common people in a harmonious manner
of the Srirangam to strengthen the rule of the newly established
school of thought. Hindu kingdoms based on the caste system.’
Yamunacharya who
once found him in SUMMARY
Kanchi invited him
I Chalukyas and Pallavas
to Srirangam. But as
soon as he reached Sri Ramanujar Chalukyas
Sri Rangam, Yamunacharya passed away. Chalukyas of Vatabi, Pulikesin II in
Ramanujar was then declared the head of particular prevented Harsha in the north
monastery in Srirangam. He took control of and Pallavas in the south from extending
monastery, temple and united the sect with their territorial power into their occupied
efforts at modifying the rituals in temples. territory of Deccan.
Ramanuja was a teacher-reformer and a great Chalukyas established a comprehensive
organiser. He challenged the monist ideology administrative structure at the provincial,
(Advaita) of Adi Sankara and in his effort to district and village level and supported
widen the social base to include social groups both Vedic and heterodox religions.
other than Brahmans. Described as qualified Their contribution to art and architecture
monism, his philosophy of Visishtadvaita are evident from the temples and the
influenced many thinkers and developed into monuments at Aihole, Badami and
a separate tradition. A century after his death, Pattadakkal.
there was a schism which developed into two
Pallavas
separate schools under Vedanta Desikar and
Manavala Mamuni. Ramanuja took interest in Pallavas established their kingdom in
propagating the doctrine of Bhakti to social Tondaimandalam with Kanchipuram as
groups outside the varnashrama system. He their capital.
influenced some temple authorities to permit Efforts of Pallava kings, Mahendravarman
the social groups outside the varnashrama I and Narasimhavarman I, to extend their
system to enter into temple at least once a year. territory further north led to constant wars
It is believed that due to the perceived threat to with Chalukyas.
their religious faith and existence, Ramanujar Pallava rule is known for its architecture
had to leave his place of residence. and Mamallapuram is a classic example.
Conclusion II Ellora, Ajanta and
Mamallapuram
The developments in south India that took Ellora
place during this time facilitated the fusion of
Ellora caves are famous for sculptures
north Indian and south Indian traditions and
representing all religious sects: Ajivika,
paved the way for the evolution of a composite
Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism.
Indian culture. The popularity of the bhakti
cult in various parts of India was inaugurated Kailasanatha cave temple features panels
by the Tamil devotional cult, indicating that with scenes of puranas and legends.
‘maximum of common characteristics was Ajanta
beginning to merge in the various regions of the There are thirty caves in Ajanta. In five
sub-continent’. Quoting M.G.S. Narayanan and caves there are mural paintings. Scenes

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from Jataka stories and select scenes from 3. Kambuja is modern__________.

the life history of Buddha are depicted.
(a) Assam (b) Sumatra
Apart from the statue of Buddha,
Bodhisattva is also a striking feature of (c) Annam (d) Cambodia
chaityas and viharas. 4. __________ is a religious centre established
Mamallapuram by Jains
Shore temples at Mamallapuram is a classic (a) Saravanabelgola (b) Madurai
example of Pallava architecture
(c) Kanchi (d) Kalugumalai
Descent of Ganges, Arjuna’s penance are
illustrious examples of the sculptural 5. Where was temple built for performing royal
excellence. rituals by Chalukyas
III T
he Bhakti Movement (a) Aihole (b) Badami
Azhwars and Nayanmars
(c) Megudi (d) Pattadakkal
The hymns of Azhwars and Nayanmars
inaugurated the bhakti cult in Tamil 6.
Foreign merchants were known as
country. __________.
Pallavas and Pandyas patronized the bhakti (a) Pattanswamy (b) Nanadesi
movement. Bhakti as ideology helped (c) Videshi (d) Desi
integrate all sections of society under the
banner of religion. 7. _________ is the doctrine propounded by
A synthesis of north Indian and south Adi Sankara
Indian traditions occurred during this (a) Monism (b) Visistatvaita
period.
(c) Saiva Siddhantha (d) Vedanata
EXERCISE II. Write Brief Answers
Q.R.Code 1.
What do you know of the battle of
Sripurambiyam?
I. Choose the
correct answer 2. Attempt a brief account of Aihole Inscription.
1. Which one of the following is not properly 3.

Identify two important literary works in
paired? Kannada of Chalukyas’ time .
(a) Govinda III – Vatabi 4. Point out the contribution of Ramanujar in

making Vaishnavism more inclusive.
(b) Ravikriti – Pulikesin II
(c) Vishayam- Rashtrakutas III. Write Short Answers
(d) Nammalvar-Kurugur 1. Administrative divisions of Pallavas
2. Choose and match
2. Kailasanatha cave in Ellora.
(A) Simhavishnu - 1. Chalukya king
(B) Jayasimhan I - 2. Pallava king 3. Famous trio of Saiva saints.
(C) Aditya I - 3. Dockyard 4. Role of Alwars in popularising Vaishnavism
(D) Mamallapuram - 4. Chola king in Tamil country
(a) 4, 3, 1, 2 (b) 4, 1, 2, 3 5. Importance of royal women during Chalukya
(c) 2, 1, 4, 3 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1 rule.

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REFERENCE BOOKS
1.
Highlight the importance of land grants
issued by the Pallava kings. 1. Champakalakshmi, R., Religion, Tradition,
2.
Discuss the maritime activity in Pallava and Ideology: Pre-Colonial South India,
kingdom. Oxford University Press, 2011.
3. Describe the architectural excellence of shore 2. Noburu Karasimha, A Concise History of

temples at Mamallapuram. South India, Oxford University Press, 2014
3. Burton Stein, History of India, Oxford
Activity University Press, 2002
1.
A comparative analysis of Bhakti 4. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India:
movement in the south and in the north From Pre-historic Times to Fall of Vijayanagar,
of India. Oxford India Paperbacks, 1997.
2. Exploring the life history of Alvars and 5. R. Sathianathier, History of India, Vol. I, 1972
Nayanmars. (Reprint)
GLOSSARY
insignia a badge showing official position சிறப்புரிமைச் சின்னம்

mercantile commercial வணிகம் சார்ந்த
protagonist one who champions முன்ெனடுப்பர்
edifice building கட்டடம்/மாளிகை
connotation meaning அர்த்தம்/ப�ொருள்
erudite learned/scholarly ஆழ்ந்து கற்ற
esoteric meant for the enlightened மெய்யறிவு உள்ளவர்களுக்காக

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UNIT Advent of Arabs

and Turks
10
Learning Objectives
To learn the nature and outcome of the Arab Conquest of Sind and the
military raids of Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad of Ghor
To acquire knowledge about the nature of Delhi Sultanate under its
various dynasties.
To know the socio-economic conditions of the country under the Sultanate.
To understand the impact of Islam in India with reference to syncretism in literature, art,
music and architecture.
Introduction in such a way that the students examine it

critically and raise new questions.
The period from the thirteenth to the
sixteenth centuries (1206-1526 CE) saw the Advent of Arabs: The Context
arrival of Islamic institutions and Islamic The geographical location of Arabia
culture in India. Historians have interpreted facilitated trade contact between India and
the history of this period from differing Arabia. As sea-faring traders the pre-Islamic
perspectives. Conventionally the regimes of Arabs had maritime contacts with the western
the Sultanate have been evaluated in terms of and eastern coasts of India. Arabs too settled in
achievements and failures of individual Sultans. Malabar and the Coromandel Coast. The Arabs
A few historians, critiquing this personality- who married Malabar women and settled down
oriented history, have evaluated the Sultanate on the West Coast were called Mappillais (sons-
as having contributed to material and cultural in-law). Arab military expedition in 712 and
development, leading to the evolution of a subsequent Ghaznavid and the Ghori military
composite culture in India. Historians focusing raids, intended to loot and use the resources
on history of class relations, have argued that the seized to strengthen their power in Central
medieval state served as the agent of the ruling Asia, created a relationship of the conqueror
class and hence, the regimes of the Sultanate were and the conquered. Following the invasion of
diminutive in their institutional advancement Afghanistan by Khurasan (Eastern Iran) Shah
when compared with the Great Mughals. Thus and later by Chengiz Khan severed the ties of
there is no consensus yet amongst scholars in North India Sultanate with Afghanistan. Mongol
determining the true nature of the Sultanate. invasions destroyed the Ghurid Sulatanate and
The two-fold objective of this lesson Ghazni, and cut into the resources of Sultan
are: (a) to introduce the students to a Nasir-ud-din Qubacha (1206-1228), the ruler
conventional study of rulers, events, ideas, of Uchch and Multan. Thus the Sultan Iltutmish
people and their conditions under the had the opportunity of expanding his influence
Sultanate, and (b) to structure the content in northern India that enabled Muslim rulers to
135

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rule Indian provinces with Delhi as capital for

about four centuries. Persian chronicles speak about the Delhi
Sultanate in hyperbolic terms. Their views
Though it is customary to describe this dealing with the happenings during the
period as the Muslim period, the rulers of period of a certain Sultan were uncritically
medieval India came from different regions appropriated into modern scholarship.—
and ethnicities: Arabs, Turks, Persians, and Sunil Kumar, Emergence of Delhi Sultanate
Central Asians were involved militarily and
administratively. Iltutmish was an Ilbari
10.1 The Arab
Turk and many of his military slaves were
of different Turkish and Mongol ancestries Conquest of Sind
brought to Delhi by merchants from Bukhara, The Arab governor of Iraq, Hajjaj Bin Yusuf,
Samarkhand and Baghdad. There were some under the pretext of acting against the pirates,
slaves of other ethnicities as well (notably sent two military expeditions against Dahar, the
Hindu Khan, captured from Mihir in Central ruler of Sind, one by land and the other by sea.
India) but Iltutmish gave them all Turkish Both were defeated and commanders killed.
titles. Hajjaj then sent, with the Caliph’s permission,
The Sultanate (1206–1526) itself was not a full-fledged army, with 6000 strong cavalry
homogenous. Its rulers belonged to five distinct and a large camel corps carrying all war
categories: (a) Slave Dynasty (1206-1290) requirements under the command of his son-
in-law, a 17-year-old Muhammad Bin Qasim.
(b) Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320) (c) Tughlaq
Dynasty (1320-1414) (d) Sayyid Dynasty (1414- Muhammad Bin Qasim
1451) and (e) Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526).
Muhammad Bin Qasim marched on the
Sources for the Study of Delhi fortress of Brahmanabad where Dahar was
Sultanate stationed with a huge army. Dahar’s wazir
(Prime minister) betrayed him, which was
Al-Beruni: Tarikh-Al-Hind (Indian followed by the desertion of a section of his
Philosophy and Religion written in Arabic) forces. The predecessors of Dahar, the Brahmin
Minhaj us Siraj: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (1260) rulers of Sind, had usurped power from the
(World Islamic History written in Arabic) earlier Buddhist ruling dynasty of Sind and,
Ziauddin Barani: Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi(1357) with the patronage of Dahar Brahmins, had
History of Delhi Sultanate up to Firuz Tughlaq occupied all higher positions. This led to
Amir Khusrau: Mifta Ul Futuh (Victories discontentment and therefore Dahar lacked
of Jalal-ud-din Khalji); Khazain Ul Futuh popular support. In this context it was easy for
Muhammad Qasim to capture Brahmanabad.
(Victories of Allauddin Khalji - Texts in
Qasim thereupon ravaged and plundered Debal
Persian)
(Port) for three days. Qasim called on the people
Tughlaq Nama (History of Tughlaq dynasty of Sind to surrender, promising full protection
in Persian) to their faith. He sent the customary one-fifth of
Shams-i-Siraj Afif: Tarikh i Firuz Shahi (after the plunder to the Caliph and divided the rest
Barani’s account of Delhi Sultanate in Persian) among his soldiers.
Ghulam Yahya Bin Ahmad: Tarikh-i- The Arab conquest of Sind has been
Mubarak Shahi (Written in Persian during described as a “triumph without results”
the reign of Sayyid ruler Mubarak Shah) because it touched but a fringe of the country,
Ferishta: History of the Muslim Rule in India which, after Qasim’s expedition had a respite
(Persian) from invasions for about three centuries.
136 Advent of Arabs and Turks

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Mahmud of Ghazni and plunder and destruction of their places of

worship. However, there is little evidence of any
In the meantime, the Arab empire in
large scale conversion of people to their faith.
Central Asia had collapsed with several of its
Even those who became Muslims to save their
provinces declaring themselves independent.
lives and properties, returned to their original
One of the major kingdoms that emerged out
of the broken Arab empire was the Samanid faith when the threat of Ghaznavid invasion
kingdom which also splintered, leading to ceased.
several independent states. In 963 Alaptigin, After defeating the Shahi king Anandapala,
a Turkic slave who had served Samanids as Mahmud went beyond Punjab, penetrating
their governor in Khurasan, seized the city of deep into the Indo-Gangetic plain. Before
Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan and established reaching Kanauj, Mahmud raided Mathura.
an independent kingdom. Alaptigin died soon In later historiography, of both the British and
after. After the failure of three of his successors, Indian nationalists, Mahmud is notorious for
the nobles enthroned Sabuktigin. his invasion of the temple city of Somnath
Sabuktigin initiated the process of southward (1025) on the seashore in Gujarat. Many
expansion into the Indian sub-continent. He scholars argue that these plundering raids
defeated the Shahi ruler of Afghanistan, Jayapal, were more of political and economic character
and conferred the governorship of the province than of religious chauvinism. Desecration of
on Mahmud, his eldest son. When Sabuktagin temples, vandalising the images of deities were
died in 997, Mahmud was in Khurasan. Ismail, all part of asserting one’s authority in medieval
the younger son of Sabuktagin had been India. Mahmud’s raids and his deeds fit this
named his successor. But defeating Ismail in a pattern, though their memories went into the
battle, Mahmud, aged twenty-seven, ascended creation of communal divide.
the throne and the Caliph acknowledged his This apart, the plundering raids of
accession by sending him a robe of investiture Mahmud were meant to replenish the treasury
and by conferring on him the title Yamini-ud- to maintain his huge army. The Turks relied on
Daulah (‘Right-hand of the Empire’). a permanent, professional army. It was built
around an elite corps of mounted archers who
To Arabs and Iranians, India was Hind and were all slaves, bought, trained, equipped, and
the Indians were ‘Hindus’. But as Muslim paid in cash from the war booty taken alike
communities arose in India, the name from Hindu kingdoms in India and Muslim
‘Hindu’ came to apply to all Indians who kingdoms in Iran.
were not Muslims. Persian sources contain exaggerated claims
about the wealth seized from these raids. For
Mahmud’s Military Raids instance, it is claimed that Mahmud’s plunder
Mahmud ruled for thirty-two years. of the Iranian city of Ray, in 1029, brought
During this period, he conducted as many as him 500,000 dinars worth of jewels, 260,000
seventeen military campaigns into India. He dinars in coins, and over 30,000 dinars worth
targeted Hindu temples that were depositories of gold and silver vessels. Similarly, Mahmud’s
of vast treasures. Though the motive was to raid on Somnath (1025) is believed to have
loot, there was also a military advantage in brought in twenty million dinars worth of
demolishing temples and smashing idols. spoils. Romila Thapar points out that those who
The Ghaznavid soldiers viewed it also as a had suffered from these predatory invasions
demonstration of the invincible power of seemed to maintain a curious silence about
their god. The religious passions of Mahmud’s them, as Hindu and Jain sources available on
army expressed itself in slaughter of ‘infidels’ Somnath expedition do not corroborate the
Advent of Arabs and Turks 137

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Muhammad Ghori
If Ghaznavid
invasions were
intended for loot, the
Ghurids enlarged
their scope to establish
garrison towns to
ensure the regular
flow of plunder and
Somnath Temple tribute. Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori
details or viewpoints found in Arab chronicles. Muhammad of the (modern representation)
Such plundering raids were economic and Ghori dynasty, known generally as Muhammad
iconoclastic in nature, and communal character Ghori, invested in territories he seized. Through
was attributed to them later. They represented the 1180s and 1190s Ghori established garrisons
the kinds of disasters that were inseparable from in the modern provinces of Punjab, Sind, and
contemporary warfare and the usual plundering Haryana. These centres of military power soon
nature of rulers of the medieval period. attracted the in-migration of mercenaries in
The history of the Ghaznavid dynasty after search of opportunities. These mercenaries
the death of Mahmud is a story of endless clashes were recruited to organize fiscal and military
over succession between brothers, cousins, and affairs of the Sultanate. The Sultan’s military
uncles. There were, however, exceptions like commanders in north India were drawn from
Sultan Ibrahim who ruled for over forty-two his elite military class. Specially trained in
years and his son Masud who ruled for warfare and governance these slaves were
seventeen years. The ever-hanging threat from different from agrestic (related to land\field
Ghuris from the north and the Seljuq Turks labour) and domestic slaves. Lahore, then Uchch
from the west proved to be disastrous for the and Multan were initially considered significant
kingdom. The later rulers of Ghaznavid dynasty centres of power. In 1175 Ghori headed for the
could exercise their authority only in the Lahore city of Multan which he seized from its Ismaili
region and even this lasted only for three ruler. The fort of Uchch fell without a fight. The
decades. In 1186 Ghuri prince Muizz-ud-din Chalukyas of Gujarat inflicted a crushing defeat
Muhammad invaded Punjab and seized Lahore. on Muhammad Ghori at Mt. Abu (1179). After
The last ruler Khurav Shah was imprisoned this defeat Ghori changed the course of his
and murdered in 1192. With his death the expedition, consolidating his position in Sind
Ghaznavid house of Mahmud came to an end. and the Punjab.
Prithviraj Chauhan
Al-Beruni, mathematician, philosopher,
astronomer, and historian, came to India Ghori attacked the fortress of Tabarhinda
along with Mahmud of Ghazni. He learned (Bhatinda), a strategic point for the Chauhans
Sanskrit, studied religious and philosophical of Ajmer. The ruler of Ajmer Prithviraj Chauhan
texts before composing his work Kitab Ul marched to Tabarhinda and faced the invader
Hind. He also translated the Greek work in the First Battle of Tarain (1191). Prithviraj
of Euclid into Sanskrit. He transmitted scored a brilliant victory in this battle but failed
Aryabhata’s magnum opus Aryabattiyam
to consolidate his position believing this battle
(the thesis that earth’s rotation around its
to be a frontier fight, and did not expect the
axis creates day and night) to the West. He
was the inter-civilizational connect between Ghurids to make regular attacks. Ghori was
India and the rest of the world. wounded and carried away by a horseman
to safety. Contrary to the expectations of

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Prithviraj Chauhan,
Muhammad Ghori The world famous Khajuraho temple complex
consisting of many temples including the
marched into India
Lakshmana temple, Vishwanatha temple
in the following year and Kandariya Mahadeva temple was built
(1192). Prithviraj by the Chandelas of Bundelkhand who ruled
underestimated the from Khajuraho.
potential danger of
the enemy. In the The Rajputs had a long tradition of
Second Battle of Prithviraj Chauhan
martial spirit, courage and bravery. There was
Tarain, one of the (modern representation) little difference between the weapons used by
the Turks and the Rajputs. But in regimental
turning points in Indian history, Prithviraj
discipline and training the Rajputs were lax. In
suffered a crushing defeat and was eventually
planning their tactics to suit the conditions, the
captured. Ghori restored him to his throne in
Turks excelled. Moreover, the Turkish cavalry
Ajmer. But on charges of treason he was later was superior to the Indian cavalry. The Rajput
executed, and Ghori’s trusted general Qutb-ud- forces depended more on war elephants, which
din Aibak was appointed as his deputy in India. were spectacular but slow moving compared to
the Turkish cavalry. The Turkish horsemen had
Jaya Chandra of Kanauj
greater mobility and were skilled in mounted
Soon Ghori was back in India to fight archery. This was a definite military advantage
against the Kanauj ruler Jaya Chandra. When which the Turks used well against their enemies
all Rajput chiefs had stood by Prithviraja in and emerged triumphant in the battles.
his battles against Muhammad Ghori, Jaya Foundation of Delhi Sultanate
Chandra stood apart, as there was enmity
between Prithviraj and Jai Chandra, on account 10.2 The Slave Dynasty
of Prithviraj’s abduction of Jaya Chandra’s After the death of Ghori there were many
daughter Samyukta. So Ghori easily defeated contenders for power. One was Qutb-ud-din
Jaya Chandra and returned to Ghazni with an Aibak, who ascended the throne in Delhi with
enormous booty. On the way while camping his father-in-law Yildiz remaining a threat to
on the banks of Indus, he was killed by some him for the next ten years. The three important
unidentified assassins. rulers of this dynasty are Qutb-ud-din Aibak,
Iltutmish and Balban.
Rajput Kingdoms
By the beginning of the tenth century two The Slave dynasty is also known as the
powerful Rajput Kingdoms Gurjar Prathihara Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk means property. It
is also the term for the Arabic designation of
and Rashtrakutas had lost their power. Tomaras
a slave.
(Delhi), Chauhans (Rajasthan), Solankis
(Gujarat), Paramaras (Malwa), Gahadavalas Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)
(Kanauj) and Chandelas (Bundelkhand)
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was enslaved as a
had become important ruling dynasties of
boy and sold to Sultan Muhammad Ghori at
Northern India. Vighraharaja and Prithviraj, Ghazni. Impressed with his ability and loyalty
two prominent Chauhan rulers, Bhoja of the Sultan elevated him to the rank of viceroy of
Paramara dynasty, Ghadavala king Jayachandra, the conquered provinces in India. Muhammad
Yasovarman, Kirti Varman of Chandelas were Bin Bhakthiyar Khalji, a Turkish general from
all strong in their own regions. Afghanistan assisted him in conquering Bihar and

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Bengal. Qutb-ud-din Aibak reigned for four years rebellions of Rajputs at Gwalior, Ranthambor,
(1206 to 1210 CE) and died in 1210 in Lahore in Ajmer and Jalore. He overcame the challenge
an accident while playing chaugan (Horse polo). of Nasiruddin Qabacha in Lahore and Multan,
and frustrated the conspiracy of Alivardan, the
Bhakthiyar Khalji is charged with destroying Governor of Bengal. He diplomatically saved
the glorious Buddhist University of Nalanda India by refusing to support the Khwarizmi
in Bihar, who is said to have mistaken it Shah Jalaluddin of Central Asia against the
for a military camp! Detailed descriptions Mongol ruler Chengiz Khan. Had he supported
of Nalanda is found in the travel accounts
Jalaluddin, the Mongols would have overrun
of Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang. The
India with ease. His reign was remarkable
manuscripts and texts in the hundreds of
thousands in the Nalanda library on subjects for the completion of Qutb Minar, a colossal
such as grammar, logic, literature, astronomy victory tower of 243 feet at Delhi, and for the
and medicine were lost in the Turkish introduction of copper and silver tanka, the two
depredations. basic coins of the Sultanate period.

Since the dynastic traditions of the ‘slave
Iltutmish (1211–1236) regime’ were weak, succession to the throne was
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish (1210-36) of not smooth after Iltutmish’s death. The monarch
Turkish extraction was a slave of Qutb-ud- was succeeded by a son, a daughter (Sultana
din Aibak. Many of his elite slaves were also Razia), another son, and a grandson, all within
of Turkish and Mongol ancestry. They were ten years, and finally by his youngest son Sultan
brought to Delhi by merchants from trade Nasir al-Din Mahmud II (1246–66). Iltutmish’s
centres like Bukhara, Samarqand and Baghdad. descendants fought long but in vain with their
(There were some slaves of other ethnicities as father’s military slaves who had been appointed
well). But Iltutmish gave them all Turkish titles. as governors of vast territories and generals of
Iltutmish’s reliance on his elite military slaves large armies. They constantly interfered in Delhi
(Bandagan) and his practice of appointing them politics, dictating terms to Iltutmish’s successors.
for the posts of governors and generals in far- Though Iltutmish’s royal slaves (bandagan-i-
off places did not change despite the migration khas) were replaced by junior bandagan, the
into North India of experienced military latter were not oriented to their master’s vision
commanders from distinguished lineages of a paramount, monolithic Sultanate to the
fleeing from the Mongols. same extent as their predecessors.
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, the slave and The slave governors located in the eastern
son-in-law of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, ascended province of Lakhnauti (modern Bengal) and
the throne of Delhi setting aside the claim of the Punjab and Sind provinces in the west
Aram Shah, the son of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. were the first to break free from Delhi. Those
During his tenure he put down the internal in the ‘core territories’ the regions of Delhi
Raziya Sultana (1236-1240). Raziya was daughter of Iltutmish, who ascended the throne after a lot
of hurdles put up by the Turkish nobles. According to Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller, ‘Raziya
rode on horseback as men ride, armed with a bow and quiver, and surrounded by courtiers. She
did not veil her face.’ Yet Raziya ruled for only three and half years. The elevation of an Abyssinian
slave, Jalal-ud-din Yaqut, to the post of Amir-i-Akhur, Master of the Stables, a very high office,
angered the Turkish nobles. The nobles overplayed her closeness with Yakut and tried to depose
her. Since Raziya enjoyed popular support, they could not do anything in Delhi. But while she was
on a punitive campaign against the rebel governor Altuniya in southern Punjab, the conspirators
used that occasion to dethrone her.

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Bandagan is the plural of banda, literally military slaves. They were graded according to the years
of service, proximity and trustworthiness. This trust led to their appointment as governors and
military commanders. The Ghurid bandagan in North India were the slaves of Muiz-ud-Din
Ghuri. Since these slaves were without a social identity of their own they were given new names
by their masters, which included the nisba, which indicated their social or regional identity. Slaves
carried the nisba of their master: hence Mu‘izz al-Din’s slave carried the nisba Mu‘izzi and later
Sultan Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish’s slave were called the Shamsi bandagan.
and its suburbs sought to resist the intervention were plundering the area with impunity. Balban
of Delhi by consolidating their home bases took it as a challenge and personally undertook
and allied with neighbouring chieftains. After a campaign to destroy the Mewatis. Meos
two decades of conflict amongst the Shamsi were pursued and slaughtered mercilessly. In
bandagan and successive Delhi Sultans, in 1254, the Doab region the Rajput strongholds were
Ulugh Khan, a junior, newly purchased slave destroyed, jungles cleared. Colonies of Afghan
in Iltutmish’s reign and now the commander soldiers were established throughout the region
of the Shivalikh territories in the North-West, to safeguard the roads and deal with rebellions.
seized Delhi. He took the title of na’ib-i mulk, Punitive Expedition against
the Deputy of the Realm, seizing the throne as
Tughril Khan
Sultan Ghiyas ud-din Balban in 1266.
Balban was ruthless in dealing with
Balban (1266-1287) rebellions. He appointed one of his favourite
The political intrigues of the nobility slaves, Tughril Khan, as the Governor of Bengal.
that destabilised the Delhi Sultanate came to But Tughril Khan soon became rebellious.
an end with the accession of Balban as the Amin Khan, the governor of Oudh, sent
Sultan. Assertion of authority by Balban led to by Balban to suppress the rebellion meekly
constant military campaigns against defiant retreated. Enraged by this, Balban sent two
governors and against their local allies. more expeditions, which also suffered defeat.
Barani mentions Balban’s campaigns in the Humiliated by these successive reverses, Balban
regions surrounding Delhi and in the doab. himself proceeded to Bengal. On hearing
During these campaigns forests were cleared, Balban’s approach, Tughril Khan fled. Balban
new roads and forts constructed, the newly pursued him, first to Lakhnauti and then towards
Tripura, where he was captured and beheaded.
deforested lands given to freshly recruited
Bughra Khan, a son of Balban, was thereupon
Afghans and others as rent-free lands
appointed the Governor of Bengal, who carved
(mafruzi) and brought under cultivation.
out an independent kingdom after the death of
New forts were constructed to protect trade
Balban. He did not claim the Delhi throne even
routes and village markets.
in the midst of a leadership crisis and his son
Balban and the Problem of Law Kaiqubad’s indulgence in debauchery.
and Order Measures against Mongol Threats
When Balban took over the reins of power Balban used the threat of Mongols as the
the law and order situation in the Ganga, context to militarise his regime. The frontier
Jamuna Doab regions had deteriorated badly. regions were strengthened with garrisoning of
The Rajput zamindars had set up forts and forts at Bhatinda, Sunam and Samana. At the
defied the orders of the Sultan. Meos, a Muslim same time, he took efforts to maintain a good
community from north-western region, living relationship with Hulagu Khan, the Mongol
in the heavily forested region around Mewat Viceroy of Iran and a grandson of Chengiz Khan.

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The term Mongol refers to all Mongolic-speaking nomadic tribes of Central Asia. In the twelfth
century, they had established a very large kingdom, which included most of modern-day Russia,
China, Korea, south-east Asia, Persia, India, the Middle East and Eastern Europe, under the leadership
of Chengiz Khan. Their phenomenal success is attributed to their fast horses and brilliant cavalry
tactics, their openness to new technologies, and Chengiz Khan’s skill in manipulative politics.
Balban succeeded Ala-ud-din, a nephew and son-in-law of

in obtaining from Jalaluddin Khalji, who was appointed governor of
him the assurance Kara, invaded Malwa and this campaign yielded a
that Mongols would huge booty. The success of this campaign stimulated
not advance beyond his urge to embark on a campaign to raid Devagiri,
Satluj. Halagu Khan the capital city of the Yadava kingdom in Deccan.
reciprocated this On his return he arranged to get Jalaluddin Khalji
gesture by sending murdered and captured the throne.
a goodwill mission Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316)
to Delhi in 1259. Balban’s Tomb (New Delhi) Ala-ud-din and Nobles
However, Muhammad Khan, the favourite son
Ala-ud-din spent
of Balban, who was given the charge of governor the first year of his rule in
of Multan to protect the frontiers from Mongol eliminating the enemies
aggression, was killed in an encounter. Saddened and strengthening his
by this tragedy, Balban fell ill and died in 1286. position in Delhi. Soon
he turned his attention
10.3 The Khaljis (1290-1320) to establishing a firm
hold over the nobles.
Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296)
He dismissed several
Ala-ud-din Khalji
As Balban’ son Kaiqubad was found unfit of his top officers. He (modern representation)
to rule, his three-year-old son Kaymars was was particularly severe
placed on the throne. As there was no unanimity with the nobles who had shifted loyalty and
on the choice of a regent and a council to opportunistically joined him against Jalal-ud-din.
administer the empire, the contending nobles
Mongol Threats
plotted against each other. Out of this chaos
a new leader, Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji, the Mongol raids posed a serious challenge to
commander of the army, emerged supreme. Ala-ud-din. During the second year of his rule
(1298), when Mongols stormed Delhi, the army
While he ruled the kingdom for some time in
sent by Ala-ud-din succeeded in driving them
the name of Kaiqubad, he soon sent one of his
back. But when they returned the following year
officers to get Kaiqubad murdered and Jalal-
with more men, people of the suburbs of Delhi
ud-din formally ascended the throne. However,
had to flee and take refuge in the city. Ala-ud-
Jalal-ud-din faced opposition on the ground din had to meet the problem head-on. In the
that he was an Afghan and not a Turk. But ensuing battle, Mongols were routed. Yet raids
Khaljis were indeed Turks settled in Afghanistan continued until 1305, when they ravaged the
before the establishment of Turkish rule and so doab region. This time, after defeating them, the
they were Afghanized Turks. Jalal-ud-din won Sultan’s army took a large number of Mongols as
many battles and even in old age he marched prisoners and slaughtered them mercilessly. But
out against the Mongol hordes and successfully the Mongol menace continued. The last major
halted their entry into India (1292). Mongol incursion took place in 1307–08.

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Malik Kafur in 1307 to capture Devagiri fort.

Following Devagiri, Prataparudradeva, the
Kakatiya ruler of Warangal in the Telengana
region, was defeated in 1309. In 1310 the
Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III surrendered all his
treasures to the Delhi forces.
Malik Kafur then set out for the Tamil
country. Though Kafur’s progress was
obstructed by heavy rains and floods, he
continued his southward journey, plundering
Attack of Mongols and ravaging the temple cities of Chidambaram
and Srirangam as well as the Pandyan capital
Military Campaigns Madurai. Muslims in Tamil provinces fought
The inability of the Sultanate to effectively on the side of the Pandyas against Malik
harness the agrarian resources of its North Indian Kafur. Malik Kafur returned to Delhi with an
territories to sustain its political ambitions was enormous booty in 1311.
evident in its relentless military campaigns Ala-ud-din’s Internal Reforms
in search of loot and plunder. Ala-ud-din’s
The vast annexation of territories was
campaigns into Devagiri (1296, 1307, 1314),
followed by extensive administrative reforms
Gujarat (1299–1300), Ranthambhor (1301), aimed at stabilising the government. Ala-ud-
Chittor (1303) and Malwa (1305) were meant to din’s first measure was to deprive the nobles of
proclaim his political and military power as well the wealth they had accumulated. It had provided
as to collect loot from the defeated kingdoms. them the leisure and means to hatch conspiracies
It was with the same plan that he unleashed his against the Sultan. Marriage alliances between
forces into the Deccan. The first target in the families of noble men were permitted only with
peninsula was Devagiri in the western Deccan. the consent of the Sultan. The Sultan ordered
Ala-ud-din sent a large army commanded by that villages held by proprietary right, as free
The Forty System (Chahalgani)

The nobles occupied a position next only to the king in status and rank. Enjoying high social
status and commanding vast resources they at times became strong enough to challenge the king.
In the Delhi Sultanate, nobles were drawn from different tribes and nationalities like the Turkish,
Persian, Arabic, Egyptian and Indian Muslims. Iltutmish organized a Corps of Forty, all drawn
from Turkish nobility and selected persons from this Forty for appointments in military and civil
administration. The Corps of Forty became so powerful to the extent of disregarding the wishes
of Iltutmish, and after his death, to place Rukn-ud-Din Firoz on the throne. Razziya sought to
counter the influence of Turkish nobles and defend her interest by organizing a group of non-
Turkish and Indian Muslim nobles under the leadership of Yakut, the Abyssinian slave. This was
naturally resented by the Turkish nobles, who got both of them murdered. Thus in the absence of
rule of primogeniture, the nobles sided with any claimants to the throne and either helped in the
choice of the Sultan or contributed to the de-stabilization of the regime. The nobles were organized
into several factions and were constantly engaged in conspiracies. Balban therefore abolished the
Corps of Forty and thereby put an end to the domination of “Turkish nobles”. Alauddin Khalji also
took stern measures against the “Turkish nobles” by employing spies to report to him directly on
their clandestine and perfidious activities.

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gift, or as a religious endowment be brought Ala-ud-din’s Successors

back under the royal authority and control.
Ala-ud-din nominated his eldest son Khizr
He curbed the powers of the traditional village
Khan, as his successor. However, Ala-ud-din’s
officers by depriving them of their traditional
confidant at that time was Malik Kafur. So Malik
privileges. Corrupt royal officials were dealt
Kafur himself assumed the authority of the
with sternly. The Sultan prohibited liquor and
banned the use of intoxicating drugs. Gambling government. But Kafur’s rule lasted only thirty-
was forbidden and gamblers were driven out of five days as he was assassinated by hostile nobles.
the city. However, the widespread violations of Thereafter there were a series of murders which
prohibition rules eventually forced the Sultan to culminated in Ghazi Malik, a veteran of several
relax the restrictions. campaigns against the Mongols, ascending
the throne of Delhi in 1320 as Ghiyas-ud-din
Tughlaq. He murdered the incumbent Khalji
ruler Khusrau and thereby prevented anyone
from Khalji dynasty claiming the throne. Thus
began the rule of the Tughlaq Dynasty, which
lasted until 1414.
Copper coin of Ala-ud-din Khalji
Ala-ud-din collected land taxes directly

from the cultivators. The village headman who
traditionally enjoyed the right to collect them
was now deprived of it. The tax pressure of Ala-
ud-din was on the rich and not on the poor.
Ala-ud-din set up the postal system to keep in
touch with all parts of his sprawling empire. Ala-ud-din’s Tomb (New Delhi)
Sultan’s Market Reforms
10.4 The Tughlaq Dynasty
Ala-ud-din was the first Sultan to pay his
soldiers in cash rather than give them a share of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
booty. As the soldiers were paid less, the prices
(1320–1325)
had to be monitored and controlled. Moreover,
Ala-ud-din had to maintain a huge standing Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq followed a policy
army. In order to restrict prices of essential of reconciliation with the nobles. But in the fifth
commodities, Ala-ud-din set up an elaborate year of his reign (1325) Ghiyas-ud-din died.
intelligence network to collect information on Three days later Jauna Khan ascended the throne
black-marketing and hoarding. The transactions and took the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
in the bazaars, the buying and selling and the
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
bargains made were all reported to the Sultan
by his spies. Market superintendents, reporters (1325-1351)
and spies had to send daily reports on the Muhammad Tughlaq was a learned,
prices of essential commodities. Violators of cultured and talented prince but gained a
the price regulations were severely punished. reputation of being merciless, cruel and unjust.
If any deficiency in weight was found, an equal Muhammad Tughlaq effectively repulsed the
weight of flesh was cut from the seller’s body Mongol army that had marched up to Meerut
and thrown down before his eyes! near Delhi. Muhammad was an innovator. But

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he, unlike Ala-ud-din, lacked the will to execute Token Currency

his plans successfully.
Transfer of Capital
Muhammad Tughlaq’s attempt to
shift the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in
Maharashtra, which he named Daulatabad,
was a bold initiative. This was after his
realization that it was difficult to rule south Tughlaq’s Coins
India form Delhi. Centrally located, Devagiri The next important experiment of
also had the advantage of possessing a strong Muhammad was the introduction of token
fort atop a rocky hill. Counting on the military currency. This currency system had already
and political advantages, the Sultan ordered been experimented in China and Iran. For
important officers and leading men including India it was much ahead of its time, given that
many Sufi saints to shift to Devagiri. However, it was a time when coins were based on silver
the plan failed, and soon Muhammad realised content. When Muhammad issued bronze
that it was difficult to rule North India from coins, fake coins were minted which could
Daulatabad. He again ordered transfer of not be prevented by the government. The new
capital back to Delhi. coins were devalued to such an extent that the
TUGHLAQ DYNASTY N
W E
In
du
s S
Taxila
m Tughlaq Dynasty
elu
Jh ab
en Major cities
Ch
Lahore
Rav i
j
tlu
Su
Ga
Delhi ng
a
Ya
m
un
ra
put
a
a
hm
Bra
I N D I A
Ahmedabad
Narmada
nadi
Taptii ha
Ma
Goda
Mumbai vari
BAY
ARABIAN Krishna OF
SEA
BENGAL
Goa
Madras
An
ma n da
Lakshad weep isla
Kaveri
a n d n i co b a r
Tranquebar
(I N D I A )
(I N D I A )
is la
nd
s
nd
s
Map not to scale

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government had to withdraw the bronze coins Muhammad bin Tughlaq died without naming
and replace them with silver coins, which told his successor. The claim made by Muhammad’s
heavily on the resources of the empire. sister to his son was not supported by the nobles.
His son, recommended by Muhammad’s friend
Sultan’s Other Innovative
Khan-i Jahan, was a mere child. Under such
Measures circumstances, Firuz ascended the throne.
Equally innovative was Muhammad
Tughlaq's scheme to expand cultivation. But The vizier of Firuz Tughlaq, the famous
it also failed miserably. It coincided with a Khan-i-Jahan, was a Brahmin convert to
Islam. Originally known as Kannu, he was
prolonged and severe famine in the Doab.
captured during the Sultanate campaigns in
The peasants who rebelled were harshly dealt
Warangal (present-day Telangana).
with. The famine was linked to the oppressive
and arbitrary collection of land revenue. The
Sultan established a separate department Conciliatory Policy towards
(Diwan-i-Amir Kohi) to take care of agriculture. Nobles
Loans were advanced to farmers for purchase Firuz Tughlaq followed a conciliatory
of cattle, seeds and digging of wells but to no policy towards the nobles and theologians.
avail. Officers appointed to monitor the crops Firuz restored the property of the owners
were not efficient; the nobility and important who had been deprived of it during the reign
officials were of diverse background. Besides, of Muhammad Tughlaq. He reintroduced the
the Sultan’s temperament had also earned him system of hereditary appointments to offices,
a lot of enemies. a practice which was not favoured by Ala-ud-
Ala-ud-din Khalji had not annexed distant din Khalji. The Sultan increased the salaries
territories knowing full well that they could not of government officials. While toning up the
be effectively governed. He preferred to establish revenue administration, he reduced several
his suzerainty over them. But Muhammad taxes. He abolished many varieties of torture
annexed all the lands he conquered. Therefore, employed by his predecessor. Firuz had a
at the end of his reign, while he faced a series genuine concern for the slaves and established
of rebellions, his repressive measures further a separate government department to attend to
alienated his subjects. Distant regions like their welfare. The slave department took care
Bengal, Madurai, Warangal, Awadh, Gujarat of the wellbeing of 180,000 slaves. They were
and Sind hoisted the flags of rebellion and the trained in handicrafts and employed in the
Sultan spent his last days fighting rebels. While royal workshops.
he was frantically engaged in pursuing a rebel
Firuz Policy of No Wars
leader in Gujarat, he fell ill, and died at the end
of his 26thregnal year (1351). Firuz waged no wars of annexation,
though he was not averse to putting down
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388) rebellions challenging his authority. There were
Firuz’s father, Rajab, was the younger only two Mongol incursions during his times,
brother of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq. Both had and both of them were successfully repulsed.
come from Khurasan during the reign of Ala- His Bengal campaign to put down a rebellion
ud-din Khalji. Rajab who had married a Jat there, however, was an exception. His army
princess had died when Firuz was seven years slew thousands and his entry into Odisha on his
old. When Ghiyas-ud-din ascended the throne, way helped him extract the promise of tribute
he gave Firuz command of a 12,000 strong from the Raja. A major military campaign of his
cavalry force. Later Firuz was made in charge period was against Sind (1362). He succeeded
of one of the four divisions of the Sultanate. in routing the enemies on the way. Yet his

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enemies and a famine that broke out during this

period gave Sultan and his army a trying time.
Firuz's army, however, managed to reach Sind.
The ruler of Sind agreed to surrender and pay
tribute to the Sultan.
Religious Policy
Firuz favoured orthodox Islam. He
proclaimed his state to be an Islamic state Firuz Tughlaq’s Tomb
largely to satisfy the theologians. Heretics Timur’s Invasion
were persecuted, and practices considered un-
Islamic were banned. He imposed jizya, a head The last Tughlaq
tax on non-Muslims, which even the Brahmins ruler was Nasir-ud-
were compelled to pay. Yet Firuz did not din Muhammad Shah
prohibit the building of new Hindu temples and (1394–1412), whose
shrines. His cultural interest led to translation reign witnessed the
of many Sanskrit works relating to religion, invasion of Timur from
medicine and music. As an accomplished Central Asia. Turkish
scholar himself, Firuz was a liberal patron of Timur, who could claim
the learned including non-Islamic scholars. a blood relationship
Fond of music, he is credited with establishing with the 12 thcentury Timur
several educational institutions and a number great Mongol Chengiz
of mosques, palaces and forts. Khan, ransacked Delhi virtually without any
opposition. On hearing the news of arrival
Jizya is a tax levied and collected per head by of Timur, Sultan Nasir-ud-din fled Delhi.
Islamic states on non-Muslim subjects living Timur also took Indian artisans such as
in their land. In India, Qutb-ud-din Aibak masons, stone cutters, carpenters whom he
imposed jizya on non-Muslims for the first engaged for raising buildings in his capital
time. Jizya was abolished by the Mughal ruler Samarkhand. Nasir-ud-din managed to
Akbar in 16th century but was re-introduced rule up to 1412. Then the Sayyid and Lodi
by Aurangzeb in the 17th century. dynasties ruled the declining empire from
Delhi till 1526.
Public Works
Firuz undertook many irrigation projects. 10.5 Sayyid Dynasty
A canal he dug from Sutlej river to Hansi and (1414–1451)
another canal in Jumna indicate his sound
policy of public works development. Timur appointed Khizr Khan as his
deputy to oversee Timurid interests in the
Firuz died in 1388, after making his son
Punjab marches. Khizr Khan (1414-21) went
Fath Khan and grandson Ghiyas-ud-din as joint
on to seize Delhi and establish the Sayyid
rulers of Delhi Sultanate.
dynasty (1414–51).The Sayyid dynasty
The principle of heredity permitted for the established by Khizr Khan had four sultans
nobles and applied to the army weakened the ruling up to 1451. The early Sayyid Sultans
Delhi Sultanate. The nobility that had regained ruled paying tribute to Timur’s son. Their
power got involved in political intrigues which rule is marked for the composing of Tarikh-i-
undermined the stability of the Sultanate. Mubarak Shahi by Yahiya bin Ahmad Sirhindi.
Within six years of Firuz Tughlaq’s death four By the end of their rule the empire was largely
rulers succeeded him. confined to the city of Delhi.

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The Delhi Sultanate deserves to be

In the entire history of the Delhi considered an all-India empire. Virtually all of
Sultanate there was only one Sultan India, except Kashmir and Kerala at the far ends
who voluntarily abdicated his
of the subcontinent, and a few small tracts in
throne and moved to a small town
away from Delhi, where he lived for three between them had come under the direct rule
full decades in contentment and peace. He of Delhi towards the close of Muhammad bin
was Alam Shah of the Sayyid dynasty. – Tughlaq’s rule. There were no well-defined and
Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath. accepted rules of royal succession and therefore
contested succession became the norm during
10.6 Lodi Dynasty the Sultanate. The Sultans required the holders
(1451–1526 ) of iqta’s (called muqtis or walis) to maintain
troops for royal service out of the taxes collected
The Lodi by them. Certain areas were retained by the
D ynasty was Sultans under their direct control (khalisa).
established by It was out of the revenue collected from such
B a h lu l L o di areas that they paid the officers and soldiers of
(1451–1489) whose the sultan’s own troops (hashm-i qalb).
reign witnessed
The territorial expansion was matched by
the conquest of
an expansion of fiscal resources. The tax rent (set
Sharqi Kingdom
at half the value of the produce) was rigorously
(Bengal). It was his
sought to be imposed over a very large area.
son Sikander Lodi
The fiscal claims of hereditary intermediaries
(1489–1517) who Ibrahim Lodi
shifted the capital (modern representation) (now called chaudhuris) and the village
from Delhi to Agra headmen (khots) were drastically curtailed. The
in 1504. The last Lodi ruler Ibrahim Lodi was continuous pressure for larger tax-realization
defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat provoked a severe agrarian uprising, notably
(1526), which resulted in the establishment of in the Doab near Delhi (1332–34). These and
Mughal Dynasty. an ensuing famine persuaded Muhammad
Tughlaq to resort to a scheme of agricultural
10.7 Administration of the development, in the Delhi area and the Doab,
based on the supply of credit to the peasants.
Sultanate
Military campaigns, the dishoarding of
State and Society wealth, the clearing of forests, the vitality of
The Sultanate was formally considered inter-regional trade – all of these developments
to be an Islamic State. Most of the Sultans encouraged a great movement of people,
preferred to call themselves the lieutenant of the created a vast network of intellectuals and the
Caliph. In reality, however, the Sultans were the religious-minded. These factors also made
supreme political heads. As military head, they social hierarchies and settlements in the
wielded the authority of commander-in-chief of Sultanate garrison towns and their strongholds
the armed forces. As judicial head they were the far more complex. Through the fourteenth
highest court of appeal. Balban claimed that he century the Sultanate sought to control its
ruled as the representative of god on earth. Ala- increasingly diverse population through its
ud-din Khalji claimed absolute power saying he provincial governors, muqti, but considerable
did not care for theological prescriptions, but local initiative and resources available to these
did what was essential for the good of the state personnel, and their propensity to ally with
and the benefit of the people. local political groups meant that they could

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often only be controlled fitfully and for a short figures who played a part in transmitting the
period, even by autocratic, aggressive monarchs southern Bhakti and monotheism to Northern
like Muhammad Tughlaq. India were Namdev of Maharashtra, a rigorous
The Turko-Afghan political conquests monotheist who opposed image worship and
were followed by large- scale Muslim social caste distinctions and Ramanand, a follower of
migrations from Central Asia. India was seen as Ramanuja.
a land of opportunity. The society in all stages
was based on privileges with the higher classes An important aspect of Islam in India
enjoying a better socio-economic life with was its early acceptance of a long-term
coexistence with Hinduism, despite all
little regard of one’s religion. The Sultans and
the violence that occurred in military
the nobles were the most important privileged
campaigns, conquests and depredations.
class who enjoyed a lifestyle of high standard The conqueror Mu’izzuddin of Ghor had,
in comparison to their contemporary rulers on some of his gold coins, stamped the
all over the world. The nobility was initially image of the goddess Lakshmi. Muhammad
composed of the Turks. Afghans, Iranians Tughlaq in 1325 issued a farman enjoining
and Indian Muslims were excluded from the that protection be extended by all officers
nobility for a very long time. to Jain priests; he himself played holi and
consorted with yogis.
The personal status of an individual in
Islam depended solely on one’s abilities and The historian Barani noted with some
achievements, not on one’s birth. So, once bitterness how ‘the kings of Islam’ showed
converted to Islam, everyone was treated as respect to ‘Hindus, Mongols, Polytheists
equal to everyone in the society. and infidels’, by making them sit on masnad
(cushions) and by honouring them in other
Religion ways, and how the Hindus upon paying taxes
(jiziya-o-kharaj) were allowed to have their
Unlike Hindus who
temples and celebrations, employ Muslim
worshiped different
servants, and flaunt their titles (Rai, Rana,
deities, these migrants Thakur, Sah, Mahta, Pandit, etc), right in the
followed monotheism. capital seats of Muslim rulers.
They also adhered to
one basic set of beliefs
and practices. Though Economy
a monotheistic trend The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate
in Hinduism had long Al-Beruni was, however, accompanied by some important
existed, as, for example in economic changes. One such change was the
the Bhagavad Gita, as noted by Al-Beruni, its payment of land tax to the level of rent in cash.
proximity to Islam did help to move monotheism Because of this, food-grains and other rural
from periphery to the centre. In the thirteenth products were drawn to the towns, thereby
century, the Virashaiva or Lingayat sect of leading to a new phase of urban growth. In
Karnataka founded by Basava believed in one the fourteenth century, Delhi and Daulatabad
God (Parashiva). Caste distinctions were denied, (Devagiri) emerged as great cities of the world.
women given a better status, and Brahmans There were other large towns such as Multan,
could no longer monopolise priesthood. A
Kara, Awadh, Gaur, Cambay (Khambayat) and
parallel, but less significant, movement in
Gulbarga.
Tamil Nadu was in the compositions of the
Siddhars, who sang in Tamil of one God, and The Delhi Sultans began their gold and
criticised caste, Brahmans and the doctrine silver mintage alongside copper from early in
of transmigration of souls. Two little known the thirteenth century and that indicated brisk

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commerce. Despite the Mongol conquests children to read and write. At a higher level,
of the western borderlands, in Irfan Habib’s important texts in various subjects were read
view, India’s external trade, both overland and by individual pupils with particular scholars
oceanic, grew considerably during this period. who gave instruction (dars) in them. A more
institutionalised form of higher education, the
Trade and Urbanization
madrasa, became widely established in Central
The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate Asia and Iran in the eleventh century, and
revived internal trade, stimulated by the from there it spread to other Islamic countries.
insatiable demand for luxury goods by the sultans Usually the madrasa had a building, where
and nobles. Gold coins, rarely issued in India instruction was given by individual teachers.
after the collapse of the Gupta Empire, began Often there was a provision of some cells for
to appear once again, indicating the revival of resident students, a library and a mosque. Firoz
Indian economy. However, there is no evidence Tugluq built a large madrasa at Delhi whose
of the existence of trade guilds, which had played splendid building still stands. From Barani’s
a crucial role in the economy in the classical age. description it would seem that teaching here
The Sultanate was driven by an urban economy was mainly confined to “Quran-commentary,
encompassing many important towns and the Prophet’s sayings and the Muslim Law
cities. Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Kara, Lakhnauti, (fiqh).” It is said that Sikander Lodi(1489–1517)
Anhilwara, Cambay and Daulatabad were the appointed teachers in maktabs and madrasas
important cities that thrived on the mercantile in various cities throughout his dominions,
activities of Jain Marwaris, Hindu Multanis presumably making provision for them through
and Muslim Bohras, Khurasanis, Afghans and land or cash grants.
Iranians. The import–export trade flourished
well both through overland and overseas. While Historiography
the Gujaratis and Tamils dominated the sea trade, In addition to secular sciences that came with
the Hindu Multanis and Muslim Khurasanis, Arabic and Persian learning to India, one more
Afghans and Iranians dominated the overland notable addition was systematic historiography.
trade with Central Asia. The collection of witnesses’ narratives and
Industrial Expertise documents that the Chachnama (thirteenth-
Paper-making technology evolved by the century Persian translation of a ninth-century
Chinese and learnt by the Arabs was introduced Arabic original), in its account of the Arab
in India during the rule of the Delhi Sultans. The conquest of Sind, represents advancement in
spinning wheel invented by the Chinese came historical research, notwithstanding the absence
to India through Iran in the fourteenth century of coherence and logical order of latter-day
and enabled the spinner to increase her output historiography like Minhaj Siraj’s Tabaqat-i
some six-fold and enlarged yarn production Nasiri, written at Delhi c. 1260.
greatly. The subsequent introduction of treadles Sufism
in the loom similarly helped speed-up weaving.
Sericulture centre was established in Bengal by In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
the fifteenth century. Building activity attained two most influential orders emerged among
a new scale by the large use of brick and mortar, the sufis: the Suhrawardi, centred at Multan,
and by the adoption of the vaulting techniques. and the Chisti at Delhi and other places. The
most famous Chishti Saint, Shaik Nizamuddin
Education offered a classical exposition of Sufism of pre-
Certain traditions of education were now pantheistic phase in the conversations (1307–
implanted from the Islamic World. At the base 1322).Sufism began to turn pantheistic only
was the maktab, where a schoolmaster taught when the ideas of Ibn al-Arabi (died 1240)

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began to gain influence, first through the Persian Hindu women did not have. In several Hindu
poetry of Jalal-ud-din Rumi(1207–1273) and communities, such as among the Rajputs, the
Abdur Rahman Jami (1414–1492), and, then, birth of a girl child was considered a misfortune.
through the endeavours within India of Ashraf Islam was not against women being taught to
Jahangir Simnani (early fifteenth century). read and write. But it tolerated polygamy.
Significantly this wave of qualified pantheism
began to dominate Indian Islamic thought Sultan Firoz Tughlaq was reputed to possess
about the same time that the pantheism of 180,000 slaves, of which 12,000 worked as
Sankaracharya’s school of thought was attaining artisans. His principal minister, Khan Jahan
Maqbul possessed over 2000 women slaves.
increasing influence within Vedic thought.
Caliph/Caliphate : Considered to Evolution of Syncretic Culture

be the successor of Prophet Muhammad, The interaction of the Turks with the
the Caliph wielded authority over civil and Indians had its influence in architecture, fine
religious affairs of the entire Islamic world. arts and literature.
The Caliph ruled Baghdad until it fell before
Mongols in 1258. The Caliphs then ruled Architecture
in Egypt until the conquest of Ottomans Arch, dome, vaults and use of lime cement,
in 1516-17. Thereupon the title was held the striking Saracenic features, were introduced
by Ottoman Sultans. The office of Caliph
in India. The use of marble, red, grey and yellow
(Caliphate) ended when Ottoman Empire
sandstones added grandeur to the buildings.
was abolished and Turkish Republic
established by Mushtafa Kemal Attaturk in In the beginning the Sultans converted the
the 1920s. existing buildings to suit their needs. Qutb-ud-
din Aibak’s Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque situated
adjacent to Qutb Minar in Delhi and the Adhai
Caste and Women din ka Jhopra in Ajmer illustrate these examples.
The Sultans did not alter many of the social A Hindu temple built over a Jain temple was
institutions inherited from ‘Indian Feudalism’. modified into Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Adhai
din ka Jhopra was earlier a Jain monastery
Slavery, though it had already existed in
before being converted as a mosque.
India, grew substantially in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. Both in war and in the With the arrival of artisans from West
event of default in payment of taxes, people Asia the arch and dome began to show up
could be enslaved. They were put to work as with precision and perfection. Gradually local
domestic servants as well as in crafts. The village artisans also acquired the skill. The tomb of
community and the caste system remained Balban was adorned with the first true arch and
largely unaltered. Gender inequalities remained the Alai Darwaza built by Ala-ud-din Khalji
practically untouched. In upper class Muslim
society, women had to observe purdah and were
secluded in the zenana (the female quarters)
without any contact with any men other than
their immediate family. Affluent women
travelled in closed litters.
However, Muslim women, despite purdah,
enjoyed, in certain respects, higher status and
greater freedom in society than most Hindu
women. They could inherit property from
their parents and obtain divorce, privileges that Alai Darwaza

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Qutb Minar, originally a 72.5 metre tower when completed by Iltutmish, was increased
to 74 metres by the repairs carried out by Firuz Shah Tughlaq. The Minar is facilitated
by 379 steps and it is magnificent for the height, balconies projecting out marking the
storeys, the gradual sloping of the tower and the angular flutings creating a ribbed
effect around the tower.
as a gateway to the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque received an impetus in the official court. Zia-
is adorned with the first true dome. The palace ud-din Barani lists the names of Nusrat Khatun
fortress built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and and Mihr Afroz as musician and dancer
Muhammad bin Tughlaq in Tughlaqabad, their respectively in the court of Jalaluddin Khalji.
capital city in Delhi, is remarkable for creating
an artificial lake around the fortress by blocking Literature
the river Yamuna. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Amir Khusrau
Tughlaq introduced the system of sloping emerged as a major figure
walls bearing the dome on a raised platform. of Persian prose and
The buildings of Firuz Tughlaq, especially his poetry. Amir Khusrau
pleasure resort, Hauz Khas, combined Indian felt elated to call himself
and Saracenic features in alternate storeys, an Indian in his Nu Siphr
displaying a sense of integration. (‘Nine Skies’). In this
Sculpture and Painting work, he praises India’s
climate, its languages
Orthodox Islamic theology considered
– notably Sanskrit – its Amir Khusrau
decorating the buildings with animal and (modern representation)
arts, its music, its people,
human figures as un-Islamic. Hence the plastic
even its animals. The Islamic Sufi saints made
exuberance of well-carved images found in the
a deep literary impact. The Fawai’d-ul-Fawad, a
pre-Islamic buildings was replaced by floral
work containing the conversations of Sufi Saint
and geometrical designs. Arabesque, the art of
Nizam-ud-din Auliya was compiled by Amir
decorating the building with Quranic verses
Hassan. A strong school of historical writing
inscribed with calligraphy, emerged to provide
emerged with the writings of Zia-ud-din Barani,
splendour to the building.
Shams-ud-din Siraj Afif and Abdul Malik Isami.
Music and Dance Zia-ud-din Barani, emerged as a master of
Persian prose. Abdul Malik Isami, in his poetic
Music was an area where the syncretic
composition of Futuh-us-Salatin, records the
tendencies were clearly visible. Muslims
history of Muslim rule from Ghaznavid period
brought their musical instruments like Rabab
to Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign.
and Sarangi. Amir Khusrau proclaimed that
Indian music had a pre-eminence over all the Persian literature was enriched by
other music of the world. The Sufi practice the translation of Sanskrit works. Persian
of Sama, recitation of love poetry to the dictionaries with appropriate Hindawi words
accompaniment of music, was instrumental for Persian words were composed, the most
in promotion of music. Pir Bhodan, a Sufi important being Farhang-i-Qawas by Fakhr-
saint, was considered a great musician of the ud-din Qawwas and Miftah-ul-Fuazala by
age. Royal patronage for the growth of music Muhammad Shadiabadi. Tuti Namah, the
was also forthcoming. Firuz Tughlaq evinced Book of Parrots, is a collection of Sanskrit
interest in music leading to synchronisation stories translated into Persian by Zia Nakshabi.
by translating an Indian Sanskrit musical Mahabharata and Rajatarangini were also
work Rag Darpan into Persian. Dancing also translated into Persian.

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Delhi Sultanate did not hamper the progress

of Sanskrit Literature. Sanskrit continued to be EXERCISE
the language of high intellectual thought. The
Sanskrit schools and academies established in Q.R.Code
I. C hoose the
different parts of the empire continued to flourish.
The classical Sanskrit inscription (Palam Baoli) of Correct Answer
1276 in Delhi claims that due to the benign rule of 1. _________ was the ruler
Sultan Balban god Vishnu sleeps in peace in the of Sind when the Arabs invaded it in the 8th
ocean of milk without any worries. The influence century.
of Arabic and Persian on Sanskrit literature was (a) Hajjaj
felt in the form of translations. Shrivara in his (b) Muhammad-Bin-Qasim
Sanskrit work Kathakautuka included the story (c) Jaya Simha
of Yusuf and Zulaika as a Sanskrit love lyric.
(d) Dahar
Bhattavatara took Firdausi’s Shah Namah as a
model for composing Zainavilas, a history of the 2. Mahmud of Ghazni conducted as many
rulers of Kashmir. as__________ military campaigns into India.
(a) 15 (b) 17 (c) 18 (d) 19
SUMMARY 3. The Palam Baoli inscription is in __________
Muhammad Bin Qasim’s expedition against language
Sind in 712. (a) Sanskrit (b) Persian
The first three decades of the 11thcentury (c) Arabic (d) Urdu
witnessed the military raids of Mahmud 4. The world famous Khajuraho temple was
of Ghazni whose intention was to loot and built by __________.
plunder. (a) Rashtrakutas (b) Tomaras
Muhammad Ghori’s invasion by the end (c) Chandelas (d) Paramaras
of 12th century led to the establishment of 5. Mamluk is the term for the Arabic designation
Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb-ud-din of a __________.
Aibak. (a) Slave (b) King
Rajput rulers lost their supremacy in the (c) Queen (d) Soldier
beginning of 13thcentury in the face of
6. Ibn Batuta was a traveller from __________.
superior military tactics.
(a) Morocco (b) Persia
The contributions of five dynasties that
constituted the Delhi Sultanate focusing (c) Turkey (d) China
on important rulers of Slave, Khalji and 7. __________ was the only Sultan who resigned
Tughlaq dynasties. kingship and lived away from Delhi for three
Ala-ud-din Khalji’s several radical military decades in peace.
and market reforms (a) Mubarak Shah (b) Alam Shah
Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s innovative (c) Kizr Khan (d) Tugril Khan
measures that were far ahead of his time 8. Match and choose the correct answer
and their fallout. (A) Ramachandra 1. Kakatiya
Firuz Tughlaq’s reforms and measures which (B) Khan-i-Jahan 2. Padmavat
earned him the goodwill of the people. (C) Malik Muhamad Jaisi 3. Man Singh
A cultural syncretism and reciprocal (D) Man Mandir 4. Devagiri
influence in the fields of literature, art, (a) 2, 1, 4, 3 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4
music and architecture. (c) 4, 1, 2, 3 (d) 3, 1, 2, 4

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II. Write brief answers 3. Compare and contrast Mahmud Ghazni and
Muhammad of Ghor.
1. Mahmud becoming the ruler of Ghazni.
4. Discuss the economic reforms of Ala-ud-din
2. Scholars patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni.
Khalji.
3. Important ruling Rajput dynasties of
Northern India during the Turkish invasion. 5. Estimate the rule of Firuz Tughlaq.
4. Forty System. 6. Give an account of the administrative system
of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. Musical instruments brought by Muslim
musicians.
Activity
III. Write short answers 1. Preparing an album with pictures and images
1. Describe the immediate cause for the military of Sultans and the monuments they left
expeditions of Muhammad-bin-Qasim? behind.
2. What were the reasons for the military raids 2.
Enact a drama on Pirithiviraj, Samyukta
of Mahmud of Ghazni in India? episode.
3. Why was Razia Sultana thrown out of power?
4. Write briefly about the south Indian REFERENCE BOOKS
campaigns of Malik Kafur.
1. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, Orient
5. What were the causes for the failure of the BlackSwan, 2009.
experiments of Muhammad Tughlaq?
2. Irfan Habib, Medieval India I: Essays in the History
IV. Answer the following in detail of India, Oxford University Press, 1999.
3. Irfan Habib, Medieval India: The Study of Indian
1. M
ahmud Ghazni’s plundering raids were more
of political and economic character than of Civilization, National Book Trust, (2008).
religious chauvinism. Elaborate 4. Sunil Kumar, The Emergence of Delhi Sultanate,
2. How did the Second Battle of Tarain prove to Permanent Black, 2010.
be a turning point in Indian History? 5. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, Penguin, 2014.
GLOSSARY
aggressive support to one’s own group or குறுகிய ந�ோக்குடைய
chauvinism
creed தேசியவாதம்
ceremony to install someone in authority சடங்குகள் செய்து பதவியில்
investiture
or office அமர்த்துதல்
magnum
a great work of literature, history or art தலைசிறந்த கலைப் படைப்பு
opus
treacherous unreliable, betraying துர�ோக
plotting to do something illegal or
intrigue சதி
harmful
conciliatory willing to accept mediation in a dispute இணக்கத்தை ஏற்கும்
exuberance liveliness உயிர்ப்பு மிக்க
punitive punishing தண்டிக்கிற
garrison troops stationed in a fortress க�ோட்டைக் காவற்படை
collision clash or conflict ம�ோதல்
incursion invasion திடீர் படையெடுப்பு

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UNIT
Later Cholas and Pandyas
11
Learning Objectives
The objectives of the lesson are to enable students to acquire knowledge of
I Cholas
The achievements of Chola rulers
Cultural developments in the Chola region
Emergence of well-developed agrarian structure and irrigation system
Role of temples in medieval Tamil society
Maritime trade during Chola period
II Pandyas
Rise of Pandyas with Madurai as their capital
Malik Kafur’s invasion and its fallout
Succession dispute inviting the attention of Sultan Alauddin Khalji
Agriculture, irrigation and trade during the Pandya rule
Religion and culture in southern Tamil Nadu
Introduction grains. But this surplus in production resulted

in unequal distribution of wealth. Society
The Cholas belonged to one of the three gradually became highly differentiated unlike in
mighty dynasties that ruled the Tamizh country the earlier period. Institutions and ideas from
in the early historical period. Described as the the north of India, such as the temple and the
Muvendhar in the Sangam literature, they were religion it represented, emerged as a new force.
known for the valour and for their patronage of The Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars
the Tamil language. Many songs were composed and Azhwars popularised the ideology and
in high praise of their glories. However, after the the faith they represented. Similarly, political
Sangam period until about the ninth century ideas and institutions that originated in the
CE, there are no records about them. Changes northern India soon found their way to the
that overtook Tamizhagam in the intervening south as well. The cumulative result of all the
period brought about a major transformation new developments was the formation of a state,
of the region and enabled the emergence of big, which in this case was a monarchy presided over
long-lasting monarchical states. The Cholas by the descendants of the old Chola lineage.
were one among them.
After the eclipse of the Chola kingdom,
The river valleys facilitated the expansion Pandyas, who began their rule in the Vaigai river
of agriculture leading to the emergence of basin at Madurai, wielded tremendous power
powerful kingdoms. The agricultural boom during the 14th century. Like the Cholas, the
resulted in the production of surplus food Pandyas also realised substantial revenue from
155

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agriculture as well as from trade. Trade expansion

overseas continued in the Pandya rule. Tirunelveli
region, which was part of the Pandyan kingdom,
exported grain, cotton, cotton cloth and bullocks
to the Malabar coast and had trade contacts with
West and Southeast Asia. Pandya kings produced
a cultural heritage by synthesising the religious,
cultural and political elements, and it differed
totally with the assumed homogeneity of classical
age of Guptas.
I CHOLAS
Origin of the Dynasty Big temple inscriptions
Records available to us after the Sangam Age for the study of Chola history. The inscriptions
show that the Cholas remained as subordinates mainly record the endowments and donations
to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region. The re- to temples made by rulers and other individuals.
emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya Land transactions and taxes (both collections
(850–871 CE) conquering the Kaveri delta and exemptions) form an important part of
from Muttaraiyar. He built the city of Thanjavur their content. Later-day inscriptions make a
and established the Chola kingdom in 850. mention of the differentiation in society, giving
Historians, therefore, refer to them as the Later an account of the castes and sub-castes and
Cholas or Imperial Cholas. In the copper plate thus providing us information on the social
documents of his successors that are available, structure. Besides stone inscriptions, copper
the Cholas trace their ancestry to the Karikala, plates contain the royal orders. They also
the most well-known of the Cholas of the contain details of genealogy, wars, conquests,
Sangam age. In their genealogy an eponymous administrative divisions, local governance, land
king ‘Chola’ is mentioned as the progenitor. The rights and various taxes levied. Literature also
names of Killi, Kochenganan and Karikalan flourished under the Cholas. The important
are mentioned as members of the line in these religious works in Tamil include codification of
copper plates. the Saivite and Vaishnavite canons. The quasi-
Vijayalaya’s illustrious successors starting historical literary works Kalingattupparani and
from Parantaka I (907–955) to Kulothunga Kulotungancholan Pillai Tamizh were composed
III (1163–1216) brought glory and fame to during their reign. Muvarula, and Kamba
the Cholas. Parantaka Chola set the tone for Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this
expansion of the territory and broadened period. Neminatam, Viracholiyam and Nannul
the base of its governance, and Rajaraja I are noted grammatical works. Pandikkovai and
(985–1014), the builder of the most beautiful Takkayagapparani are other important literary
Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur, and his son works composed during this period.
Rajendra I (1014–1044),whose naval operation
Territory
extended as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated the
advances made by their predecessors and went Traditionally, the area under the Chola
on to establish Chola hegemony in peninsular dynasty in the Tamizh country is known as
India. Chonadu or Cholanadu. Their core kingdom
was concentrated in the Kaveri-fed delta
Sources
called Cholamandalam. This term came
More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved to be corrupted as “Coromandel” in the
on copper and stone form the primary sources European languages, which often referred to
156 Later Cholas and Pandyas

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the entire eastern coast of South India. The Even as he was alive, Rajaraja I appointed
Chola kingdom expanded through military his son, Rajendra I, as his heir apparent.
conquests to include present-day Pudukkottai– For two years, they jointly ruled the Chola
Ramanathapuram districts and the Kongu kingdom. Rajendra I took part in the military
country of the present-day western Tamil campaigns of his father, attacking the Western
Nadu. By the 11th century, through invasions, Chalukyas. Consequently, the boundary of the
Cholas extended their territory to Tondainadu Chola Empire extended up to Tungabhadra
or the northern portion of the Tamizh country, river. When Rajaraja I attacked Madurai,
Pandinadu or the southern portions of the the Pandyas escaped with their crown and
Tamizh country, Gangaivadi or portions of royal jewels and took shelter in Sri Lanka.
southern Karnataka and Malaimandalam, the Thereupon, Rajendra I conquered Sri Lanka
Kerala territory. The Cholas ventured overseas and confiscated the Pandya crown and other
conquering the north-eastern parts of Sri
royal belongings.
Lanka, bringing it under their control and
they called it Mummudi-Cholamandalam. Rajendra I conducted the most striking
military exploit after his accession in 1023 by
his expedition to northern India. He led the
expedition up to the Godavari river and asked
his general to continue beyond that place. The
Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built
to commemorate his victories in North India.
During the Chola reign, the naval
Karantai Copper plate inscriptions achievements of the Tamils reached its peak.
of Rajendra Chola I
The Cholas controlled both the Coromandel
and Malabar coasts. The Chola navy often
11.1.1 Empire Building
ventured into Bay of Bengal for some decades.
Rajaraja I is the Rajendra’s naval operation was directed against
most celebrated of Sri Vijaya. Sri Vijaya kingdom (southern
the Chola kings. He Sumatra) was one of the prominent maritime
engaged in naval and commercial states that flourished from c.
expeditions and 700 to c. 1300 in South-east Asia. Similarly,
emerged victorious Kheda (Kadaram), feudatory kingdom under
in the West Coast, Sri Sri Vijaya, was also conquered by Rajendra.
Lanka and conquered
the Maldives in the The Chola invasions of Western Chalukya
Indian Ocean. The Empire, undertaken in 1003 by Rajaraja I
military victory of Raja and 1009 by Rajendra I, were also successful.
Raja I over Sri Lanka Rajaraja I with his Rajendra sent his son to ransack and ravage its
mentor Karuvur Devar
led to its northern and capital Kalayani. The dwarapala (door keeper)
eastern portions coming under the direct image he brought from Kalayani was installed
control of the Chola authority. Rajaraja I at the Darasuram temple near Kumbhakonam,
appointed a Tamil chief to govern the annexed which can be seen even today. Rajendra I
regions and ordered a temple to be built. It assumed the titles such as Mudikonda
is locally called Siva Devale (shrine of Siva). Cholan (the crowned Chola),Gangaikondan
The Chola official appointed in Sri Lanka (conqueror of the Ganges), Kadaramkondan
built a temple in a place called Mahatitta. The (conqueror of Kadaram) and Pandita Cholan
temple is called Rajarajesvara. (scholarly Cholan).
Later Cholas and Pandyas 157

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11.1.2 Chola Adminstration Army

Cholas maintained a well-organised army.
King
The army consisted of three conventional
Historians have debated the nature of the divisions: infantry, cavalry (kudirai sevagar)
Chola state. Clearly, it was presided over by a and the elephant corps (anaiyatkal). There
hereditary monarchy. The king is presented in were also bowmen (villaligal), sword-bearers
glowing terms in the literature and inscriptions (valilar) and spearmen (konduvar). Two type of
of the period. Venerated on par with god. The ranks in the army are also mentioned: the upper
kings were invariably addressed as peruman and the lower (perundanam and cirudanam).
or perumagan (big man), ulagudaiyaperumal According to a Chinese geographer of the 13th
(the lord of the world) and ulagudaiyanayanar century, the Chola army owned “sixty thousand
(the lord of the world). Later, they adopted the war elephants that, when fighting, carried on
titles such as Chakkaravarti (emperor) and their backs houses, and these houses are full of
Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti (emperor of three soldiers who shoot arrows at long range, and
worlds). At the time of coronation, it was a fight with spears at close quarters”. The overseas
practice to add the suffix deva to the name of exploits of the Cholas are well known and it led
the crowned kings. The kings drew legitimacy historians to refer to their navy “with numberless
by claiming that they were a comrade of god ships”. Generally, soldiers enjoyed padaipparru
(thambiran thozhar). (military holding) rights. Cantonments, which
Chola rulers appointed Brahmins were established in the capital city, were
as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus (the known as padaividu. Military outposts in the
kingdom’s guide). Rajaraja I and Rajendra I conquered territory were called nilaipadai. The
mention the names of rajagurus and captain of a regiment was known as nayagam
Sarva-sivas in their inscriptions. Patronising and later he assumed the title of padaimudali.
Brahmins was seen to enhance their prestige and The commander-in-chief was senapati and
legitimacy. Chola kings therefore granted huge dandanayagam.
estates of land to Brahmins as brahmadeyams
and chturvedimangalams (pronounced chatur- Local Organisation
vedi-mangalam). Various locality groups functioned actively
in the Chola period. These were bodies such as
Provinces
Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar and Nattar. They
As mentioned earlier, the territories of were relatively autonomous organisations of
the Chola state had been expanding steadily the respective groups. They are considered the
even from the time of Vijayalaya. At the building blocks using which the edifice of the
time of conquest, these areas were under the Chola state was built.
control of minor chiefs described by historians
as “feudatories”. Rajaraja I integrated these Urar
territories and appointed “viceroys” in these With the expansion of agriculture, numerous
regions: Chola-Pandya in Pandinadu, Chola- peasant settlements came up in the countryside.
Lankeswara in Sri Lanka, which was renamed as They were known as ur. The urar, who were
Mummudi-cholamandalam, and Chola-Ganga landholders in the village, acted as spokesmen
in the Gangavadi region of southern Karnataka. in the ur. The urar were entrusted with the
In other less prominent regions, the territories upkeep of temples, maintenance of the tanks and
of chiefs such as the Irukkuvels, Ilangovels or managing the water stored in them. They also
Mazhavas or Banas were made part of the Chola discharged administrative functions of the state
state and their chiefs were inducted into the such as collection of revenue, maintenance of law
state system as its functionaries. and order, and obeying the king’s orders.

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Sabhaiyaar Nattar
If the ur was a settlement of land holders, Nadu was a grouping of several urs,
largely consisting of peasants of vellanvagai, excluding brahmadeyas formed around
the brahmadeya was a Brahmin settlement. irrigation sources such as canals and tanks.
The Sabha looked after the affairs of the Nattar (literally those belonging to the nadu)
settlement, including those of the temples at were the assembly of landholders of vellanvagai
villages (urs) in nadu. Nattar functioned as
the core of brahmadeya and its assets. It was
pillars of the state structure under the Cholas.
also responsible for maintaining irrigation
They discharged many of the administrative,
tanks attached to the temple lands. Like the ur,
fiscal and judicial responsibilities of the state.
the Sabha also functioned as the agents of the They held hereditary land rights and were
state in carrying out administrative, fiscal and responsible for remitting the tax from the
judicial functions. respective nadu to the state. Landholders of the
Nagarattaar nadu held the honorific titles such as asudaiyan
(possessor of land), araiyan (leader) and kilavan
Nagaram was a settlement of traders.
(headman). There were functionaries such as
However, skilled artisans engaged in masonry,
the naattukanakku and nattuviyavan, recording
ironsmithing, goldsmithing, weaving and the proceedings of the Nattar.
pottery also occupied the settlement. It was
represented by the Nagarattaar, who regulated 11.1.3 Economy
their association with temples, which needed
their financial assistance. In the reign of Agriculture
One of the major developments in this
Rajaraja I, Mamallapuram was administrated by
period was the expansion of agriculture. People
a body called Maanagaram. Local goods were
settled in fertile river valleys, and even in areas
exchanged in nagarams. These goods included
where there were no rivers, and arrangements
silk, porcelain, camphor, cloves, sandalwood were made for irrigation by digging tanks, wells
and cardamom according to Chinese accounts. and canals. This led to the production of food
In order to promote trade, inland and sea way, grain surplus. Society got differentiated in a big
Kulotunga revoked the collection of toll fee way. The Chola state collected land tax out of the
(sungam). Hence he was conferred the title agrarian surplus for its revenue. There was an
'Sungam Thavirtha Chozhan'. elaborate “department of land revenue” known
Local Elections and Uttaramerur

Inscriptions : Two inscriptions (919 and 921)
from a Brahmadeya (tax-free land gifted to Brahamans)
called Uttaramerur (historically called Uttaramallur
Caturvedimangalam) give details of the process
of electing members to various committees that
administered the affairs of a Brahmin settlement. This
village was divided into 30 wards. One member was to
be elected from each ward. These members would become members of different committees: public
works committee, tank committee, garden committee, famine committee and gold committee. The
prescribed qualifications for becoming a ward member were clearly spelt out. A male, above 35 but
below 70, having a share of property and a house of his own, with knowledge of Vedas and bhasyas
was considered eligible. The names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on the palm-
leaf slips and put into a pot (kudavolai).The eldest of the assembly engaged a boy to pull out one slip
and would read the name of the person selected.

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as puravuvari-tinaikkalam, with its chief called the state was drawing most of its revenue from
'puravuvari-tinaikkalanayagam'. agriculture, the Cholas focused their efforts on
managing water resources. Vativaykkal, a criss-
Land Revenue and Survey
cross channel, is a traditional way of harnessing
For the purposes of assessing tax, the Cholas rain water in the Kavery delta. Vati runs in
undertook extensive land surveys and revenue the north–south direction while vaykkal runs
settlements. Rajaraja I (1001), Kulotunga I in the east–west direction. Technically, vati is
(1086) and Kulotunga III (1226) appointed a drainage channel and a vaykkal is a supply
people for land survey so that the land could channel. The water running through vaykkal
be classified and assessed for the purposes of to the field was to be drained out to vati and to
taxation. Like other functionaries of the state, the another vaykkal. Rain water would flow from
surveyors of the land called naduvagaiseykira where the natural canal started. Many irrigation
too hailed from the landholding communities. canals are modifications of such natural canals.
Various units of the land measurement such as The harnessed water was utilised alternately
kuli, ma, veli, patti, padagam, etc. are known, through vati and vaykkal. Here the mechanism
with local variations. Generally, taxes were designed was such that water was distributed to
collected in different forms. The taxes collected the parcelled out lands in sequel.
included irai, kanikadan, iraikattina-kanikadan Many canals were named after
and kadamai. An important category of tax was the kings, queens and gods. Some
kudimai. Kudimai was paid by the cultivating examples of the names are Uttamachola-
tenants to the government and to the landlords, vaykkal, Panca-vanamadevi-vaykkal and
the bearers of honorific titles such as udaiyan, Ganavathy-vaykkal. Ur-vaykkal was owned
araiyan and kilavar. The tax rates were fixed jointly by the landowners. The nadu level vaykkal
depending on the fertility of the soil and the was referred to as nattu-vaykkal. The turn
status of the landholder. Opati were levied and system was practiced for distributing the water.
collected by the king and local chiefs. Temples Chola inscriptions list some big-size irrigation
and Brahmins were exempted from paying the tanks such as Cholavaridhi, Kaliyaneri,
taxes. The tax paid in kind was referred to as Vairamegatataka created by the Pallavas, Bahur
iraikattina-nellu. All these were mostly realised big tank and Rajendra Cholaperiyaeri. For
from the Kavery delta but not widely in the the periodical or seasonal maintenance and
outskirts of the kingdom. At the ur (village) repair of irrigation works, conscripted labour
level, urar (village assembly) were responsible was used.
for collecting the taxes and remitting them to
the government. At the nadu level, the nattar The irrigation work done by Rajendra
were responsible for remitting taxes. Chola I at Gangaikonda Chozhapuram
was an embankment of solid masonry
Paddy as tax was collected by a unit called 16 miles long. Rajendra described it as
kalam (28 kg). Rajaraja I standardised the his 'jalamaya jayasthambham', meaning
collection of tax. He collected 100 kalam “pillar of victory in water”. The Arab
from the land of one veli (about 6.5 acres), traveller Alberuni visited the place a
the standard veli being variable according hundred years later. On seeing them
to fertility of the soil and the number of he was wonder-struck and said: ‘“Our
crops raised. people, when they see them, wonder at
them, and are unable to describe them,
Irrigation much less construct anything like them”,
records Jawaharlal Nehru in The Glimpses
Cholas undertook measures to improve of World History.
the irrigation system that was in practice. As

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Water Management 11.1.4 Society and its

Different kinds of water rights were Structure
assigned. These rights regulated the share
In the predominantly agrarian society
of water from the tanks and wells; it also
prevailing during the Chola period, landholding
entailed the right of deepening and broadening
was the prime determinant of social status and
the channels and repairing the irrigation
hierarchy. The Brahmin landholders called
system. The allotment of water is described as brahmadeya-kilavars at the top brahmadeya
'nirkkintravaaru' (share of water as allotted).The settlements with tax exemption were created,
water was released through kumizh (sluice) or displacing (kudi neekki) the local peasants.
talaivay (head-channel). Royal orders warned Temples were gifted land known as devadana,
the people against the violation of water rights which were exempted from tax, as in
and encroachment of water resources gifted brahmadeyams. The temples became the hub of
to the brahmadeya settlements. Commonly several activities during this period.
owned village tank was called enkalkulam (our
tank). Land transaction in the form of donation The landholders of vellanvagai villages
and endowment were accompanied by water were placed next in the social hierarchy.
rights as well. For the periodical and seasonal Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land but had
maintenance and repair of the irrigation tanks, to cultivate the lands of Brahmins and holders
rendering free labour was in practice. Vetti and of vellanvagai villages. While landholders
amanji were the forms of free labour related to retained melvaram (major share in harvest), the
public works at the village level. ulukudi got kizh varam (lower share). Labourers
(paniceymakkal) and slaves (adimaigal) stayed
at the bottom of social hierarchy.
Outside the world of agrarian society were
the armed men, artisans and traders. There are
documents that make mention of cattle-keepers
who apparently constituted a considerable
section of the population. There certainly were
tribals and forest-dwellers, about whom our
knowledge is scanty.
Religion
Kavinattu Kanmai with Chola inscription Puranic Hinduism, represented by the
Village assemblies under the Cholas worship of Siva, Vishnu and associated deities,
collected a tax called eriayam, which was utilised had become popular by the time of the Cholas.
for repairing irrigation tanks. Sometimes local A large number of temples dedicated to these
leaders like araiyan repaired and renovated deities were built. The temples were provided
irrigation tanks destroyed in a storm. There vast areas of land and a considerable section of
were instances of the water from a tank shared population came under their influence.
by villagers and the temples. Special groups Chola rulers were ardent Saivites. Parantaka I
known as talaivayar, talaivay-chanrar and eri- (907–953) and Uttama Chola (970–985) made
araiyarkal were in charge of releasing the water provisions and gifted the lands to promote
through the head channel and sluice from the religion. In a fresco painting in which Rajaraja
rivers or tanks. A group of people who were I is portrayed with his wives worshiping Lord
in charge of kulam was called kulattar. In later Siva in Thanjavur Brihadishvarar temple. One
period, temples were entrusted with the upkeep of the titles of Rajaraja I is Siva Pada Sekaran,
of the irrigation sources. i.e. one who clutches the foot of Lord Siva.

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Siva was the The devotion of Chola rulers to Saivism

preeminent god for became a strong passion in due course of time.
the Cholas and he Kulothunga II, for instance, exhibited such a
was represented in trait. The theological tussle was fierce between
two forms. The iconic state religion, Saivism, and Vaishnavism so
form of Siva was much so that Vaishnavism was sidelined to the
Lingodhbhava, and the extent of its apostle Sri Ramanujar leaving the
Nataraja idol was the Chola country for Melkote in Karnataka.
human form. A trace of Builders of Temples
the locations of temple
The Cholas
centres in Kavery delta
built and patronised
could provide us the Lingodhbhava,
Brihadishvarar Temple innumerable temples.
map of an agrarian-
The royal temples
political geography spatially and temporally. in Thanjavur,
The repeated representation of Tripurantaka Gangaikonda
(the destroyer of three mythical cities of asura) Chozhapuram and
form of Siva in sculpture and painting gave him a Darasuram are
warrior aspect and helped in gaining legitimacy the repositories
for the ruler. The representation of Nataraja or of architecture,
Adal Vallan (king of dance) in the form of idol sculpture, paintings
was the motif of Tamil music, dance and drama and iconography of Dancing woman
with hymns composed by Nayanmars, the Saiva accompanied by musician,
the Chola arts. The
Brihadishvarar temple
saints. These hymns sang the praise of Siva and temples became the
extolled the deeds of god. They held great appeal hub of social, economic, cultural and political
to the devotees from different social sections. activities. The paraphernalia of the temples
including temple officials, dancers, musicians,
The Saiva canon, the Thirumurai, was
singers, players of musical instruments and their
codified after it was recovered by Nambi Andar
masers headed by the priests worshipping the
Nambi. Oduvars and Padikam Paduvars were
gods reflect the royal court. In the initial stages,
appointed to sing in the temples to recite architecturally, the Chola temples are simple
Thirumurai daily in the temple premises. and modest. Sepulchral temples (pallip-padai)
The singers of hymns were known as also were built where the kings were buried.
vinnappamseivar. The players of percussion
instruments also were appointed. Girls were Temple as a Social Institution
dedicated for the service of god. Musicians Chola temples became the arena of
and dance masters also were appointed to train social celebrations and functioned as social
them. institutions. They became the hub of societal
space in organising social, political, economic
A highly evolved philosophical system
and cultural activities. The prime temple
called Saiva Siddhanta was founded during officials were koyirramar, koyilkanakku (temple
this period. The foundational text of this accountant), deva-kanmi (agent of god),
philosophy, Sivagnana Bodham, was composed srivaisnavar, cantesar (temple manager) and
by Meikandar. Fourteen texts, collectively others. They promoted the development of
called Saiva Siddhantha Sastram, form the core learning, dance, music, painting and drama. A
of this philosophy.In later times, many Saiva play called Rajarajanatakam, based on the life
monasteries emerged and expounded this of Rajaraja I, was performed in the Thanjavur
philosophy. temple. The festivals of Chithirai Tiruvizha,

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Brihadishvarar Temple
The Grand Temple of Thanjavur, known as
Rajarajisvaram and Brihadishvarar Temple, stands
as an outstanding example of Chola architecture,
painting, sculpture and iconography. This temple
greatly legitimised Rajaraja’s polity. The sanctum
with a vimana of 190 feet is capped with a stone
weighing 80 tons. The figures of Lakshmi, Vishnu,
Ardhanarisvara and Bikshadana, a mendicant
form of Siva, on the outer walls of the sanctum
are some unique features. The fresco paintings
and the miniature sculptures of the scenes from
puranas and epics in the temple walls reveal the
religious ideology of the Chola rulers. Dancing girls, musicians and music masters were selected
from different settlements cutting across the nadu divisions and were attached to this temple.
Singers had been appointed to recite the bhakti hymns in the temple premises.
Kartigai and Aippasivizha were celebrated. It Gangaikonda Chozhapuram

is said that singing hymns in temple premises
In commemoration
promoted oral literacy. Traditional dance of his victory in North
items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu India, Rajendra I
were portrayed in the form of sculptures built Gangaikonda
and paintings in the temples in Kilapalivur, Chozhapuram on the
Tiruvorriyur. Nirutya and karna poses are model of Brihadisvarar
shown in sculptural forms in the Thanjavur big temple in Thanjavur. He
temple. Traditional Tamil musical instruments built an irrigation tank
also were portrayed in this way. called Chola-gangam near
The pastoral group, as a mark of devotion, the capital called Jala- Anugrahamurthy
donated livestock of specified number to the stambha (water-pillar). Gangai Konda
temples so as to maintain the perpetual lamp It became the coronation Chozhapuram
to be lit in the temple. To record their gift, centre, which was a Chola landmark. The
their names were engraved in the inscriptions sculptures of Ardhanariswarar, Durga, Vishnu,
of royal temple. Thus, they earned royal Surya, Chandesa anugrahamurty are the best
affinity. The oil pressers called Sankarapadiyar pieces of the idols of gods placed in the niches of
supplied oil to the temple and became part of the outer wall of sanctum.
the functionaries of the temples. In times of
Darasuram Temple
famine, some of them sold themselves to the
temple as servants. Darasuram Temple, built by Rajaraja II
(1146–1172), is yet another important
Temples functioned as banks by
contribution of the Cholas to temple architecture.
advancing loans and by purchasing and
Incidents from the Periyapuranam, in the form of
receiving endowments and donations. They
miniatures, are depicted on the base of the garbha-
also became educational centres as training
griha (sanctum sanctorum) wall of the temple.
was imparted in Vedas, music and the arts.
Sculpture and metal work too were promoted. Trade
Temple accounts were audited and the auditor Increased production in agriculture as
was called koyilkanakku. well as artisanal activities led to trade and

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CHOLA EMPIRE Vangadesam

(palas)
Odda Pagan
N
Kalyani
(Western chalukyas) (Burmese)
Kalinga W E
S
Pegu
Vengl BAY
OF
ARABIAN
BENGAL
SEA Champa
Laksha
(Khmer)
An
Kanchipuram (siam)
m an da
Gangaikonda cholapuram
Nagapattinam
d
a n d n i c ob a r
Thanjavur
wee
( IN D I A )
pI
(Chaiya)
s
nd
la
isl
an
Lanka
ds
Kadaram
(Kedah)
Panai
Trade routes
Chola terrirory
Chola influence Srivijaya
(Palembang)
Map not to scale
growing exchange of goods for goods. This interior, goods were carried on pack animals
trade activity involved the notions of price, and boat. The items exported from the Chola
profit and market, which were not known in land were sandalwood, ebony, condiments,
South India in the earlier period. Two guild- precious gems, pepper, oil, paddy, grains and
like groups are known: anjuvannattar and salt. Imports included camphor, copper, tin,
manigramattar. Anjuvannattar comprised mercury and etc. Traders also took interest
West Asians, including Jews, Christians and in irrigation affairs. Valanciyar, a group of
Muslims. They were maritime traders and were traders, once dug an irrigation tank called
settled all along the port towns of the west coast. ainutruvapperari in Pudukottai.
It is said that manigramattar were busy with
trade in the hinterland. They settled in interior 11.1.5 Cholas as Patrons
towns like Kodumbalur, Uraiyur, Kovilpatti, of Learning
Piranmalai and others. In due course, both Chola kings were great patrons of learning
groups merged and got incorporated under the who lavished support on Sanskrit education
banner of ainutruvar, disai-ayirattu-ainutruvar by instituting charities. From the inscriptions,
and valanciyar functioning through the head we see that literacy skills were widespread. The
guild in Ayyavole in Karnataka. This ainutruvar great literary works Kamba Ramayanam and
guild controlled the maritime trade covering Periyapuranam belong to this period. Rajendra
South-east Asian countries. Munai-santai I established a Vedic college at Ennayiram
(Pudukkottai), Mylapore and Tiruvotriyur (South Arcot district). There were 340 students
(Chennai), Nagapattinam, Vishakapattinam in this Vaishnava centre, learning the Vedas,
and Krishnapattinam (south Nellore) became Grammar and Vedanta under 14 teachers. This
the centres of the maritime trade groups. In the example was later followed by his successors

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Sambuvarayars : Sambuvarayars were chieftains in the North Arcot and Chengalpattu

regions during the reign of Chola kings, Rajathiraja and Kulothunga III. Though they were
feudatories, they were found fighting sometimes on the side of their overlords and occasionally
against them also. From the late 13th century to the end of Pandya ascendency, they wielded
power along the Palar river region. The kingdom was called Raja Ghambira Rajyam and the
capital was in Padaividu. Inscriptions of Vira Chola Sambavarayan (1314–1315CE) have been
found. Sambuvarayars assumed high titles such as Sakalaloka Chakravartin Venru Mankonda
Sambuvarayan (1322–1323 CE) and Sakalaloka Chakravartin Rajanarayan Sambuvarayan (1337–
1338 CE). The latter who ruled for 20 years was overthrown by Kumarakampana of Vijayanagar.
It is after this campaign that Kumarakampana went further south, as far as Madurai, where he
vanquished the Sultan of Madurai in a battle.
and, as a result, two more such colleges were associated with pearl fisheries, is believed to
founded, at Tribuvani near Pondicherry in 1048 have been their early capital and port. They
and the other at Tirumukudal, Chengalpattu moved to Madurai later.
district, in 1067. In Sanskrit centres, subjects Many early Tamil inscriptions of
like Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, religion and Pandyas have been found in Madurai and its
philosophies were taught. Remuneration was surroundings. Madurai is mentioned as Matirai
given to teachers in land as service tenure. in these Tamil inscriptions, whereas Tamil
The End of Chola Rule classics refer to the city as Kudal, which means
assemblage. In one of the recently discovered
The Chola dynasty was paramount in Tamil inscriptions from Puliman Kompai, a
South India from the ninth to the thirteenth village in Pandya territory, Kudal is mentioned.
centuries. By the end of the twelfth century, In Pattinappalai and Maduraikkanchi, Koodal
local chiefs began to grow in prominence, is mentioned as the capital city of Pandyas. It
which weakened the centre. With frequent finds mention in Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies)
invasions of Pandyas, the once mighty empire, also. So, historically Madurai and Kudal have
was reduced to the status of a dependent on been concurrently used.
the far stronger Hoysalas. In 1264, the Pandyan
ruler, Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, sacked the Sources
Chola’s capital of Gangaikonda Chozhapuram. The history of the Pandyas of the Sangam
With Kanchipuram lost earlier to the Telugu period, circa third century BCE to third century
Cholas, the remaining Chola territories passed CE, has been reconstructed from various
into the hands of the Pandyan king. 1279 sources such as megalithic burials, inscriptions
marks the end of Chola dynasty when King in Tamil brahmi, and the Tamil poems of the
Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the Sangam literature. The Pandyas established
last king Rajendra Chola III and established the their supremacy in South Tamil Nadu by the
rule by Pandyas. end of the sixth century CE. A few copper plates
form the source of our definite knowledge of the
II PANDYAS
Pandyas from the seventh to the ninth century.
Pandyas were one of the muvendars The Velvikkudi grant of Nedunjadayan is the
that ruled the southern part of India, though most important among them. Copper plates
intermittently, until the pre-modern times. inform the essence of royal orders, genealogical
Ashoka, in his inscriptions, refers to Cholas, list of the kings, their victory over the enemies,
Cheras, Pandyas and Satyaputras as peoples endowments and donations they made to the
of South India. Korkai, a town historically temples and the Brahmins. Rock inscriptions

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give information about the authors of rock- the border of the west while the Bay of Bengal
cut cave temples, irrigation tanks and canals. formed the eastern border.
Accounts of travellers such as Marco Polo,
Wassaff and Ibn-Batuta are useful to know 11.2.1 Pandya Revival
about political and socio-cultural developments (600–920)
of this period. Madurai Tala Varalaru, Pandik
Kovai and Madurai Tiruppanimalai provide The revival of the Pandyas seems to have
information about the Pandyas of Madurai of taken place after the disappearance of the
later period. Kalabhras. Once hill tribes, the Kalabhras had
soon taken to a settled life, extending their
Though pre-Pallavan literary works do patronage to Buddhists and Jains. Kadunkon,
not speak of Sangam as an academy, the term who recovered Pandya territory from the
Sangam occurs in Iraiyanar Akapporul of Kalabhras according to copper plates, was
late seventh or eighth century CE. The term succeeded by two others. Of them, Sendan
Sangam, which means an academy, is used in possessed warlike qualities and his title Vanavan
late medieval literary works like Periya Puranam is suggestive of his conquest of Cheras. The
and Tiruvilaiyadal Puranam. next one, Arikesari Maravarman (624–674), an
illustrious early Pandya, ascended the throne in
Seethalai Saththanar, the author 642, according to a Vaigai river bed inscription.
of epic Manimekalai, hailed from He was a contemporary of Mahendravarman I
Madurai. and Narsimahvarman I. Inscriptions and copper
plates praise his victory over his counterparts
Territory such as Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese.
Arikesari is identified with Kun Pandian, the
The territory of Pandyas is called
persecutor of Jains.
Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam or
Pandynadu, which lay in the rocky, hilly
regions and mountain ranges except the areas Saivite saint Thirugnanasambandar
fed by the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni. River converted Arikesari from Jainism to
Vellar running across Pudukkottai region had Saivism.
been demarcated as the northern border of the
Pandya country, while Indian Ocean was its After his two successors, Kochadayan
southern border. The Western Ghats remained Ranadhira (700–730) and Maravarman
Impaling of Jains
Though the number of Jain people who were persecuted is questionable, the incitance of
persecution is not in doubt.

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Rajasimha I (730–765), came Jatila Parantaka

Nedunjadayn (Varaguna I) (765–815), the donor Marco Polo, a Venetian
of the Velvikkudi plates. He was also known as the (Italy) traveller who
greatest of his dynasty and successfully handled visited Pandya country
the Pallavas and the Cheras. He expanded the lauded the king for fair
Pandya territory into Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli, administration and
Salem and Coimbatore districts. He is also generous hospitality for
credited with building several Siva and Vishnu foreign merchants. In
temples. The next king Srimara Srivallabha his travel account, he
(815–862) invaded Ceylon and maintained his also records the incidents of sati and the
authority. However, he was subsequently defeated polygamy practiced by the kings.
by Pallava Nandivarman III (846–869). He was
followed by Varaguna II who was defeated by Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan
Aparajita Pallava (885–903) at Sripurambiyam. The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya
His successors, Parantaka Viranarayana and kingdom was Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman)
Rajasimha II, could not stand up to the rising Sundarapandyan (1251–1268), who not only
Chola dynasty under Parantaka I. Parantaka I brought the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule,
defeated the Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled but also exercised his authority up to Nellore
the country in 920CE. in Andhra. Under his reign, the Pandya state
Rise of Pandyas Again reached its zenith, keeping the Hoysalas in
check. Under many of his inscriptions, he is
(1190–1310)
eulogized. Sundarapandyan conquered the
In the wake of the vacuum in Chola state in Chera ruler, the chief of Malanadu, and extracted
the last quarter of 12th century after the demise a tribute from him. The decline of the Chola
of Adhi Rajendra, Chola viceroyalty became state emboldened the Boja king of Malwa region
weak in the Pandya country. Taking advantage Vira Someshwara to challenge Sundarapandyan,
of this development, Pandya chieftains tried who in a war at Kannanur defeated him.
to assert and rule independently. Sri Vallaba Sundarapandian plundered his territory. He put
Pandyan fought Rajaraja II and lost his son in Sendamangalam under siege. After defeating
the battle. Using this situation, the five Pandyas the Kadava chief, who ruled from Cuddalore
waged a war against Kulotunga I (1070–1120) and wielded power in northern Tamil Nadu,
and were defeated. In 1190, Sadayavarman Sundarapandyan demanded tribute. He captured
Srivallabhan, at the behest of Kulotunga I, the western region and the area that lay between
started ruling the Pandya territory. He was present-day Arcot and Salem. After killing the
anointed in Madurai with sceptre and throne. king of Kanchipuram in a battle, Pandyas took his
To commemorate his coronation, he converted territory. But, by submitting to the Pandyas, the
a peasant settlement Sundaracholapuram as brother of the slain king got back Kanchipuram
Sundarachola Chaturvedimangalam, a tax- and agreed to pay tribute. Along with him,
exempted village for Brahmins. there were two or three co-regents who ruled
After the decline of the Cholas, Pandya simultaneously: Vikrama Pandyan and Vira
kingdom became the leading Tamil dynasty Pandyan. A record of Vira Pandyan (1253–1256)
in the thirteenth century. Madurai was their states that he took Eelam (Ceylon), Kongu and
capital. Kayal was their great port. Marco Polo, the Cholamandalam (Chola country).
the famous traveller from Venice, visited Kayal Maravarman Kulasekharan
twice, in 1288 and in 1293. He tells us that this
port town was full of ships from Arabia and After Sundarapandyan, Maravarman
China and bustling with business activities. Kulasekharan ruled successfully for a period of

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40 years, giving the country peace and prosperity. and others. Titles of the later Pandyas in
We have authentic records about the last phase Sanskrit include Kodanda Raman, Kolakalan,
of his reign. He ascended the throne in 1268 and Puvanekaviran, and Kaliyuga Raman. Titles in
ruled till 1312. He had two sons, and in 1302, the chaste Tamil are Sembian, Vanavan, Thennavan
accession of the elder son, Jatavarman Sundara and others. The Pandyas derived military
Pandyan III, as co-regent took place. The king’s advantage over their neighbours by means of
appointment of Sundarapandyan as a co-regent their horses, which they imported through their
provoked the other son Vira Pandyan and so he connection to a wider Arab commercial and
killed his father Maravarman Kulasekharan. In cultural world.
the civil war that ensued, Vira Pandyan won and
became firmly established in his kingdom. The Palace and Couch
other son, Sundara Pandyan, fled to Delhi and Royal palaces were called Tirumaligai and
took refuge under the protection of Alauddin Manaparanan Tirumaligai. Kings, seated on a royal
Khalji. This turn of events provided an opening couch, exercised the power. The naming of couches
for the invasion of Malik Kafur. after the local chiefs attests to the legitimacy of
Invasion of Malik Kafur overlordship of the kings. The prominent names
of such couches are Munaiya Daraiyan, Pandiya
When Malik Kafur arrived in Madurai in Daraiyan and Kalinkat Traiyan. The king issued
1311, he found the city empty and Vira Pandyan royal order orally while majestically seated on the
had already fled. In Amir Khusru’s estimate, couches. It was documented by royal scribe called
512 elephants, 5,000 horses along with 500 Tirumantira Olai.
mounds of jewel of diamonds, pearls, emeralds
and rubies are said to have been taken by Malik Royal Officials
Kafur. The Madurai temple was desecrated and A band of officials executed the royal
an enormous amount of wealth was looted. The orders. The prime minister was called
wealth he carried was later used in Delhi by uttaramantri. The historical personalities like
Alauddin Khalji, who had then taken over the Manickavasagar, Kulaciraiyar and Marankari
throne, to wean away the notables in the court
worked as ministers. The royal secretariat was
to his side against other claimants.
known as Eluttu Mandapam. Akapparivara
After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan Mudalikal were the personal attendants of the
kingdom came to be divided among a number kings. The most respected officials were Maran
of the main rulers in the Pandya’s family. In Eyinan, Sattan Ganapathy, Enathi Sattan, Tira
Madurai, a Muslim state subordinate to the Delhi Tiran, Murthi Eyinan and others. The titles
Sultan came to be established and continued of military commanders were Palli Velan,
until 1335 CE when the Muslim Governor of Parantakan Pallivelan, Maran Adittan and
Madurai Jalaluddin Asan Shah threw off his Tennavan Tamizhavel.
allegiance and declared himself independent.
Political Divisions
11.2.2 State Pandy Mandalam or Pandy Nadu
Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their consisted of many valanadus, which, in turn,
capital. Madurai has been popularly venerated were divided into many nadus and kurrams.
as Kudal and Tamil Kelukudal. The kings are The administrative authorities of nadus were
traditionally revered as Kudalkon, Kudal Nagar the nattars. Nadu and kurram contained
Kavalan, Madurapura Paramesvaran. The titles settlements, viz., mangalam, nagaram, ur and
of the early Pandyas are: Pandiyatirasan, Pandiya kudi, which were inhabited by different social
Maharasan, Mannar Mannan, Avaniba Sekaran, groups. A unique political division in Pandy
Eka Viran, Sakalapuvana Chakkaravarti Mandalam is Kulakkil, i.e. area under irrigation

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tank. For instance, Madurai is described in an seventh century, led to the expansion of their
inscription as Madakkulakkil Madurai. trade connection to the east coast of Tamizh
The duty of the nattar was to assess the country. This was because the governments
qualities of land under cultivation and levy of the east coast pursued a more liberal and
taxes. In surveying the lands, the officials used enlightened policy towards the overseas traders.
rods of 14 and 24 feet. After the measurement, Their charters exempted traders from various
the authorities donated the lands. Salabogam kinds of port dues and tolls. In Kayal, there was
land was assigned to Brahmins. The land an agency established by an Arab chieftain by
assigned to ironsmiths was called tattarkani; for name Malik-ul-Islam Jamaluddin. This agency
carpenters, it was known as thatchar-maaniyam. facilitated the availability of horses to Pandya
Bhattavriutti is the land donated for Brahmin kings.
group for imparting education.
Horse trade of that time has been recorded
Administration and Religion:
by Wassaff. He writes: "…as many as 10,000
Seventh to Ninth Centuries horses were imported into Kayal and other
An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli ports of India of which 1,400 were to be of
district), dating to 800, provides an account Jamaluddin’s own breed. The average cost of
of village administration. It looks similar to each horse was 220 dinars of ‘red gold’. "
Chola’s local governance, which included village
assemblies and committees. Both civil and In the inscriptions, the traders are referred
military powers were vested in the same person. to as nikamattor, nanadesi, ticai-ayiratu-
The Pandya kings of the period supported and ainutruvar, ainutruvar, manikiramattar and
promoted Tamil and Sanskrit. The great Saiva patinen-vishyattar. They founded the trade
and Vaishnava saints contributed to the growth guilds in Kodumpalur and Periyakulam. The
of Tamil literature. The period was marked by goods traded were spices, pearls, precious stones,
intense religious tussles. The rise of the Bhakti horses, elephants and birds. In the thirteenth and
movement invited heterodox scholars for debate. fourteenth centuries, horse trade was brisk. Marco
Many instances of the defeat of Buddhism and Polo and Wassaff state that the kings invested in
Jainism in such debates are mentioned in Bhakti horses as there was a need of horses for ceremonial
literature. purposes and for fighting wars. Those who were
trading in horses were called kudirai-chetti. They
11.2.3 Economy were active in maritime trade also.
The busiest port town under the Pandyas
Society
was Kayalpattinam (now in Thoothukudi
Kings and local chiefs created district) on the east coast. Gold coins were in
Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or circulation as the trade was carried through
Chaturvedimangalam with irrigation facilities. the medium of gold. It was variously called
These settlements were given royal names and kasu, palankasu, anradunarpalankasu, kanam,
names of the deities. Influential Brahmins had kalancu and pon. The titular gods of the traders
honorific titles such as Brahmmadhi Rajan and are Ayirattu Aynurruvaar Udaiyar and Sokka
Brahmmaraiyan. Nayaki Amman. The periodically held fairs
were called Tavalam in settlements called teru
Trade
where the traders lived.
It was not the Khalji’s invasion from the
north that brought the Muslims into Tamil Irrigation
country for the first time. Arab settlements The Pandya rulers created a number of
on the west coast of southern India, from the irrigation sources and they were named after the

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Sluice is a device to distribute the water from the

water resources like river, tank and lakes. It is Sluice in Tank Srivilliputtur
called Kumili, madai and Madagu in inscriptions.
members of the royal family. Some of them were The communal assembly of this group is
Vasudeva Peraru, Virapandya Peraru, Srivallaba Cittirameli-periyanattar.
Peraru and Parakirama Pandya Peraru. The
Literacy
tanks were named Tirumaleri, Maraneri,
Kaliyaneri and Kadaneri. On either side of the The mission of promoting literacy was
rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni, canals leading to carried on through many ways. Appointment of
the tanks for irrigation were built. The Sendan singers to recite the Bhakti hymns in temple has
Maran inscription of Vaigai river bed speaks of been seen as the attempt of promoting literacy.
a sluice installed by him to distribute the water In theatres, plays were staged for a similar
from the river. Sri Maran Srivallabhan created a purpose. Bhattavirutti and salabogam were
big tank, which is till now in use. Like Pallavas endowments provided for promoting Sanskrit
in northern districts, Pandyas introduced the education. Brahmins studied the Sanskrit
irrigation technology in the southern districts treatises in educational centres kadigai, salai and
of Tamil country. In building the banks of the vidyastanam. From 12th century, monasteries
tanks, the ancient architect used the thread to came up and they were attached to the temples
maintain the level. Revetment of the inner side to promote education with religious thrust.
of the banks with stone slabs is one of the features A copper inscription says that an academy
of irrigation technique in Pandya country. In was set up to promote Tamil and to translate
the time of the later Pandyas (around 1212), an Mahabharatam. The important Tamil literary
official constructed a canal leading from river texts composed in the reign of the Pandyas
Pennai to the lands of Tiruvannamalai temple. were Tiruppavai, Tirvempavai, Tiruvasagam,
In dry-zone Ramanathupuram also, tanks were Tirukkovai and Tirumantiram.
created. In these areas, such irrigation works
were done by local administrative bodies, 11.2.4 Religion
local chiefs and officials. Repairs were mostly It is said that Pandyas were Jains initially
undertaken by local bodies. Sometimes, traders and later adopted Saivism. Inscriptions and the
also dug out tanks for irrigation. sculptures in the temples attest to this belief. The
Iruppaikkuti-kilavan, a local chief, built early rock-cut cave temples were the outcrop of
many tanks and repaired the tanks in disrepair. transitional stage in religion and architecture.
The actual landowning groups are described as Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas repaired
the Pumiputtirar. Historically they were locals many temples and endowed them with gold
and hence they were referred to as nattumakkal. and land. The vimanam over the sanctum of

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Srirangam and Chidambaram temples were these temples of the Pandya country, the sculptures
covered with golden leaves. Sadaiyavarman of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa, Subramanya,
Sundarapandyan was anointed in Srirangam Surya and Brahma are best specimens. Pandyas
temple, and to commemorate it, he donated an specially patronised Meenakshi temple and kept
idol of Vishnu to the temple. The inner walls expanding its premises by adding gopuras and
of this temple and three other gopurams were mandapas.
plated with gold. The prominent rock-cut cave temples
Pandyas extended patronage to Vedic created by the early Pandyas are found in
practices. Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Pillayarpatti, Tirumayam, Kuntrakkudi,
Peruvaluthi, who performed many Vedic rituals, Tiruchendur, Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari and
is identified with Pandyas of the Sangam period. Sittannavasal. Paintings are found in the temples
Velvikkudi copper plates as well as inscriptional in Sittannavasal, Arittaapatti, Tirumalaipuram
sources mention the rituals like Ashvamedayaga, and Tirunedunkarai. A 9th century inscription
Hiranyagarbha and Vajapeya yagna, conducted from Sittannavasal cave temple informs that the
by every great Pandya king. The impartiality of cave was authored by Ilam Kautamar. Another
rulers towards both Saivism and Vaishnavism is inscription of the same period tells us that Sri
also made known in the invocatory portions of Maran Srivallaban renovated this temple. The
the inscriptions. Some kings were ardent Saivite; fresco paintings on the walls, ceilings and pillars
some were ardent Vaishnvavites. Temples of are great works of art. These paintings portray the
both sects were patronised through land grant, figures of dancing girls, the king and the queen.
tax exemption, renovation and addition of The painting of water pool depicts some aquatic
gopuras and spacious mandapas. creatures, flowers and birds and some mammals.
The maritime history of India would be
Temples
incomplete if the history of the Pandyas of Tamil
Pandyasbuiltdifferentmodelsoftemples.They country is skipped. The busiest port-towns were
are sepulchral temple (e.g sundarapandisvaram), located all along the east coast of the Tamizh
rock-cut cave temples and structural temples. country. By establishing matrimonial link with
Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did not build Southeast Asian dynasties, Pandyas left an
any new temples but maintained the existing imprint in maritime trade activities.
temples, enlarging them with the addition of
gopuras, mandapas and circumbulations. The Cintamani, Mylapore, Tiruvotriyur,
monolithic mega-sized ornamented pillars are the Tiruvadanai and Mahabalipuram are
unique feature of the medieval Pandya style. The busy coastal trading centres recorded in
early Pandya temples are modest and simple. In inscriptions.
Rock-cut cave temple,

Jain sculptures-Kalugumalai Sittannavasal
Anaimalai.c.800 CE

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SUMMARY
EXERCISE
I Cholas
Q.R.Code
Revival of Chola rule by Vijayalaya
I. Choose the
Chola (850–871) and its consolidation by
Paranthaka CholaI (907–955). correct answer
Rajaraja I (985–1014) built the great Chola 1.
Naval expeditions of
empire and constructed the Brihadishvarar _______ extended as far as Sri Vijaya
temple in Thanjavur, thereby bringing glory Kingdom.
and fame to his dynasty. (a) Kulothunga III (b) Rajendra I
Rajendra I further expanded and extended (c) Rajaraja I (d) Paranthaka
the Chola territory by his overseas
2.
The core of the Chola kingdom lay
conquests from Kheda to SriVijaya. He
in _______________ delta called
built Gangai Konda Cholapuram temple to
Cholamandalam.
commemorate his victories in North Indian
military expeditions. (a) Vaigai (b) Kaveri
The Cholas’ efforts at providing tank (c) Krishna (d) Godavari
and canal irrigation resulted in thriving 3. Rajaraja I and Rajendra I jointly ruled the
agriculture and trade. Chola kingdom for _______ years.
Temples became the hub of activities
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) 5 (d) 4
leading to patronage of arts and letters.
4. ________ makes one kalam
Royal temples at Thanjavur, Gangai Konda
Chozhapuram and Darasuram exemplified (a) 28 kg (b) 27 kg (c) 32 kg (d) 72 kg
the perfection and excellence attained 5. “Kedah” is in _______
in architecture, sculpture, paintings and
(a) Malaysia (b) Singapore
iconography.
(c) Thailand (d ) Cambodia
Maritime trade flourished. Sandalwood,
ebony, condiments, precious gems, pepper, 6. In the reign of Rajaraja I, Mammallapuram
oil, paddy, grains and salt were exported, was administered by a body called ______.
while the chief imports were camphor, (a) Nattar (b) Maanagaram
copper, tin and mercury. (c) Nagarattar (d) Urar
II Pandyas 7. Match the Following:
The Pandyas established their dynastic rule
(A) Cantonments - 1. Padaividu
in southern Tamil Nadu by the end of the
sixth century CE after Kalabhras. (B) Military outposts - 2. Dandanayagam
Pandya’s presence revived in the thirteenth (C) Captain - 3. Nilai padai
century after the decline of Chola rule (D) Commander-in-chief - 4. Padaimudali
brought the Tamizh country to limelight. (a) 1, 3, 4, 2 (b) 4, 2, 1, 3
Pandyas built rock-cut cave temples and
(c) 2, 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 3, 1, 4
structural temples.
8.
In commemoration of his victory
Pandyas left an imprint in maritime trade
in__________, Rajendra I built Gangaikonda
activities.
Chozhapuram.
Kayal (port) region became the centre of
trade and exchange, as recorded by Marco (a) Sri Lanka (b) North India
Polo and other travellers from Arabia. (c) Kerala (d) Karnataka

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9. _________was the first capital of Pandyas. 7. What are the prominent rock-cut temples
(a) Madurai (b) Kayalpattinam built by the early Pandyas?
(c) Korkai (d) Puhar 8. Attempt an account of foreign travellers on
Pandya kingdom.
10. Manur inscription dating to 800 CE provides
an account of ________ administration. IV. Answer the following in detail
(a) central (b) village 1. Irrigation and water management schemes
(c) military (d) provincial resulted in agrarian surplus during the rule of
11.
In dry-zone Ramanathapuram, _______ Cholas. Analyse.
were created by Pandya kings. 2.
Highlight the architectural excellence of
(a) moats (b) sluices Cholas.
(c) dams (d) tanks 3. Justify the statement “Temple was a social
institution”.
II. Write brief answers 4.
Write about the flourishing trade and
1. What are the quasi-historical literary works commerce during Pandyas’ rule.
of the Cholas? 5. Compare and contrast architectural styles of
2. Why was the Cholamandalam called Cholas and the Pandyas.
“Mummudi Cholamandalam”?
3. What were the titles assumed by Rajendra I? Activity
4. List the various units of the land measurement. 1. Prepare a scrap book on the recent findings
5. Name the canals constructed and named after on Cholas making use of newspapers and
Chola kings, queens and gods. Internet sources.
6. Write a short note on Sangam, the Tamil 2. Mark the places conquered by Chola kings in
academy. the given outline map of Asia.
7. What were the results of Malik Kafur’s
invasion of Pandyan kingdom? REFERENCE BOOKS
III. Write short answers 1. Noburu Karasimha (ed.), A Concise History of
1. Write a note on the naval expeditions of South India, Oxford University Press, 2014
Rajaraja Chola. 2. Y. Subbarayulu, South India under the Cholas,
2. Why was Rajendra Chola called “Kadaram Oxford University Press, 2011.
kondan”?
3. Burton Stein, History of India, Oxford
3. Write a note on the role of guilds during the University Press, 2002.
Chola period.
4. R. Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and
4. Name some of the taxes collected during the
Urbanization in South India, 300 BC to 1300,
Chola period.
5. Write about the social hierarchy under
Cholas. 5. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Colas, University of
6. Mention some educational institutions of the Madras, 1955.
Chola period. 6. R. Sathianathier, History of India, Vol. I, 1949.

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GLOSSARY
circa approximately ஏறத்தாழ

ceremony associated with
உயர்பதவியில் அமர்த்தும் ேபாது
anointment induction of a person in
ெசய்யப்படும் சமயச்சடங்கு
office/position
homogeneity same kind ஓரினத்தன்ைம
ransack plunder சூைறயாடு
dominance especially by one
hegemony state over other state or one ேமலாதிக்கம்
social group over others
not following accepted
heterodox அைவதீக
beliefs/faiths
ravage devastate ேசதப்படுத்து
venerated worshipful வணங்குதற்குரிய
preceptor teacher ஆசிரியர்/ஆசான்/குரு
extoll praise enthusiastically புகழ்கின்ற
perpetual ever lasting முடிவில்லாத
bustling busy பரபரப்பான
ensued resulted பின்பு ஏற்பட்ட
allegiance loyalty விசுவாசம்
slain kill ெகால்
genealogy family tree வம்சாவளி/குடிவழி
ICT CORNER Later Cholas and Pandyas
This activity explaining UNESCO

World Heritage Sites, helps to
learn about ancient Heritage.
Steps:
• Open the Browser and type the URL given below (or) Scan the QR Code.
• World Heritage Centre page will appear on the screen.
• Double click or zoom any tagged sites or places. (ex. Great Cholas Temples)
• You can see pictures, videos and informations relating to human heritage.
Browse in the link
Web link: http://whc.unesco.org/en/interactive-map
Mobile: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id =com.tripbucket.unesco

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UNIT Bahmani and Vijayanagar

Kingdoms
12
Learning Objectives
To acquire knowledge in
I
Sources of study for Bahmani and Vijayanagar kingdoms
Foundation and consolidation of Bahmani Sultanate
Prolonged conflict between Bahmani kingdom and Vijayanagar
Military career and achievements of Mohammed Gawan
The strategic importance of Golkonda fort
II
Origin and development of Vijayanagar kingdom by Sangama brothers
Vijayanagar and Bahmani tussle-causes and consequences
Brief rule of Saluva dynasty followed by Krishnadevaraya’s illustrious career
Battle of Talikotta and decline of Vijayanagar kingdom
Adminstration, Society and Economy of the Vijayanagar kingdom
Rise of Nayak kingdoms.
make Devagiri (renamed as Daulatabad) as the

Introduction
capital to command the vast conquered territory
At the beginning of the fourteenth century, more effectively. But his experiments failed and
when the Delhi Sultanate was preparing to brought misery to the people. When he shifted
extend southwards, the Deccan and south the capital back to Delhi, his subordinates in the
India were divided into four kingdoms: the south declared independence. Thus Madurai
Yadavas of Devagiri (Western Deccan or present became an independent Sultanate in 1333.
Maharashtra), the Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra Zafar Khan who declared independence in 1345
(Karnataka), the Kakatiyas of Warangal (eastern at Devagiri shifted his capital to Gulbarga in
part of present Telengana) and the Pandyas of northern Karnataka. He took the title, Bahman
Madurai (southern Tamil Nadu). During the Shah and the dynasty he founded became known
two expeditions of the general Malik Kafur, first as the Bahmani dynasty (1347–1527). A few
in 1304 and then in 1310, these old states faced years earlier, in 1336, the Vijayanagar kingdom
defeat one after another and lost most of their was established by the Sangama brothers
accumulated wealth to the plundering raids Harihara and Bukka at Vijayanagara (present
of the Sultanate army. The Tughluq dynasty day Hampi) on the south bank of Tungabhadra.
continued its southern expeditions into southern During the next two centuries these two states
India under the rule of his military officers. fought continually and bitterly, to control the
Muhammad Tughluq (1325–51) even tried to rich Raichur doab, and also the sea ports of Goa,
175

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Honavar, etc. on the west coast, which were the Ibn Battuta a Moroccan traveller (1333-45),
supply points of the horses needed for their army. Abdur Razzak from Persia (1443–45),
Nikitin, a Russian (1470–74), the Portuguese
Sources
visitors Domingo Paes and Nuniz (1520–37)
There are several provide remarkably rich information.
kinds of sources–
literary, epigraphical, and Thousands of inscriptions in Kannada,
archaeological– available Tamil, and Telugu, besides a number of
for the study of this period. copper-plate charters in Sanskrit are available
Several Persian accounts and the above sources add to the epigraphical
written by the court information. There are a rich variety of
historians of the Bahmani Sultanate, relating archaeological sources in the form of temples,
to Bahmani–Vijayanagar conflicts have palaces, forts, mosques, etc. Numismatic
survived. Though they contain some biased evidence is also available in abundance.
and exaggerated information they provide rare
I
eye-witness accounts relating to the battles, the
palace intrigues, the life and sufferings of the 12.1 Bahmani Kingdom
people on either side, etc. which are lacking in
inscriptions. The Kannada and Telugu literature, Alaudin Hasan Bahman Shah
like Manucharitram, Saluvabhyudayam, etc., (1347–1358)
patronized in the Vijayanagar court, give
genealogical, political and social information. Rivalry with the Vijayanagar kingdom
The Telugu work Rayavachakamu gives over the fertile Raichur doab, lying between
interesting details about the Nayankara system the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, not
under Krishnadevaraya. Several foreign only marked the early history of the Bahmani
visitors who came to South India during the kingdom, but continued to be an enduring
fourteenth to sixteenth centuries wrote about feature over two centuries. Bahman Shah had
their travels which throw useful light on the also to contend in the east with the rulers of
political, social, and cultural aspects. Of them, Warangal and Orissa. In order to facilitate
smooth administration, as followed in the Delhi
The Vijayanagar kings issued a large number Sultanate, he divided the kingdom into four
of gold coins called Varaha (also called Pon territorial divisions called tarafs, each under a
in Tamil and Honnu in Kannada). These governor. Each governor commanded the army
gold coins have the images of various Hindu of his province (Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Bidar,
deities and animals like the bull, the elephant and Berar) and was solely responsible for both
and the fabulous gandaberunda (a double its administration and the collection of revenue.
eagle, sometimes holding an elephant in each The system worked well under a powerful
beak and claw). The legend contains the king’s king, but its dangers became apparent under a
name either in Nagari or in Kannada script. weak ruler. For the greater part of his reign of
eleven years Bahman was engaged in subduing
the unruly in his kingdom and in establishing
order. His attempt to exact an annual tribute
from the state of Warangal, the Reddi kingdoms
of Rajahmundry and Kondavidu, led to frequent
wars. Bahman Shah emerged victorious in all
these expeditions and assumed the title Second
Krishnadevaraya - Gold coins
Alexander on his coins.
176 Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms

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Mohammed I (1358–1375) capital was shifted from Gulbarga to Bidar in

1429. The rule of Mohammad III (1463–1482)
Mohammed I succeeded Bahman Shah.
is worthy of mention because of his lieutenant
There was a decade-long war with Vijayanagar,
Mohammed Gawan, a great statesman.
most of which related to control over the Raichur
doab. Neither side gained lasting control over Mohammed Gawan
the region, in spite of the huge fatalities in
A Persian by birth, Mohammed Gawan
battles. Two bitter wars with Vijayanagar gained
was well-versed in Islamic theology, Persian,
him nothing. But his attack on Warangal in
and Mathematics. He was also a poet and a
1363 brought him a large indemnity, including prose-writer. The Mohammed Gawan Madrasa
the important fortress of Golkonda and the in Bidar, with a large library, containing 3000
treasured turquoise throne, which thereafter manuscripts, is illustrative of his scholarship.
became the throne of the Bahmani kings. Gawan served with great distinction as prime
minister under Mohammad III and contributed
Turquoise is a semi-precious stone sky extensively to the dynamic development of the
blue in colour. Turquoise throne is one of Bahmani Kingdom.
the bejewelled royal seats of Persian kings
Gawan fought successful wars against the
described in Firdausi’s Shah Nama.
rulers of Konkan, Orissa and Vijayanagar. He
was known for his administrative techniques.
Mohammed I established a good system of
He used Persian chemists to teach the
government that was followed by all the successor
preparation and the use of gunpowder. In his
sultanates as well as by the Marathas later. He
war against the Vijayanagar Kings in Belgaum,
appointed a council of eight ministers of state:
he used gunpowder. In order to tighten the
1. Vakil-us-sultana or lieutenant of the kingdom,
administration and to curb the power of
the immediate subordinate of the sovereign.
provincial governors, who functioned virtually
2. Wazir-i-kull, who supervised the work of all
as kings, Gawan divided the existing four
other ministers; 3. Amir-i-jumla, minister of
provinces of the Bahmani Sultanate into eight.
finance; 4. Wasir-i-ashraf, minister of foreign
This not only limited the area under the rule
affairs and master of ceremonies; 5. Nazir,
of each governor but also made the provincial
assistant minister for finance; 6. Peshwa who was administration more manageable. He placed
associated with the lieutenant of the kingdom; some districts in the provinces directly under
7. Kotwal or chief of police and city magistrate in central administration. Gawan sought to curtail
the capital, and 8. Sadr-i-jahan or chief justice the military powers of the governors by allowing
and minister of religious affairs and endowments. them to occupy only one fort in their territory.
He took strong measures for the suppression The other forts remained under the Sultan’s
of highway robbery. Institutional and direct control. The royal officers who were given
geographic consolidation under Muhammad land assignments as pay were made accountable
Shah laid a solid foundation for the kingdom. to the Sultan for their income and expenditure.
He built two mosques at Gulbarga. One, the The administrative reforms introduced
great mosque, completed in 1367, remainsan by Gawan improved the efficiency of the
impressive building. The next hundred years government, but curtailed the powers of the
saw a number of Sultans one after another, by provincial chiefs, who were mostly Deccanis.
succession or usurpation. All of them fought So the already existing rivalry among the two
with their southern neighbour, but without groups of nobles, Deccani Muslims and Pardesi
gaining much territory. In 1425 Warangal was (foreigner) Muslims, further intensified and
subdued and their progress further eastwards conflicts broke out. Gawan became a victim
was challenged by the Orissan rulers. The of this tussle for power, although he remained
Bahmani and Vijayanagar Kingdoms 177

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Golkonda Fort: The Raja Krishna Dev of the Kakatiya dynasty with Warangal as capital
constructed the Golkonda Fort on a granite hill. During 1495–1496 the fort was handed
over to Sultan Kali Kutub Khan as a Jagir (land grant). He reconstructed and rechristened
the mud fort into a granite fort and called the place Muhammed Nagar. Later, the Golkonda
fort came into the possession of the Bahmani dynasty. Still later, the Qutub Shahi dynasty
took over and made Golkonda its capital. Golkonda fort owes much of its present grandeur
to Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah, the fifth sultan of Qutb Shahi dynasty. The subsequent
generations saw Golkonda being fortified further with several additions and the formation
of a beautiful city within. By the 17th century, Golkonda was famous as a diamond market. It
gave the world some of the best-known diamonds, including the ‘Kohinoor’.
The Golkonda Fort is located about 11 kms from Hyderabad on a hill 120 meters hight.
The Golkonda Fort is popular for its acoustic architecture. The highest point of the fort is Bala
Hissar. There is said to be a secret underground tunnel which leads from the Durbar Hall to
one of the palaces at the foot of the hills.
The Golkonda Fort also houses the tombs of the Qutub Shahis. There are two individual
pavilions on the outer side of Golkonda which serve as major architectural attractions. The Fort
comprises four other small forts within itself. It has cannons, draw bridges, royal chambers,
halls, temples, mosques, stables, etc. The Fateh Darwaza or the Victory Gate is the entrance to
the fort. Aurangzeb laid siege to this Golkonda fort in 1687 for about eight months but in vain.
It was due to the treachery of an Afghan gate keeper, the fort finally fell.
Golkonda Fort
fair and neutral in this conflict. Jealous of his Art and Architecture
success they forged a letter to implicate Gawan
The Bahmanis constructed many
in a conspiracy against the Sultan. Sultan,
buildings in cities such as Gulbarga, Bidar
who himself was not happy with Gawan’s
and Bijapur. Numerous mosques, madrasas
dominance, ordered his execution.
and libraries were built. The Jami Masjid at
Gawan’s execution augured ill for the Gulbarga, the Golconda fort at Hyderabad,
Sultanate. Several of the foreign nobles who Golgumbaz at Bijapur and the Chand Minar
were considered the strongest pillars of the at Bidar are some of the best specimens of
state began to leave for their provinces, leading Bahmani architecture. The Sultans developed
to the disintegration of the Sultanate. Indo-Saracenic style of architecture.

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N
Bahmani kingdom
W E
Vijayanagar kingdom
Surat
Burhanpur
Diu
Devagiri Berar
Ahmadnagar Go
da
Bidar v
Warangal ari BAY
ARABIAN Gulbarga
Golconda
SEA Bijapur OF
Raichur Doab Krishna BENGAL
Goa Talikota
Penukonda
Hampi Thirupathi
Udipi Sringeri
Halebid
nda A
Kanchi
ma
L a ks h a d w e e p i s l a
Calicut
n an d ni c o b a r
Srirangam Tanjavur
(I N DI A )
(I N DI A )
Madurai
i sl
ds n
an
ds
Sri Lanka
Map not to scale
Decline of the Bahmani Kingdom powerful by annexing Bidar and Berar in course
After the death of Sultan Mohammed of time. Though Ahmadnagar and Golkonda
III five of his descendants succeeded him on acted independently they finally joined with
the throne but they were kings only in name. Bijapur to fight with their common enemy,
During this period the Sultanate gradually broke Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar was utterly routed in
up into four independent kingdoms: Bijapur, the battle of Talikota or Rakshashi-Tangadi in
Ahmadnagar, Berar and Golkonda. Bidar where 1565. Thereafter, within a century, the Sultanates
the Bahmani Sultan ruled as a puppet became were vanquished one after another and taken
the fifth one. Among these Bijapur became over by the Mughal state.

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II the Tuluva dynasty (1505–1570) and the

Aravidu dynasty (1570–1650). The history of
12.2 Vijayanagar Empire this kingdom can be narrated in four stages.
Origin and Expansion In the beginning, the Vijayanagar kingdom
was one among many small principalities of
There are different traditions regarding
the time, under the rule of some local chiefs
the foundation of the Vijayanagar kingdom.
in different parts of south India. The three big
It is now generally accepted, on the basis
states of the thirteenth century, the Pandyas
of contemporary inscriptions, that the two
in Tamil Nadu, the Hoysalas in Karnataka
brothers Harihara and Bukka, the eldest sons of
and the Kakatiyas in Andhra had almost been
one Sangama, earlier serving the Hoysala rulers
destroyed by the military expeditions of the
of Karnataka, asserted their independence and
Delhi Sultanate in the first three decades of
laid foundation for a new kingdom in about
the fourteenth century, leaving a big political
1336. This happened soon after the death of
vacuum. The turbulent political situation
the Hoysala king Ballala III at the hands of the
Madurai Sultan. Initially the capital was in or provided an opportunity to the five Sangama
near about Anegondi on the north bank of the brothers, headed by Harihara, to consolidate
Tungabhadra river.But soon it was shifted to and expand the territory. Besides, the Muslim
the Hoysala town Hosapattana (near Hampi) Sultanate that had been established in Madurai
on the south bank. The capital was expanded a little earlier and the Bahmani Sultanate that
and renamed Vijayanagara, the city of Victory. came up in 1347 started to rule independently of
Thereafter, they proclaimed themselves the rulers Delhi. The Delhi Sultanate itself became weak
of Vijayanagara or of Karnataka-Vijayanagara. and did not take much interest in the south.
Harihara celebrated his coronation in 1346 at Within the first four decades the small
this city. Historians call this dynasty started by principality became a big kingdom through
Harihara and Bukka Sangama after the name the military activities of the five brothers in
of his father or forefather. Vijayanagara rulers different directions. First the entire core area
adopted the emblem of the Chalukyas, the boar, of the Hoysala kingdom in Karnataka was
or varahaas their royal insignia. incorporated into Vijayanagar. The coastal
parts of Karnataka were soon taken over and
According to somelater-day tradition,
remained an important part of the kingdom
Vidyaranya (also called Madhava), a renowned
Saiva saint and Sanskrit scholar, is said to until the end. As this gave access to several
have persuaded the brothers to abandon their port towns, good care was taken to administer
service to the Tughluqs and also to renounce this part under a successive line of pradhani or
Islam that they had adopted when they were governors. Under Bukka I, attention was turned
imprisoned by the Sultan in Delhi. Vidyaranya to Tondai-mandalam, covering the northern
is believed to have played an important role in districts of Tamil area, which was under the rule
the foundation of the Vijayanagara kingdom. of the Sambuvaraya chiefs. The prince Kampana
This is doubtful as, according to some (usually called Kumara Kampana), son of Bukka
inscriptions,Vidyaranya lived at the end of the I, carried out this work successfully with the help
fourteenth century, nearly sixty years after the of his faithful general Maraya-Nayak. He is also
foundation of Vijayanagar. given credit for slaying the Madurai Sultan and
bringing to an end that Sultanate in about 1370.
The Vijayanagar kingdom was successively This is mentioned in Madura-vijayam, a Sanskrit
ruled by four dynasties over a period of more work written by Kampana’s wife, Gangadevi. But
than three hundred years: the Sangama dynasty strangely, the Pandya country including Madurai
(1336–1485), the Saluva dynasty (1485–1505), was not annexed to the Vijayanagar kingdom at

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that time. It became a part of the kingdom only Viyayanagar empire went through a
around 1500, more than a hundred years later. crisis after Devaraya II. Quarrels on account
Until then only the northern and central parts of succession and the inefficient successors
of the Tamil country up to the Kaveri delta were encouraged the Gajapati king to dominate the
under the direct administration of the Sangama coastal Andhra. Between 1460–65, the Gajapati
and Saluva dynasties. army attacked many times and it conducted a
victorious expedition even up to Tiruchirappalli
Vijayanagar – Bahmani conflict
on the Kaveri river, causing much destruction
From the beginning, both the Bahmani on the way and plundering the wealth of many
and Vijayangar kingdoms were in constant temples. Taking advantage of the situation,
conflict. Capturing the territories, collecting the feudatories assumed independence. Thus,
tribute and the control of horse trade were the Tirumalaideva and then Konerideva began to rule
major issues of conflict. Each of them wanted independently in the Thanjavur–Tiruchirappalli
to annex and dominate the fertile area between area for some decades, during the interregnum
the Krishna and the Tungabhadra (the Raichur before the rise of the Saluva rule.
doab). Though neither of them succeeded fully,
Power passed on to the trusted commander
much bloodshed took place for some transitory
Saluva Narasimha who defended the kingdom
success. Some historians argue that religious
from the Gajapatis and recovered parts of
rivalry between the Hindu Vijayanagar and the
coastal Andhra. Around 1485 Saluva Narasimha
Muslim Sultanate was the basic cause of this
usurped the throne and declared himself as
continuous fight. Actually the Vijayanagar kings
king, starting the short-lived Saluva dynasty.
fought also with many Hindu, non-Muslim
He was assisted by his general and great warrior
rulers, like those of Warangal, Kondavidu,
Narasa Nayak, who tried to quell the rebellious
Orissa, etc., in which Muslim rulers took part as
local chiefs in the south. Saluva Narasimha died
allies sometimes and as enemies on other times.
in 1491 leaving his young sons under the care
The control of horse trade that passed through
of Narasa Nayak. Narasa Nayak became the de
Goa and other ports was another reason for the
facto ruler and took several steps to safeguard
fighting. Horses were necessary for the armies
the country until his death. In about 1505,
of both sides. In spite of continuous fighting,
his elder son Viranarasimha started the third
the Krishna river was more or less the dividing
dynasty, known as the Tuluva dynasty. He had
line between the two powers.
a short but eventful reign and was succeeded by
In coastal Andhra, the power struggle was his younger brother Krishnadevaraya.
between the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa and
Vijayanagar. Vijayanagar could not make much Krishnadevaraya (1509–29)
headway until the time of Devaraya II (1422–46), Krishnadevaraya is considered the greatest
who defeated the Orissa army in some battles. of the Vijayanagar kings. He built upon the
But these conquests were only to extract tribute, strong military base laid by his father and
and no territory was added. Devaraya II was elder brother. He tried to keep the greatness
the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He of the kingdom intact, by undertaking many
strengthened his cavalry by recruiting trained military expeditions during much of his reign.
Muslim cavalry for his army and giving archery Early in his reign he fought with the rebellious
training to his soldiers. Abdur Razaak, the Ummattur chief (near about Mysore) and
Persian ambassador who visited the Zamorin brought him to submission. He then had to fight
of Kochi and the Vijayanagar court during this almost continuously on two fronts, one against
time states that Devaraya II controlled a vast the traditional enemy, the Bahmani Sultans and
area. He received tribute from the king of Sri the other against the Orissa king Gajapati. There
Lanka too. are several inscriptions graphically describing

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The battle of Talikota (1565)

At Krishnadevaraya‘s death, his son
was a small child and so his younger brother
Achyutadevaraya became king. Soon some
succession disputes started as Ramaraya, the
son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya wanted to
dominate the affairs by crowning the infant as
king. Achyutadevaraya was however supported
by Chellappa (also known as Saluva Nayak),
the greatest Nayak of the day who controlled
Krishnadevarayar
a major part of the Tamil area. Soon after,
his seizure of many forts like Udayagiri, under
however, Chellapa became a rebel himself and
the control of Gajapati, during the course of this
Achyutadevaraya had to take a big expedition
eastern expedition. Finally, he put a pillar of to the south to subdue him. He had some
victory at Simhachalam. encounters with the Deccan sultans too. After
Krishnadevaraya had to undertake more his death in 1542, his nephew Sadasivaraya
than one expedition to repulse the Bahmani succeeded him and ruled for about thirty years
forces, which were intruding into his territory (1542–70). But real power lay in the hands of
on a regular annual basis. In some of these Ramaraya, who got support from many of his
ventures the Portuguese, trying to establish close kinsmen (of Aravidu clan) by appointing
their power in the Malabar and Konkan coast, them as Nayak of many strategic localities.
helped Krishanadevaraya with military aid, Ramaraya, a great warrior and strategist,
and got permission to build a fort at Bhatkal. was able to play off the Bahmani Muslim
Though he was quite successful for a time, his powers against one another. He entered into a
victories made the warring Bahmani sultans to commercial treaty with the Portuguese whereby
become united for their survival. the supply of horses to the Bijapur ruler was
There are some other reasons for the stopped. He fought with the Bijapur ruler and
celebration of Krishnadevaraya as the greatest after some time, he allied with the Bijapur
ruler of Vijayanagar. He made very large ruler against Golkonda and Ahmadnagar. This
donations to many of the greatest Siva and divide and rule policy provoked much enmity
Vishnu temples of the day- Srisailam, Tirupati, against Vijayanagar. Forgetting their mutual
Kalahasti, Kanchipuram, Tiruvannamalai, quarrels, the Deccan states, joined hands to
Chidambaram, etc. He added towering gopuras wage the last great battle against their common
to many of those temples, which survive to this enemy. The battle was fought at Talikota or
day. Contemporary foreign visitors like Paes Rakshasi-Tangadi in January 1565 in which
and Nuniz, who visited Vijayanagar left glowing Ramaraya, in spite of his old age, personally
tributes to his personality, and the grandeur and commanded the forces along with his cousins
opulence of the city. His court was also adorned and brothers. In the final stages, the battle was
by some great poets like Allasani Peddana, lost. Ramaraya was imprisoned and executed
Nandi Thimmana. He himself is considered a immediately. The victorious Bahmani armies
great scholar and is author of the famous poem entered the Vijayanagar city for the first time
Amuktamalyada (the story of Andal). But his in their history, and ransacked it for several
crowning achievement, as a clever administrator, months laying it waste.
was the reorganization of the Nayak or nayankara This battle is generally considered the
system and giving legal recognition to the system. signal for the end of Vijayanagar. The king
This is explained below under administration. Sadasivaraya and some of his retinue escaped

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By 1400, there were five rajyas in the Tamil

area: Chandragiri, Padaividu, Valudalampattu,
Tiruchirappalli and Tiruvarur. The pradhani
was either a royal member or a military officer
not related to the royal family. The pradhani had
his own revenue accountants and military to
assist in his administration. Within each rajya,
there were smaller administrative divisions like
nadu, sima, sthala, kampana, etc. The lowest
Battle of Talikota
unit was of course the village. The rajyas lost
to Penugonda. Tirumala, brother of Ramaraya, their administrative and revenue status under
declared himself king in 1570, starting the the Tuluva dynasty due to the development of
Aravidu, that is the fourth dynasty. After this the Nayak system under Krishnadevaraya.
his sons and grandsons ruled the truncated
kingdom for two generations, probably up to Nayak System
1630. There were some more kings who ruled The term Nayak is used from thirteenth
as fugitives until 1670 without a permanent century onwards in Telugu and Kannada areas
capital. Real power was wielded by the many in the sense of a military leader or simply
Nayak chiefs in various parts of the country. soldier. Assigning the revenue of a particular
Some of them feigned loyalty to the king while locality to the Nayak for their military service
others opposed him. There were fights between is found in the Kakatiya kingdom during the
the loyalists and others. In 1601 there was bitter thirteenth century. This is similar to the iqta
fighting near Uttaramerur between the loyalist system practiced by the Delhi Sultanate at
Yachama Nayak of Perumbedu and the Nayak that time. But in the Vijayanagar kingdom
of Vellur (Vellore). In this quarrel Vellur Nayak the regular assignment of revenue yielding
was supported by Tanjavur, Madurai and Senji territory in return for military service is
Nayak, who had become independent rulers. clearly found only from about 1500 or a little
earlier. Inscriptions refer to this revenue
12.3 Administration assignment as nayakkattanam in Tamil,
The king was the ultimate authority in the Nayaktanam in Kannada, and nayankaramu
kingdom. He was also the supreme commander in Telugu.The practice became established
of the army. He was assisted by several high- during the reign of Krishnadevaraya and
ranking officers. The chief minister was known Achyuta Devaraya. This is supported by the
as the mahapradhani. He led a number of lower- evidence of inscriptions and by the accounts
ranking officers, like Dalavay (commander), of Nuniz and Paes.
Vassal (guard of the palace), Rayasam Nuniz says that the Vijayanagar kingdom
(secretary/accountant), Adaippam (personal at that time was divided between more than
attendant), and Kariya-karta (executive agents). two hundred captains (his translation for
As Harihara I and his immediate successors Nayak) and they were compelled in turn
consolidated their territorial acquisitions, they to keep certain number of military forces
tried to organize the territory by creating (horses and foot soldiers) to serve the king
administrative divisions called rajyas or in times of need: they were also required
provinces each under a governor called to pay certain amount of the revenue to
pradhani. Some of the prominent rajyas were the king in particular times of a year, like
the Hoysala rajya, Araga, Barakur (Mangalur), during the nine-day Mahanavami festival.
and Muluvay. As and when new conquests Nuniz’ statement is also supported by Telugu
were made they were put under new rajyas. work Rayavachakamu, which refers to the

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Little Kingdoms in Ramanathapuram and Pudukottai

The kingdom of Ramnad was inaugurated by the Madurai Nayak Muthu Krishnappa in the early
years of the seventeenth century. The inhabitants with martial tradition had served as soldiers under
Pandyan, Chola and Vijayanagar kings, and were spread into Tirunelveli and other southern parts
of Tamil country. They also served in the armies of Nayak rulers and were traditional Kavalkarars,
whose responsibility was to give protection to village, temple and other administrative bodies. The
temple at Rameswaram was under the protection of a kaval chief who also assumed the title of
Udaiyan Sethupati (meaning the Chief who was lord of bridge or causeway, as he controlled the
passage between Rameswaram and Ceylon).
Pudukottai was a small principality situated between the Nayak kingdoms of Thanjavur and
Madurai. It constituted a buffer between the Chola kingdom and the Pandyas. Like the inhabitants
of Ramanathapuram, Pudukottai also had inhabitants belonging to martial tradition. Hence their
region could attain the status of “little kingdom” under Tondaimans. The Tondaimans served great
royal households of Raja Sethupathi and Nayak kings of Madurai and Thanjavur.
practice during the time of Krishnadevaraya. smaller chiefs under them. The seventeenth
Later-day vamsavalis (family history) of the century was the century of these bigger Nayak
Palayagars, who were mostly successors of the kingdoms.
old Nayak families, support the fact that the
Nayak system was perfected during the time 12.4 Society and Economy
of Krishnadevaraya. Most of these Nayak
Continuous warfare and the resultant
were the Kannadiga and Telugu warriors
besides some local chiefs. They belonged to widespread sufferings were common features
different castes, Brahmana as well as non- of all early and medieval societies. Bahmani
Brahmana. The non-Brahmana Nayak again and Vijayanagar period is no exception to
had different social backgrounds: traditional this. Perhaps the scale looks larger due to the
warrior groups, pastoral and forest clans availability of many eye-witness accounts.
(Yadava, Billama), peasant families (Reddi), The other consequences which were enduring
merchants (Balija) and so on. Some of the over the centuries were the displacement and
prominent Nayak, like Chellappa under migration of people. During the three centuries
Krishnadevaraya, were brahmanas. of this chapter, we find such migrations
everywhere. The conflicts in the Bahmani
This system worked smoothly as long as
courts were much due to the migration of Turks,
there were strong kings like Krishnadevaraya.
These chiefs controlled production within Afghans and Persians into the Deccan. As far the
their Nayaktanam territories by creating Vijayanagar area is concerned there took place
commercial centres (pettai) and markets, by migrations of Kannada and Telugu warriors and
encouraging settlement of cultivators and their followers into Tamil areas and elsewhere.
artisans with tax concessions, by creating and Many of the Nayaka chiefs belong to these
maintaining irrigation facilities, etc. Many language groups. Peasants, artisans and other
of them started as high officials (commander, toiling groups were also part of this migration.
governor, accountant, etc.) and served as the The other consequence was the widening gap
king’s agents. After the Talikota battle, most between the ruling class and the ruled. All the
of the Nayak chiefs became independent foreign visitors refer to the enormous riches
of the Vijayanagar king. Some of them, like and affluence enjoyed by the rulers, the officials
those of Madurai, Tanjavur, Ikkeri, etc. and the upper echelons in the capital cities like
established powerful states controlling many Vijayanagar, Bijapur, and the like, in contrast

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to widespread poverty among the masses. They and languages. The literary development reached
also refer to the prevalence of slavery. its peak during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya.
The state had to derive their revenue only He was also a great patron of art and literature,
by taxing the people. It is found that during and was known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’.
the Sangama dynasty when the Vijayanagar Sayana, the great Sanskrit scholar of this
rule was extended to new areas, their officers period, wrote commentaries on the Vedas.
were harsh in tax collection, which provoked These commentaries are considered as standard
the toiling people to rise in revolt. One such commentaries even today. He was a minister of
revolt took place in 1430 in central parts of Harihara II. Madhavacharya was a well-known
Tamil Nadu. This was the revolt in which all Sanskrit scholar who was intimately connected
the basic producers joined forgetting their with Vijayanagar royal family. Gangadevi, wife
caste differences. The revolt took place due to of Kampana, son of Bukka, deserves a pre-
the unjust and arbitrary tax demands of the eminent place among the writers of the age. In
government including the pradhani (governor), her famous work Maduravijayam, she describes
his military bodies, and the landlords. It is said in mahakavya style the conquest of Madura by
the Vijayanagar Prince intervened and pacified her husband. Hannamma and Thirumalamma
the revolting people by allowing tax reduction. were famous poets of this period. Hannamma
During the sixteenth century, under the Nayak was a reporter in the court of Deveraya II.
system, the local Nayakas tried to encourage Krishnadeva Raya patronized Tamil
craft production, like weaving, by giving tax scholars. Tamil Scholars of Saivism,
concessions now and then. Vaishnavism and Jainism were encouraged.
The Vijayanagar period witnessed striking Tirumalainatha and his son Paranjyothiyar were
development in the field of non-agrarian crafts. well known scholars of the period. Chidambara
Until the thirteenth century the economy was Puranam and Chokkanatharula were written by
mainly agrarian. From the fourteenth onwards Tirumalainatha. Sevvaichchbuduvar translated
the economy became more commercial. With the Bhagavata Puranam into Tamil. Vadamalavi
the beginning of the era of money economy, Annagalayyam was the author of Irusamaya
circulation and use of coined money increased Filakkain, a work on Vaishnavism.
manifold. Artisans like weavers, smiths, and Nachana Somanatha was a great scholar
masons became more prominent in the society. both in Sanskrit and Telugu. The greatest poet
These non-agrarian groups were generally called during the era was, however, Pillalamarri Pina
the pattadai (workshop people) or kasaya-vargam Virabhadra Kavi who composed the Telugu
-that is- the group that pays taxes in cash. Large version of Kalidasa’s Shakuntalam in verse.
number of commercial and weaving centres Devaraya I was a great patron of learning.
came up in northern Tamil Nadu, Rayalasima In his court lived the famous Telugu poet
and coastal Andhra. Naturally the textiles Srinatha who wrote Haravilasam.
formed an important commodity exported
Krishnadeva Raya was known as Abhinava
from south Indian ports. Textiles became main
Bhoja. Eight great Telugu poets adorned his
commercial attractions for the Portuguese and
court. They were known as Ashtadiggajas.
other European traders who started coming
Allasani Peddanna, Nandi Thimmanna, Tenali
from the early sixteenth century.
Rama and others were the Telugu poets in
his court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest
12.5 Literature
and he was often described as ‘Andhrakavita-
The Vijayanagara rulers were also great Pitamaha’. Allasani Peddanna was the author
patrons of literature. The rulers encouraged of Manucharita in Telugu. Tenali Rama was the
Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada literatures most famous scholar and jester of Krishnadeva

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at Kanchipuram and in the Jambukesvara

The Ashtadiggajas
temple at Thiruchirapalli.
(Eight renowned poets)
During the period of the Vijayanagar
Allasani Peddanna, Nandi Thimmana, kings, temples were built in Hampi, Shringeri,
Tenali Rama, Dhurjathy, Bhattu Murthy, Tirupati, Kalahasti, Nandi, Kolar, Srishaila, etc.
Puna Vira Bhadra, Mallana and Panaji New elements were introduced in the temple
Surana. architecture. In addition to the main shrine, a
smaller temple was built in the north-west called
Raya’s court. He was the author of Panduranga Amma Shrine where the Lord or main diety’s
Mahatyam. Krishnadeva Raya himself wrote consort resided. This practice, which began in
Amuktamlayada in Telugu. It relates the story the late Chola period now became the rule.
of the daughter of Periazhvar, Goda Devi
The palace of the king was the most
(Andal). He was himself a scholar of Sanskrit as
conspicuous building in the city. Other
well as Telugu. Usha Parinayam and Jambavati
features included the towering gateways called
Kalyanam are his famous Sanskrit works. gopurams and are a unique feature of south
Krishnadeva Raya’s reign is regarded as the Indian temples, particularly those built by the
classical phase of Telugu literature and he has Vijayanagar rulers. The Raya Gopurams at
been therefore, rightly honoured as Andhra Thiruvannanmalai and Chidambaram speak
Pitamaha. the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar. They were
A large number of works in Kannada continued by the Nayak rulers in the later
were produced during this period. Bhima period.
Kavi translated Basava Purana into Kannada. The finest temples of Vijayanagara are in
Harihara II had earned the title of Karnataka Hampi, which has been designated as a World
Vidyavilasa. A Kannada version of the Heritage City. Their capital city, Vijayanagar,
Ramayana was composed by Kumara Velmiki. stood on the south bank of river Tungabhadra.
After the battle of Talikota (1565 CE) this
12.6 Art and Architecture splendid city fell prey to the fury of the victors
who wrought untold havoc and destruction.
The Vijayanagar rulers were great builders. We can form a idea of the architectural
During this period, palaces, temples, huge achievements of the Vijayanagara rulers and
halls (mahamantapa), forts, towers, public the ruins of Hampi from the accounts of foreign
buildings, dams, tanks and canals were travelers, Nicolo Conti and Abdur Razak.
constructed. South Indian art and architecture The important features of Vijayanagara style
attained a new fullness. The Vijayanagar rulers of temple architecture are monolithic pillars,
produced a new style of architecture called as ornate bracelets and decoration on the exterior
Dravida style. The chief characteristics of the side of the walls.
Vijayanagara architecture were the construction
Krishnadeva Raya was a great builder. He
of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the founded a town Nagalapura (near Vijayanagar),
Kalyanamandapam. The sculptures on the pillars in memory of his mother, Nagamba and built
were carved with distinctive features. The horse tanks, gopurams and temples in various parts of
was the most common animal to be depicted empire. The most famous among these temples
on the pillars. Large mandapams contain one are the Vittalaswamy temple and Virupaksha
hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars temples. The famous Hazara temple, built
in some big temples. Fine examples of kalyana during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, is, as
mandapa can be seen at Vellore as also in the remarked by Longhurst, “one of the most perfect
Varadharajaswami and Ekamparanatha temples specimens of Hindu temple architecture in

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existence”. The Vittalaswamy temple is also a fine The expansionist policy of Vijayanagar,
example of Vijayanagar style. In the opinion of hindered by the presence of Bahmani
Fergusson, it “shows the extreme limit in florid Sultanate, leading to constant wars
magnificence to which the style advanced”. between the two kingdoms is detailed.
The Vittalswamy temple with its saptaswara Brief rule of Saluva dynasty and the
musical pillars and the Stone Chariot are a few glorious reign of Krishnadevaraya of
architectural wonders. Tuluva dynasty are explored
Paintings at the Virabhadra temple
The Battle of Talikota and the emergence
and Lepakshi temple show the excellence of of nayak kingdoms are explained.
Vijayanagar painters. The Vijayanagar rulers
inscribed the stories of the Ramayana and The Adminstration, Society and Economy
the Mahabharata on the walls of the various of the Vijayanagar Empire are analysed
temples. The Vijayanagar kings patronized fine
arts like music, dance, drama and yakshagana.
Artists enjoyed great respect in the palace and
temples. The life size portrait statues of the
EXERCISE
Narasimha and of Krishnadevaraya and his two
queens are fine examples of Vijayanagara art. Q.R.Code
I. C hoose the
Painting as an art found its expression on the
walls of the temples of the Vijayanagar Empire. correct answer
The wall paintings such as Dasavathara and 1. Harihara and Bukka were
Girijakalyanam in the Virupaksha temple are in the services of ______________ before
beautiful specimens of art. they founded Vijayanagar kingdom.
(a) Kakatiyas (b) Hoysalas
SUMMARY
(c) Bijapur Sultan (d) Yadavas
I 2. Arrange the following chronologically:
Role of Bahman Shah and Mohammad I, (a) The Sangama dynasty, the Aravidu dynasty,
former in founding and latter in The Saluva dynasty, the Tuluva dynasty.
consolidating the Bahmani kingdom is (b) The Sangama dynasty, the Saluva dynasty,
dealt with. the Tuluva dynasty, the Aravidu dynasty.
(c) The Saluva dynasty, the Sangama dynasty,
Endemic wars between Vijayanagar and
the Tuluva dynasty, the Aravidu dynasty.
Bahmani rulers over the Raichur-Doab
(d) The Sangama dynasty, the Tuluva dynasty,
region, exhausting both the kingdoms
the Saluva dynasty, the Aravidu dynasty.
financially, are described.
3. The emblem of the Vijayanagar Kingdom was
The split of Bahmani Sultanate into five _____
Deccan Sultanates is narrated. (a) Varaha (b) Tiger
The striking structure of Golkonda fort (c) Fish (d) Bow
and its significance are highlighted 4. _____ poem was composed by Gangadevi
(a) Manucharitram
II
(b) Amuktamalyada
Establishment of Vijayanagar kingdom (c) Panduranga Mahatmiyam
by Sangama brothers is traced. (d) Madura Vijayam

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5. _____ was the greatest ruler of the Sangama 12.

Find out the correct answer from the
dynasty. following
(a) Devaraya I (b) Devaraya II (i) Mohammed I established a good system
(c) Krishnadevaraya (d) Veera Narsasimha of government that was followed by all
the successor sultanates and also later
6. Krishnadevaraya planted the pillar of victory
by the Marathas.
at _______.
(ii)
Gawan used Portuguese chemist to
(a) Belgaum
teach the preparation and use of gun
(b) Cuttack power.
(c) Simhachalam (a) (i) and (ii) are correct
(d) Rajamahendravaram (b) (i) and (ii) are wrong
7. Pudukkottai, a small principality, was a buffer (c) (i) is correct ; (ii) is wrong
between _______
(d) (i) is wrong; (ii) is correct
(a) Chola and Vijayanagar Kingdoms
13. A
ssertion (A): Bahman Shah attempted
(b) Chola and Pandya Kingdoms to exact an annual tribute from the
(c) Chera and Pandya Kingdodms state of Warrangal, the Reddi Kingdoms
(d) Chola and Chera Kingdoms Rajamundry and Kondavidu
8. Shah Nama was written by ______ Reason (R): This led to frequent wars.
(a) Firdausi (b) Ibn Battutah (a) A is correct, R is not the correct
(c) Nicolo de conti (d) Domingo peas explanation of A
9. Mohammed Gawan established a Madrasa (b) A is correct, R is wrong.
library at _________, containing a collection (c) A and R are wrong.
of 3000 manuscripts. (d) A is correct, R is the correct explanation of A
(a) Berar (b) Bijapur 14. Match the following
(c) Bidar (d) Anmadnagar (A) Abdul Razzak - 1. Russia
10. ____________ constructed the Golkonda (B) Nikitin - 2. Saluva
Fort. Nayak
(a) Raja Krishna Dev (C) Domingo Peas and
(b) Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk Nuniz - 3. Persia
(c) Mohammed Gawan (D) Chellappa - 4. Portugal
(d) Bahman Shah (a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 4, 3, 2, 1
11. Find out the correct statement. (c) 2, 1, 4, 3 (d) 3, 1, 4 ,2
(a) Vijayanagar kingdom was ruled by the kings II. Write brief answers
of five dynasties for a period of more than
300 years 1. What are the archaeological sources to know
about the Vijayanagar Kingdom?
(b) As far as coastal Andhra is concerned, the
power struggle was between the Gajapathi 2. Name the founders of city of Vijayanagar.
kingdom of Orissa and Bahmani How did it get its name?
(c) Abdur Razzak , the Persian ambassador, 3. Mention the three areas where there was a
visited Zamorin of Kochi clash of interest between the Vijayanagar and
Bahmani Kingdoms.
(d) The Bahmani kings issued large number
of gold coins bearing the images of 4. Write a note on “tarafs”.
various deities. 5. What do you know about Mohammed I?

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III. Write short answers Activity

1. How did the Bahmani Kingdom emerge? 1. On the outline map of India, mark the extent
Name its founder. of Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms.
2. Collect information on the court jester Tenali
2. Nayak System.
Rama in the court of Krishnadevaraya
3. Battle of Rakshasi – Tangadi.
Assignments
4.
Explain the reason for the celebration of
1. Prepare an album with the pictures of temples
Krishnadevaraya as the greatest ruler of of Vijayanagar period and the ruins of Hampi.
Vijayanagar.
2. Attempt a brief biographical sketch of
5. Who assumed the title “Second Alexander”. important foreign travelers who visited
Why? Vijayanagar.
6. Explain the location of Golkonda fort and its

splendour. REFERENCE BOOKS
IV. Answer the following in detail B enjamin B. Cohen, Kingship and

1.
Colonialism in India’s Deccan (1850 to 1948),
1. Describe the Society and Economy of the
Macmillan, 2007.
Vijayanagar Empire
2. A.L. Basham, A Cultural History of India,
2.
Describe the administration under the Oxford University Press, 1984
Vijayanagar rulers.
3. Firroqui Salma Ahmad, A Comprehensive
3. Give an account of the reign of Mohammed I History of Medieval India from the Twelfth to
of Bahmani kingdom. the Mid-Eighteenth Century, Pearson, 2011
4.
Describe the military campaigns and the 4. Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of
administrative machinery under Mahmud India: Vijayanagara, Cambridge University Press.
Gawan. 5. Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath, Penguin, 2014.
GLOSSARY
Accumulated gathered சேர்த்த

Patronise sponsor ஆதரி
Accountable responsible ப�ொறுப்புள்ள
Conspiracy plot கூட்டுச் சதி
Vanquished conquered வெல்லப்பட்ட
Feudatories chieftains holding land under feudal நிலப்பிரபுத்துவ முறைப்படி
system உருவாக்கப்பட்ட சிற்றரசர்கள்
Truncated reduced in size எண்ணிக்கை குறைந்த

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UNIT Cultural Syncretism:

Bhakti Movement in India
13
Learning Objectives
Adi Sankara’s counter to the traditions of Jainism and Buddhism
Religious renaissance and the impact of devotional movement in south India
Conflicts between Saivism and Vaishnavism
Conflicts with sramanic sects of Jainism and Buddhism
Trends in Bhakti Movement of north India, due to the impact of Sufism and the influence
of Vaishnavite movement in Bengal
Monotheistic movement represented by Kabir, Guru Nanak and Ravidas and the reformist
approach of the Ramanujar school of thought
Introduction of a devotional or bhakti movement. Bhakti as

a religious concept means devotional surrender
Like all cultural traditions, religion too to a supreme god for attaining salvation. Even
does not exist in isolation. It adapts to existing though texts such as the Bhagavad Gita talk
situations and meets both social and spiritual about the path of bhakti, or bhakti-marga,
needs of the people. As a country with a long the movement gained force only in this
history, religion in India developed by interacting period. Historians argue that this emerged in
with various traditions. Vedic religion, which opposition to the ethical, fatalistic and atheistic
came with the advent of Aryan-speaking traditions of Jainism and Buddhism. Vedic
peoples to India, absorbed many elements from theism incorporated certain features from
the Indus civilization. Mother goddess worship both. While Adi Sankara provided Hinduism
had its origins in Harappa. Similarly an image with a philosophic doctrine of Advaita to
found in the Indus script has been identified as counter the heterodox religions it remained
that of Siva. The prime Vedic gods were Indra, at the intellectual level. It was the great Saiva
Varuna, Agni, etc. and it was only later that the Nayanmars and Vaishnava Azhwars, with their
worship of Siva and Vishnu developed. In the moving verses, gave form to the Bhakti doctrine
mid-first millennium before the Common Era and won the support of the people. Historians
(B.C.) two great religions emerged in the Indo- refer to this as the Bhakti movement. This
Gangetic valley: Buddhism and Jainism (apart movement, supported by the ruling kings, made
from other heterodox religions such as Ajivika) a deep and lasting impact on all aspects: social,
which challenged the orthodox Vedic religious political, religious, cultural and linguistic. Thus
practices. south India became the home of religious
Similarly, in the mid-first millennium of renaissance from the 7th to the 10th century.
the Common Era, in the southern country, a With theologians like Ramanuja it turned into a
great religious tradition flourished in the form philosophical and ideological movement in the
190

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eleventh century. Inspired by many poet-saints Early Conflicts

the bhakti cult became widespread from 14th
The earliest instances of conflict between
century in the whole of India. We analyze here
Saivism and Vaishnavism on the one hand and
the general features of the bhakti movement, its
the Sramanic sects of Buddhism and Jainism
main proponents, the two different trends of the
on the other hand occurred during the Pallava
movement and its impact on social and cultural
period.
life of the people.
Mahendravarma Pallava I, a Jain by faith,
13.1 Bhakti Movement in persecuted those belonging to other religions.
the South Appar, a Jaina in his early life, called Darmasena,
The transformation of later turned to Saivism under the influence
a tribal society into a well- of his sister. Mahendravarma at the instance
structured social order and of his Jaina advisers tried to reconvert Appar
the emergence of a powerful first by persuasion and then by persecution.
monarchical system of But eventually it ended in the king himself
governance necessitated conversion to Saivism.
patronizing one religion or According to tradition, Sambandar
the other to legitimize authority. Buddhism and defeated the Jains in a theological debate and
Jainism were predominantly patronized by the consequently his opponents were impaled.
merchant class and they were also supported Maravarman Arikesari (640-670), also known
by the States. The Bhakti movement originated as Koon Pandyan, who converted from Saivism
among the landholding castes, and it was critical to Jainism, was later re-converted under the
of Buddhists and Jains. This also led to a fight influence of Sambandar. According to a Saivite
for royal patronage. legend, after his re-conversion, he ordered a
massacre of Jains in Samantham, a village in
Conflict with Buddhism & Jainism Madurai district.
Sources: The bhakti literature, mostly The philosophical treatises such as the Saiva
puranas and hagiographical texts, provide Siddhanta texts contain elaborate disputations
information about the religious conflicts in
of Buddhist and Jain philosophies. Some of the
Tamilnadu. Thevaram consists of the hymns by the
Saiva Siddhanta texts, such as Sivagnana Sithiyar,
three Nayanmars: Appar (Thirunavukkarasar),
contain a separate section called ‘parapakkam’
Sambandar (Thirugnanasambandar) and
which essentially refute Buddhist and Jain
Sundarar. Together these constitute the seven of the
theological arguments. Bhakti literature and
twelve Saiva Thirumurais. The Eighth Thirumurai
hagiography narrate instances of conflict and
consists of the hymns of Manickavasakar.
the defeat of heterodoxy. Inscriptions indicate
Many of these hymns articulate their criticism
that such conflict was accompanied by violence
of Jainism and Buddhism. Periyapuranam by
with the impaling of many monks.
Sekkizhar which narrates the stories of the sixty-
three Nayanmars is an important source for the Despite the sophisticated philosophical
study of the Bhakti movement. The hymns of disputation, it was the nature of the Bhakti
the Vaishnava saints, Azhwars, are compiled as movement and the royal patronage that it
Nalayira Divya Prabandham. The importance received that ultimately led to the downfall of
of the bhakti poems lie in the fact that they are Buddhism and Jainism. By the eleventh century,
still read, sung and revered by people, and they both these religions were effectively defeated.
also form an important part of Tamil literary While Buddhism was wiped out in the Tamil
tradition. Epigraphical sources and iconography country as in much of India Tamil-speaking
also provide much information. Jain communities have survived in pockets in
Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India 191

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Tamilnadu to this day. Temples and shrines of protest against rites and ceremonies,
were destroyed or fell into disuse while many superstitions, and unwanted formalisms. A
artefacts were lost due to neglect and vandalism. popular monotheistic movement along with
To this day one can see decapitated statues of Vaishnava Bhakti movement came to be
Buddha and the Jain thirthankaras in many launched. The monotheists followed a path
parts of Tamilnadu. which was independent of dominant religions
Despite this, the orthodox and heterodox of the time, Hinduism and Islam. They denied
interacted with each other and they have left their allegiance to either of them and criticized
a mark. The idea of renunciation, which is superstitious and orthodox elements of both
central to Buddhism and Jainism, was adopted the religions.
by Saivites and Vaishnavites. In response to the The advent of Islam with the Turkish
simplicity and life negation of the heterodox conquest posed a challenge to Vedic scholars
sects bhakti movement celebrated life with and priests. By the end of the fourteenth
festivals and rituals. Similarly, the high value century Islam had spread to large parts of
accorded to vegetarian food habits and the India. A considerable section of the Indian
prohibition on killing of animals may be traced population had taken to Islam. Combined with
to this influence. The supremacy accorded to state power, the universal message of Islam
the Tamil language was a response to the fact with emphasis on equality attracted the lower
that the heterodox religions used north India sections of society.
Prakrits. Most importantly, bhakti exponents
posited that, unlike the fatalistic religions of The new political and social situation
Buddhism and Jainism, devotion to Vishnu and created conditions for the growth of non-
Siva could overcome fate. conformist movements with anti-caste,
anti-vedic and anti-puranic traditions. The
Thus Vedic Hinduism was transformed by resultant changes in the cultural sphere
the conflict with Buddhism and Jainism. were development of regional languages, the
13.2 Spread of Bhakti evolution of Hindustani, and of Indo-Muslim
music and architecture.
Movement to the
North India The Hindu response to Muslim political
power was complex. While there was
When the popularity of the bhakti considerable hostility to the new religion
movement in south India reached its peak,
there was also a tendency to internal reform to
the doctrine of bhakti was expounded at the
strengthen Hinduism so as to face the challenge.
philosophical level by a series of Vaishnava
An important outcome of the encounter was
scholars and saints. Ramanujar expounded
the rise of syncretic sects and major poets and
the philosophy known as Vishistadvaita, or
Saints such as Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Ravidas.
qualified monism. His teaching qualified Adi
Sankara’s emphasis on absolute monism or the 13.3 Impact of Sufism
oneness of the ‘supreme’ and the ‘souls’.
In parallel with the Bhakti movement in
If the Bhakti movement flourished in the Hinduism, Sufism played a similar role in Islam.
Tamil country from the seventh century, it was The terms Sufi, Wali, Darvesh and Fakir are used
only from the fifteenth century that there was for Muslim saints who attempted to develop
an extraordinary outburst of devotional poetry their intuitive faculties through ascetic exercises,
in north India. The society had degenerated contemplation, renunciation and self-denial. By
into a caste-ridden community with practice the 12th century, Sufism had become an influential
of segregation, polytheism and idolatry. The aspect of Islamic social life as it extended over
religious minded saints raised their voice almost the entire Muslim community.
192 Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India

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Sufism represents the inward or esoteric 5. They advocated the principle of Universal
side and the mystical dimension of Islam. Sufi brotherhood.
saints transcended religious and communal 6. They criticized idol worship.
distinctions, and worked for promoting the
7. They stressed the singing of hymns with
interest of humanity at large. The Sufis were a class
deep devotion.
of philosophers remarkable for their religious
8. Arguing that all living beings, including
catholicity and tolarance. Sufis regarded God
humans, were god’s children, they strongly
as the supreme beauty and believed that one
denounced caste system which divided
must admire it, take delight in His thought and
people according to their birth.
concentrate his attention on Him only. They
believed that God is ‘Mashuq’ (beloved) and 9. They condemned ritualism, pilgrimages
Sufis are the ‘Ashiqs’ (lovers). Sufism crystallized and fasts.
into various ‘Silsilahs’ or orders. The most 10. They did not consider any language
popular Sufi orders were Chistis, Suhrawardis, as sacred and composed poems in the
Qadiriyahs and Naqshbandis. language of the common people.
Sufism took root in both rural and urban
13.5 Proponents of Bhakti
areas, and exercised a deep social, political and
cultural influence on the masses. It rebelled Movement
against all forms of religious formalism, Kabir
orthodoxy, falsehood and hypocrisy, and
Kabir is probably the
endeavoured to create a new world order in
most important cultural
which spiritual bliss was the ultimate goal. At
figure of medieval
a time when struggle for political power was
India. His iconoclastic
the prevailing trend, the Sufi saints reminded
poetry which ridiculed
people of their moral obligations. In a world ostentatiousness and
torn by strife and conflict they tried to bring ritual, and emphasized
peace and harmony. The most important the universality of god
contribution of Sufism is that it helped to won many adherents. Kabir
blunt the edge of Hindu-Muslim conflicts and Little concrete historical evidence is available
prejudices by forging the feelings of solidarity on his life. He was probably a weaver. Said to
and brotherhood between these two religious be a disciple of Ramananda, he learnt Vedanta
communities. philosophy from him. According to the popular
Tazkirah-i-Auliya-i-Hind (Lives of Muslim
13.4 Salient Features of
Saints), he was a disciple of the Muslim Sufi,
Bhakti Movement Shaikh Taqi. Kabir was a religious radical who
1. The bhakti reformers preached the denounced with equal zest the narrowness
principles of monotheism (oneness of of sectarianism, both Hindu and Islam. His
God) message appealed to the lower classes of
Hindu community. The most salient features
2. They believed in freedom from the cycle
of his teachings is denunciation of polytheism,
of life and death. They advocated that the
idolatry, and caste. He was equally unsparing
salvation could be attained only by deep
in his condemnation of Muslim formalism. He
devotion and faith in God.
was a true seeker after God, and did his best to
3. They emphasized the self-surrender for break the barriers that separated Hindus from
obtaining the bliss and grace of God. Muslims. What appealed to the millions of
4. Gurus could act as guides and preceptors. his followers through the ages, however, is his

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passionate conviction that he had found the the teachings of its other gurus, incorporates
pathway to God, a pathway accessible to the the writings of many Bhakti poets and Sufi
lowest as well as the highest. His poetry is still saints such as Ramananda, Namadeva, Kabir
recited across large parts of India. and Sheikh Farid.
Ravidas Chaitanya (1485–1533)
Ravidas was a Chaitanya of Bengal
poet saint of the bhakti represents an aspect of the
movement during the 15th bhakti movement that is
to 16th century. Venerated very different from that seen
as a guru (teacher) in in the lives and teachings
the regions of Punjab, of Kabir and his successors.
Chaitanya
Rajasthan, Maharashtra Chaitanya’s concern, unlike
and Madhya Pradesh, the Ravidas that of Kabir, was not with bringing people to
devotional songs of Ravidas made a lasting an understanding of a God, beyond all creeds
impact upon the bhakti movement. The life and formulations; it was to exalt the superiority
details of Ravidas are uncertain and contested. of Krishna over all other deities. It was, in other
Most scholars believe he was born in a family words, a revivalist, not a syncretic movement,
of tanners. Ravidas was one of the disciples of a return to a worship of Vishnu under one of
the bhakti saint-poet Ramananda. Ravidas’ his most appealing forms, the loving ecstatic
devotional songs were included in the Sikh Krishna.
Scriptures. Ravidas spoke against social divisions The Bengal Vaishnavites did not try to
of caste and gender, and promoted unity in the reform Hinduism. Instead, they emphasized
pursuit of personal spiritual freedoms devotion to Krishna. Chaitanya, however,
made disciples from all classes. He popularised
Guru Nanak (1469–1539)
the practice of group devotional singing
The saint with the accompanied by ecstatic dancing. His movement
biggest institutional became popular in Bengal and Orissa.
influence was Guru
Nanak who founded Namadeva
the Sikh religion which Namadeva, a son of
shows undoubted a tailor and an inhabitant
syncretic influence. As Guru Nanak of the village of Naras-
a monotheistic religion Vamani in Satara district
Sikhism emphasized the oneness of god and of Maharashtra, under the
adherence to a strict morality. Over two influence of Saint Janadeva,
centuries, under the leadership of its ten gurus, was converted to the path of
Sikhism expanded swiftly in the Punjab region bhakti. A staunch devotee of
winning numerous adherents. Sikh teachings Vithala (avatar of Vishnu) of
resulted in the creation of a strong sense of Pandarpur, Namdeva spent Namadeva
community. The politics of the times created much of his time in worship
conflicts with the Mughal empire leading to along with his followers, chanting mostly in
persecution which resulted in the martyrdom of his own verses. He wrote many abhangs (songs
its gurus. Guru Govind Singh was the last guru. composed and sung by saints in Maharashtra in
After him the Granth Sahib was considered the praise of God’s glory) in Marathi and Hindi. He
guru. While the teachings of Guru Nank is the travelled as far as Punjab where his teachings
Adi Granth. The Guru Granth Sahib, part from became so popular that they were later absorbed

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in the Guru Granth. Love god with all your heart the path of love on God. Mirabai preached the
to lead a pious life surrendering everything to worship of God in the name of Krishna and
him with steadfast devotion is the essence of his stressed that no one should be deprived of His
message. divine grace on the ground of birth, poverty,
age and sex. Her devotional songs and lyrics
Ramananda (1400-1470)
constitute a rich cultural heritage. Her bhajans
While Chaitanya of are sung with fervour to this day. Her teachings
Bengal belonged to the carried the message of divine worship to almost
philosophical school of every Hindu household.
Madhavacharya (a chief
Sur Das
advocate of Dvaita school
of vedhanta), Ramananda Sur Das lived at
was of Ramanuja’s the court of Akbar
philosophical thought. and was popularly
Ramananda was born at Ramananda known as the blind
Prayag (Allahabad) and received his higher bard of Agra. Sur
education in Hindu religious philosophy at Das is believed to
Banaras and joined the school of Ramanuja as have been a disciple
a preacher. He visited the holy places of North of Vallabacharya
India and preached Vaishnavism. Ramananda who was a Vaishnava
introduced radical changes in Vaishnavism by preacher in the
founding his own sect based on the doctrine of Sultanate period.
Sur Das
love and devotion to Rama and Sita. He preached Vallabhacharya was
equality before God. He rejected caste system, the founder of Pushtimarga (way of grace). Sur
particularly the supremacy of Brahmins as the Das preached religion of love and devotion to a
sole custodians of Hindu religion. The people personal God. He wrote inspiring and moving
from the lower strata of the society became his poems, Hindi poems about Lord Krishna.
followers. His twelve disciples included Ravidas, Krishna’s bal lila constitutes the first great theme
Kabir and two women. Ramananda was the first of Sur Das poetry. According to him, love is a
to preach his doctrine of devotion in Hindi, the sublimated theme representing the irresistible
vernacular language. It gained him a good deal attraction of the gopis of Brindavan towards
of popularity among the people of all classes. Krishna. The intensity of passion displayed by
His followers were divided into conservative the gopis is an expression of the natural attraction
and radical schools. of the human spirit towards the divine soul. His
popular works are Sur Sagar, Sur Saravali and
Mirabai (1498-1546) Sahitya Lahari. His monumental work Sur Sagar
Mirabai was born or Sur’s Ocean is a story of Lord Krishna from
in Kudh of Merta district the birth to the departure for Mathura.
of Rajasthan. She was the
great granddaughter of Tuka Ram
Rana Jodhaji, founder of Tuka Ram was born in 1608 in a village near
Jodhpur. She was married Poona, Maharashtra. He was a contemporary
to Bhoj Raj, son of Rana of Maratha Shivaji and saints like Eknath and
Sanga of Mewar. She Ramdas. After his early life as a trader he started
became a devotee of Lord Mirabai spending his time singing devotional songs in
Krishna, left the palace and praise of his favourite deity Lord Vithoba of
began singing her songs (bhajans) and preaching Pandarpur.

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Tuka Ram believed Impact of Sufism on Islam and its influence

in a formless God. in the evolution of a monotheistic religion
According to him, it was especially Sikhism are analyzed
not possible to enjoin The major proponents of bhakti movement
spiritual joy with worldly and the impact of their work in the north
activities. He stressed India are highlighted
the all-pervasiveness of Tuka Ram
God. He rejected Vedic sacrifices, ceremonies,
pilgrimages, idol worship, etc. He also preached EXERCISE
the virtue of piety, forgiveness and peace of
mind. He spread the message of equality and Q.R.Code
brotherhood. He tried to foster Hindu-Muslim
Unity. Some of his verses are devoted to this I. C
hoose the
theme. He wrote his abhangas in Marathi
Correct Answer
13.6 Impact of the Bhakti 1.
_________ provided Hinduism with a
Movement philosophic doctrine of Advaita.
(a) Adi Sankara (b) Ramanuja
Salvation which was previously considered
attainable, only by people of the first three (c) Ramananda (d) Chaitanya
orders in the social hierarchy became available 2. _________ refers to the conflict between the
to everyone. Bhakti movement provided women orthodox Vedic sects and Shramanic sects.
and members of the lower strata of the society an (a) Ramayana (b) Bagavatha purana
inclusive path to spiritual salvation. Literature on
devotional songs in regional languages became (c) Hagiographies (d) Bal lila
profuse. The poet-saints of this movement 3. _________ was known as Koon Pandyan.
championed a wide range of philosophical (a) Mahendravarman I
positions, ranging from theistic dualism of
(b) Maravarman Arikesari
Dvaita, to absolute monism of Advaita. Much
of the regional practices such as community (c) Narasimhavarman
singing, chanting together of deity names, (d) Sundara Pandyan
conducting festivals, going on pilgrimages, 4. Appar as a Jaina was known as _________
performing rituals relating to Saivism, and
(a) Harisena (b) Theerthankara
Vaishnavism have survived to this day.
(c) Sivagnana Sithiyar (d) Dharmasena
SUMMARY 5. Fakir is the term used for_________
The protest and resistance of Jains and (a) Muslim saint (b) Buddhist
Buddhists to the authority of Orthodox Vedic (c) Hindu ascetic (d) Sikh guru
religion by making religion accessible to all, 6. Madhavacharya belonged to the philosophical
without caste or gender bias is dealt with school of _________
The persecution of Jains and Buddhists by (a) Dwaita (b) Advaita
Saivites with royal patronage is discussed
(c) Visistadvaita (d) Pushti marga
The transformation of Vedic religion while
conflicting with Jainism and Buddhism is 7. _________ was one of the disciples of the
explained Bhakti saint-poet Ramananda.
The spread of bhakti cult to north India and (a) Chaitanya (b) Mirabai
its salient features are examined (c) Guru Nanak (d) Kabir

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8. _________ was the first to preach his doctrine 2. What do you know about the contribution of
of devotion in Hindi. Ravidas to the Bhakti movement?
(a) Ravidas (b) Ramananda 3. What were Ramananda’s teachings?
(c) Kabir (d) Namadev 4. Mirabai’s songs and lyrics constitute a rich
cultural heritage - Explain.
9. _________ was known as ‘the blind bard of
Agra’ at the court of Akbar. 5. What were the two different attitudes of the
Hindu saints towards Islam?
(a) Surdas (b) Tukaram
(c) Ramananda (d) Mirabai III. Write Short Answers
10.
_________ was the contemporary of the 1. South India became the home of religious
Maratha ruler Shivaji. renaissance. Explain.
(a) Ramananda (b) Mirabai 2. Analyse the teachings of (a) Sur Das (b) Tuka
Ram.
(c) Surdas (d) Tukaram
3. Kabir’s teachings.
11. Find out the correct statement
4. How did Chaitanya differ from Kabir?
(a)
Appar, a Saiva in his early life, later
persuaded by his sister, turned to Jainism. 5. Point out the impact of the Bhakti Movement.
(b) Sufis regarded god as the supreme beauty. IV. Answer the following in detail
(c) The Bengal Vaishnavites tried to reform 1. Explain the impact of Sufism.
Hinduism by promoting Ram bhakti. 2. List out the salient features of the Bhakti
(d)
Devotional songs of Ravidas were Movement.
included in the Buddhist Scriptures. Activity
12. A
ssertion (A): The bhakti reformers 1. Prepare a biographical sketch of Kabir.
preached the principle of monotheism.
2. Highlight the impact of Bhakti Movement
Reason (R): They criticized idol worship on music and art.
(a) A is correct, R is not the correct explanation Assignment with Teacher’s
of A Guidance
(b) A and R are wrong 1. Prepare an album by collecting pictures of
(c) A is correct, R is the correct explanation Bhakti Saints.
of A 2.
Visit some of the birth places of Bhakti
(d) A is wrong, R is correct saints in Tamilnadu and collect the details of
sthalapuranas of temples they served.
13. Match the following
(A) Kabir - 1. Sahitya Lahari REFERENCE BOOKS
(B) Sur Das - 2. Shaik Taqi
1.
S. Krishnasawamy Aiyangar, Some
(C) Sufism - 3. Sambandar
Contributions of South India to Indian
(D) Koon Pandyan - 4. Weaver Culture, University of Calcutta, 1923.
(a) 2, 3, 4, 1 (b) 4, 1, 2, 3 2. R. Champakalakshmi, Religion, Tradition
(c) 2, 4, 3, 1 (d) 3, 4, 2, 1 and Ideology, Oxford University Press, 2011.
3. Noboru Karashima, A Concise History of
II. Write Brief Answers South India, Oxford University Press, 2014.
1.
Highlight the services rendered by 4. S.A.A. Rizvi, Wonder That Was India II,
Ramanujar for Bhakti cult ? Picador India, 2005.

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GLOSSARY
Syncretism Amalgamation of different கலாச்சாரப் பரிமாற்றம்

religious and cultures
Hagiographical Excessive flattering account திருத்ெதாண்டர் வாழ்க்ைக பற்றிய
about the lives of saints புராணங்கள்
Intuitive Feeling to be true even without உள்ளுணர்வு
conscious reasoning
Bard Poet பாணர்
Sublimate Purify புனிதமாக்கு; விழுமியதாக்கு
Pervasiveness Presence felt throughout a எங்கும் நிைறந்ததாக; நீக்கமற
place or thing நிைறந்த
Ecstatic Joyful, blissful ேபரானந்த / அநுபூதி நிைல
ICT CORNER
Cultural Syncretism: Bhakti Movement in India
Let us know the Social

and Religious Movements
through questions and
answers.
Procedure
Step 1: Use the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step 2: On “Social Reforms and Religious Movements” activity page. The questions are
given in the form of objective types. Select the answer for that.
Step 3: If the answers are correct, the green hand symbol will appear on the right.
Step 4: If the answer is wrong, click ‘Show answer’ to know the correct answer.
URL:
https://civilserviceaspirants.in/gk/History/Social-reforms-and-religious-
movements-1.html
http://www.gyanjosh.com/test/modern-india/socio-religious-movements/0
* if browser requires allow Flash Player or Java Script.

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UNIT
The Mughal Empire
14
Learning Objectives
To acquaint oneself with

Foundation of Mughal rule in India
Humayun’s inability to sustain his rule leading to the establishment of Sur dynasty
under Sher Shah
Sher Shah’s administrative reforms
Consolidation of Mughal rule during the reign of Akbar
Akbar’s Religious and Rajput policy
Significance of Jahangir’s rule
Shah Jahan’s contribution to art and architecture
Aurangzeb’s military conquests and his ruinous Rajput and Deccan policies and his
wars against the Marathas
India during Mughal rule: Development of literature, painting, music, architecture;
Bhakti Movement, Sufism Sikhism, spread of Christianity and Islam, trade, commerce,
industry, science and technology
Introduction Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, known as the

“Great Mughals”, left their mark on Indian
India had been invaded from the west/ history. The empire declined after the death
north-west several times over the centuries,
of Aurangzeb in 1707. The empire formally
beginning with Alexander. Various parts of
ended a century and a half later, when power
north India had been ruled by foreigners
passed to the British crown after the great
like the Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushans and
revolt of 1857.
Afghans. The Mughals, descended from the
Mongol Chengiz Khan and the Turk Timur, At the height of its power the
founded an empire in India which lasted for Mughal empire stretched from Afghanistan to
more than three centuries. But we remember Bengal and from Kashmir down to the Tamil
them not as rulers of foreign origin, but as region in the south. Mughal rule created a
an indigenous, Indian dynasty. Babur was uniform, centralized administration over
the founder of the Mughal empire which the entire country. The Mughals, especially
was established in 1526 after Babur defeated Akbar, created a polity integrating Hindus
Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat. Thus a and Muslims into a unified nation, forging
new epoch and a new empire in India began, a composite national identity. In addition,
lasting for nearly three centuries beginning the Mughals left behind a heritage of great
from 1526 to 1857. Six major rulers of this architecture, literature and art which has
dynasty, Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, enriched India.
199

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14.1 Zahiruddin Muhammad was trying to expand his territory. Babur

Babur (1526–1530) received an embassy from Daulat Khan Lodi,
a principal opponent of Ibrahim Lodi, and
The race for political Rana Sangha, ruler of Mewar and the chief
supremacy in Central of Rajput Confederacy, with a plea to invade
Asia amongst the Uzbeks India. When Babur marched to India he first
(Turkic ethnic group), the defeated the forces of Daulat Khan Lodi at
Safavids (the members Lahore as he had gone back on his promise
of the dynasty that to help Babur.
ruled Iran patronising
Shia Islam) and the First Battle of Panipat
Ottomans (Turkish (21 April 1526)
people practicing Sunni Babur
Babur then turned towards the Lodi-
Islam) forced Zahiruddin Muhammad governed Punjab. After several invasions, he
Babur, the ruler of Samarkand, to seek his defeated the formidable forces of Ibrahim
career prospects elsewhere. Historically the Lodi with a numerically inferior army at
trade conducted by countries of Central Panipat. Babur won this battle with the help
Asia through the Silk Route with India had of strategic positioning of his forces and
provided the required knowledge about the effective use of artillery. Babur’s victory
the country (India) they were interested in. provided hopes for him to settle in India
Babur who dreamed of repeating what Timur permanently. Babur had conquered Delhi and
had done a century and a quarter earlier, Agra, but he still had to suppress the Rajputs
succeeded in founding the Mughal kingdom and the Afghans.
with Delhi as its capital in 1526 in the wake
of the political disintegration of the Delhi Artillery is an army unit that uses large
Sultanate. cannon-like weapons, transportable and
Babur, a boy of eleven, inherited usually operated by more than one person.
the throne of Samarkand (now a city in Gun powder was first invented by the Chinese
Uzbekistan) from his father. As there were and found its way to Europe in the 13th
enemies all round him, he lost his throne but century A.D. (CE). It was used in guns and
soon reclaimed it. But soon he realized that, cannons from the mid-fourteenth century
with the powerful Safavid dynasty in Iran onwards. In India we have no instances of
and the Uzbeks in Central Asia, he should artillery being used in war before Babur.
rather turn to the southeast towards India to Battle of Khanwa (1527)
build an empire of his own. As a Timurid,
Babur decided to take on Rana Sanga of
Babur had an eye on the Punjab, part of
Chittor, who as ruler of Mewar, had a strong
which had been Timur’s possession. Between
influence over Rajasthan and Malwa. Babur
1519 and 1524 when he invaded Bhera,
selected Khanwa, near Agra, as a favourable
Sialkot and Lahore, he showed his definite
site for this inevitable encounter. The ferocious
intention to conquer Hindustan, where the
march of Rana Sanga with a formidable force
political scene also favoured his adventure.
strengthened by Afghan Muslims, Mahmud
After conquering Kabul and Ghazni, Babur
Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi, and Hasan
crossed the Indus to India and established
Khan Mewati, ruler of Mewat, confronted the
a small kingdom. The time for invading
forces of Babur. With strategic positioning
India was also ripe as there was discontent
of forces and effective use of artillery, Babur
among the Afghans and the Rajputs, as
defeated Rana Sanga’s forces. This victory was
Sultan Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty
followed by the capture of forts at Gwalior
200 The Mughal Empire

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and Dholpur which further strengthened

There is a story about Babur’s death. His son
Babur’s position.
Humayun was ill and Babur in his love for
Battle of Chanderi (1528) him is said to have prayed, offering his own
life if his son got well. Humayun recovered.
The next significant battle that ensured
Babur’s supremacy over the Malwa region
was fought against Medini Rai at Chanderi. 14.2 Humayun (1530-
Following this victory Babur turned towards 1540 & 1555-1556)
the growing rebellious activities of Afghans. Humayun, a cultured and learned person,
Battle of Ghagra (1529) was not a soldier like his father. He was
faced with the problems of a weak financial
This was the last battle Babar fought system and the predatory Afghans. Bahadur
against the Afghans. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi’s Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, also posed a great
brother Mahmud Lodi and Sultan Nusrat threat. Humayun’s brother Kamran who was
Shah, son-in-law of Ibrahim Lodi, conspired in-charge of Kabul and Kandahar extended
against Babur. Realising the danger Babar his authority up to Punjab. Humayun
marched against them. In the battle that remembering the promise he had made to his
ensued along the banks of Ghagra, a tributary father on the eve of his death that he would
of Ganges, Babur defeated the Afghans. But treat his brothers kindly, agreed to Kamran’s
he died on his way from Agra to Lahore in suzerainty over Punjab to avoid a civil war.
1530
The growth of Afghan power in the
Estimate of Babur regions around Bihar and Uttar Pradesh under
Babur, the founder of Mughal Empire, the leadership of Sher Khan (later Sher Shah)
made Humayun to initiate action. Defeating
was a scholar of Persian and Arabic. Babur’s
the Afghans at Daurah in 1532 Humayun
memoirs Tuziuk-i-Baburi (Baburnama) is
besieged the powerful fort of Chunar. After
considered a world classic. Babur found
a period of four months, Humayun, believing
nothing admirable either in the Afghans who
the word of Sher Shah that he would be loyal
ruled India for some time or in the majority of
to the Mughals, withdrew the siege. This
the people they governed. But his description
turned out to be a great mistake.
of India is delightful.
Humayun spent the succeeding years of
What Hindustan possessed, in Babur’s
his life in constructing a new city in Delhi,
view, is described as follows: ‘The chief
Dinpanah, while his enemies were strengthening
excellence of Hindustan is that it is a large
themselves. Realising the ensuing danger from
country and has abundance of gold and silver.
Bahadur Shah who had annexed Rajasthan and
Another convenience of Hindustan is that the
instigated and provided refuge to all anti-Mughal
workmen of every profession and trade are elements, Humayan marched against him. He
innumerable and without end.’ captured Gujarat and Malwa and left them under
Babur’s dominions were now secure from the control of his brother Askari. Unable to
Kandahar to the borders of Bengal. However, put down the rebellions of the Gujarati people,
in the great area that marked the Rajput desert Askari decided to proceed to Agra. This alarmed
and the forts of Ranthambhor, Gwalior and Humayun stationed at Mandu, for he was afraid
Chanderi, there was no settled administration, that Askari would take Agra for himself. Hence,
as the Rajput chiefs were quarrelling among abandoning Gujarat and Malwa Humayun
themselves. So Babur left a difficult task for pursued his brother. Both the brothers reconciled
his son Humayun. after a meeting at Rajasthan.
The Mughal Empire 201

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When Humayun was deeply engrossed ability and efficiency, he emerged as the chief
in the affairs of Bahadur Shah, Sher Khan had of Afghans in India. His military capability
strengthened himself by defeating the ruler of and diplomacy made him victorious over
Bengal. Sher Khan captured the fort of Rohtas Humayun and many other Rajput rulers.
and Bengal. After capturing Chunar Humayun Malwa fell without a fight. Rana Uday Singh
marched to Bengal to confront Sher Khan. of Mewar surrendered without resistance.
When Humayun reached Gaur or Gauda he Sher Shah’s next venture to capture Kalinjar
received information on the rebellion of Hindal, failed as a gunshot caused his death in 1545.
his younger brother. Humayun proceeded to Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son
Agra to quell the rebellion. Sher Khan who had Islam Shah who ruled till 1553. His death at
been quiet all this time started attacking the a young age led to a state of confusion about
army of Humayun. When Humayun reached succession. Humayun used this opportunity
Chausa with great difficulty there was a full- to regain Delhi and Agra from the Sur rulers.
fledged battle.
Sher Shah’s Reforms
Battle of Chausa (1539)
When Sher Shah was pursuing Humayun,
This battle was won by Sher Khan due he had left Khizr Khan as the Governor of
to his superior political and military skills. Bengal. Khizr Khan married the daughter of
Humayun suffered a defeat in which 7000 the former ruler of Bengal, Sultan Mahmud,
Mughal nobles and soldiers were killed and and started behaving like a king. On his return
Humayun himself had to flee for his life by Sher Shah ordered him to be put in chains. As
swimming across the Ganga. Humayun who one familiar with the problem of provincial
had arrived at Agra assembled his army with insubordination, he thought that the real
the support of his brothers Askari and Hindal solution to the problem would be to set up
to counter Sher Khan. The final encounter a strong administrative system. So he made
took place at Kanauj. his government highly centralised. The local
Battle of Kanauj (1540) administrative structure of the Delhi Sultanate
was followed with certain changes. The village
This battle was won by Sher Khan and
headmen who were made responsible for the
Humayun’s army was completely routed, and
goods stolen within the area under their control
he became a prince without a kingdom.
became vigilant. The welfare of the peasants was
a prime concern. When the peasant is ruined,
14.3 Sher Shah
Sher Shah believed, the king is ruined. Sher
and Sur Dynasty Shah took great care that the movements of
From the time the army did not damage crops. He followed a
Humayun abandoned flexible revenue system. Land was surveyed and
the throne in the Battle of revenue settled according to the fertility of the
Kanauj to his regaining soil. In some areas, the jagirdari and zamindari
of power in 1555 Delhi systems were allowed to continue. In yet other
was ruled by Sher Shah places he arranged to collect only a portion of
of the Sur Dynasty. Born the gross produce.
in the family of a Jagirdar Sher Shah showed the same concern while
and named as Farid, dealing with traders. In order to encourage
he received the title of Sher Shah trade, he simplified trade imposts, collecting
Sher Khan after killing a taxes only at the point of entry and the point of
tiger (sher in Hindi). When he ascended the sale. The standardization of the metal content
throne, he was called Sher Shah. Through his of gold, silver and copper coins also facilitated

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trade. His currency system continued through The fiscal administration for which Akbar
the entire Mughal period and became the basis and Todar Mal have been so highly praised
of the coinage under the British. was largely based on the methods of Sher Shah.
During his short rule, Sher Shah did not have
Jagirdari much time for building new cities and palaces.
It is a land tenure system developed during He started building a new walled city in Delhi,
the Delhi Sultanate. Under the system the which later came to be known as Purana Qila
collection of the revenue of an estate and the (Old Fort). He built his own mausoleum in
power of governing it were bestowed upon Sasaram.
an official of the state.
14.4 Humayun’s Return
Zamindari
from Exile
The term refers to another land tenure
system. The word zamindar means After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his weak
landowner in Persian. In Mughal times the successors ruled for ten years. Humayun,who had
zamindars were drawn from the class of fled after his defeat at Kanauj, had taken asylum
nobles. Akbar granted land to the nobles in Persia. Humayun then went to Afghanistan
as well as to the descendents of old ruling with Persian troops. He succeeded in capturing
families and allowed them to enjoy it Kandahar and Kabul. But his brother Kamran
hereditarily. Zamindars collected revenue did not allow him to hold them in peace. The
from the tenants and cultivators and struggle between the brothers intensified, and
remitted a fixed amount to the state. yet in the end Kamran had to seek a compromise
with Humayun. Meanwhile the Sur empire had
fragmented, and so Humayun’s invasion became
For enhancement of trade and commerce
easy. The Afghan forces in Punjab, on the approach
Sher Shah maintained a robust highway system of Mughals, began to flee. Humayun became the
by repairing old roads and laying down new Emperor once again. He died very soon after
roads. Apart from repairing the Grand Trunk regaining Delhi when he slipped down the stairs
road from the Indus in the west to Sonargaon in of the library in the fort at Delhi. In the colourful
Bengal, he also built a road connecting Gujarat’s words of Lane Poole, “Humayun stumbled out of
seaports with Agra and Jodhpur. A road was laid his life, as he has stumbled through it.”
connecting Lahore with Multan. The highways
were endowed with a large network of sarais,
rest houses, where the traders were provided
with food and accommodation, ensuring brisk
commerce. Some of the sarais constructed by
Sher Shah still survive. These sarais also ensured
the growth of towns in their vicinity.
Sher Shah practiced charity on a large scale.
He gave stipends from the treasury to destitute
people. Sher Shah was an orthodox and devout
Sunni. He is said to have dispensed justice Humayun’s Tomb
without bias, punishing the oppressors even if
14.5 Emperor Akbar
they were nobles or his relatives. Through stern
punishments to rebellious zamindars and nobles
(1556–1605)
and to thieves and robbers he ensured effective During Humayun’s wanderings in the
maintenance of law and order in the empire. Rajputana desert, his wife gave birth to a son,

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Jalaluddin, known as under his regent Bairam Khan. Soon Bairam

Akbar, in 1542. Akbar Khan began to behave haughtily towards his
was crowned at the fellow nobles. Akbar, enraged by his behaviour
age of fourteen. At issued a farman dismissing Bairam Khan. This led
the time of Akbar’s to Bairam Khan’s revolt which was ably dealt with
ascension, the Afghans by Akbar. Bairam Khan, finally agreeing to submit
and Rajputs were still himself to Akbar, proceeded to Mecca. But on his
powerful and posed way he was murdered by an Afghan. The family
a great challenge. Yet of Bairam khan was brought to Delhi and his son
he had a guardian and Abdur Rahim became one of the luminaries of
protector in Bairam Akbar (Museum of Arts, Akbar’s court with the title Khan-e-Khanan.
Los Angeles)
Khan.
Akbar’s Military Conquests
Second Battle of Panipat (1556)
Akbar laid the foundation for a great
Hemu, the empire through his vast conquests. Malwa
Hindu general was conquered in 1562 from Baz Bahadur
of the displaced who was made a mansabdar in Akbar’s
Afghan king Adil court. The Gondwana region of central India
Shah, successor of was annexed after a fierce battle with Rani
Sher Shah, induced
Durgavati and her son Vir Narayan in 1564.
the king to permit
The ruler of Mewar, Rana Udai Singh, put
him to lead the
up a great fight before losing Chittor, which
Afghan army
was conquered by Akbar after a siege of six
against the Mughals.
months. Rana Udai Singh retreated to the
Encouraged by
hills. Yet his generals Jaimal and Patta carried
the king, Hemu
on their fight. Finally, the generals, along with
first took Gwalior,
30,000 Rajputs were killed. Out of admiration
expelling the The defeat of Hemu
for the gallant Jaimal and Patta, Akbar
Mughal governor.
honoured them by erecting statues to their
Then he marched on Agra and captured it
without any resistance. Hemu’s generosity memory outside the chief gate of Agra fort.
helped him to overcome potential enemies The capture of Chittor was followed by the
when he took Delhi. In November 1556 Akbar surrender of Rajput states like Ranthambhor,
marched towards Delhi to meet the forces of Kalinjar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer.
Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat. An After subordinating the regions of central
arrow struck the eye of Hemu when the battle India, Akbar turned his attention to Gujarat,
was likely to end in his favour. The leaderless a wealthy province renowned for its maritime
Afghan army became demoralised and the commerce. Akbar conquered Gujarat from
Mughal forces emerged victorious. Hemu was Muzaffar Shah in 1573. Gujarat became a
captured and executed. This victory made launch pad for the annexation of Deccan.
Akbar the sovereign of Agra and Delhi and After defeating Daud Khan, the Afghan ruler
re-establish the Mughal empire. of Bihar and Bengal, both the provinces were
Akbar and Bairam Khan annexed to the Mughal empire in 1576.
As a conqueror Akbar triumphed all over Akbar defeated Mirza Hakim of Kabul
North India. The first four years of Akbar’s rule with the help of Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan
saw the expansion of the Mughal empire from Das. His conquest of Kashmir (1586) and
Kabul to Jaunpur, including Gwalior and Ajmer, Sindh (1591) consolidated the empire in

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Kashmir MUGHAL EMPIRE

Kabul
UNDER AKBAR
Lahore N
Kandahar
W E
Multan
Panipat
S
Delhi
Agra Lucknow
Ajmer
Bihar
Allahabad Patna
Malwa
Bengal
Gujarat Gondwana
Khandesh
Diu Berar Orissa
Ahmadnagar
Golkonda BAY
ARABIAN Bidar OF
SEA BENGAL
Bijapur
Goa
Nellore
An
da m
an
Calicut
an d nic o b a r
(I N DI A )
(I N DI A )
Polygars
Madurai
i sl
ds n
an
ds
Map not to scale


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the northwest. After achieving the political were bestowed great honours in Akbar’s court.
integration of North India Akbar turned his His Rajput policy secured the services of great
attention to the Deccan. Akbar’s forces had warriors and administrators for the empire. Raja
occupied Khandesh region in 1591. In 1596 Todar Mal, an expert in revenue affairs, rose to
Berar was acquired from Chand Bibi, who, as the position of Diwan. Birbal was a favourite
the regent of her nephew Muzaffar Shah, the companion of Akbar.
Nizam Shahi ruler of Ahmednagar, valiantly Mewar and Marwar were the two Rajput
defended Ahmednagar against the Mughal kingdoms that defied the Mughal Empire. After
forces of Akbar. By 1600 parts of Ahmed Nagar the death of Rana Udai Singh, his son Rana
had fallen into the hands of Mughal forces. Pratap Singh refused to acknowledge Akbar’s
Akbar fell sick in September 1604 and died on suzerainty and continued to fight the Mughals
27 October 1605. till his death in 1597. The Battle of Haldighati
Rajput Policy in 1576 was the last pitched battle between the
Mughal forces and Rana Pratap Singh. In Marwar
Akbar took earnest efforts to win the
(Jodhpur), the ruler Chandra Sen, son of Maldeo
goodwill of the Hindus. He abolished the jizya
Rathore, resisted the Mughals till his death in
(poll tax) on non-Muslims and the tax on Hindu
1581, though his brothers fought on the side of
pilgrims. The practice of sati by Hindu widows
the Mughals. Udai Singh, the brother of Chandra
was also abolished. The practice of making
Sen was made the ruler of Jodhpur by Akbar.
slaves of war prisoners was also discontinued.
Akbar’s capital was at Agra in the beginning.
His conciliatory Rajput policy included
Later he built a new city at Fatehpur Sikri.
matrimonial alliances with Rajput princely
Though a deserted city now, it still stands with its
families, and according Rajput nobles high
beautiful mosque and great Buland Darwaza and
positions in the Mughal court. A tolerant
many other buildings.
religious policy ensured the cultural and
emotional integration of the people. Even before Mansabdari System
Akbar, many Muslim kings had married Rajput Akbar provided a systematic and
princesses. But Akbar with his broadminded centralised system of administration which
nature was instrumental in these matrimonial contributed to the success of the empire.
alliances becoming a synthesising force between He introduced the Mansabdari system. The
two different cultures as he maintained close nobles, civil and military officials combined
relations with the families. into one single service with each officer
Akbar had receiving the title of Mansabdar. Mansabdar
married Harkha rank was divided into Zat and Sawar. The
Bhai (also referred former determined the number of soldiers
to as Jodha in each Mansabdar received ranging from 10
popular accounts), to 10,000. The latter determined the number
the daughter of of horses under a Mansabdar. Each officer
Raja Bhar Mal (also could rise from the lowest to the highest
known as Bihari Mal) ranks. Promotions and demotions were made
of Amber. He also Jodha Akbar
through additions or reductions of Mansabs.
married the Rajput princesses of Bikaner and The Mansabdari system diversified the ethnic
Jaisalmer. Prince Salim who was born of Harkha base of his nobility. During Akbar’s early
Bhai married the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das. years the nobles were drawn exclusively
Raja Man Singh, son of Bhagwan Das, became from Central Asians or Persians. But after
the trusted general of Akbar. Even the Rajputs the introduction of the Mansabdari system,
who chose not to have any matrimonial alliances the nobility encompassed Rajputs and

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Shaikhzadas (Indian Muslims). The salary of to ascertain the Truth. Because of the
a Mansabdar was fixed in cash but was paid discussions he felt that behind the multiplicity
by assigning him a jagir (an estate from which of names there was but one God. The exact
he could collect money in lieu of his salary), word used by Akbar and Badauni to illustrate
which was subjected to regular transfers. The the philosophy of Akbar is Tauhid-i-Ilahi
rank of Mansabdar was not hereditary and namely Din Ilahi. Tauhid-i-Ilahi literally
immediately after the death of a Mansabdar, meant divine monotheism.
the jagir was resumed by the state.
It can be considered a sufistic order but
Akbar’s Religious Policy not a new religion. He had become a Pir (Sufi
Guru) who enrolled Murids (Sufi disciples) who
Akbar began his life as an orthodox
would follow a set pattern of rules ascribed by
Muslim but adopted an accommodative
approach under the influence of Sufism. the Guru. Thousands of disciples enrolled as his
Akbar was interested to learn about the disciples. Akbar’s intention was to establish a
doctrines of all religions, and propagated state based on the concept of secular principles,
a philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all). equal toleration, and respect to all sections
Badauni, a contemporary author, who did not irrespective of their religious beliefs. He set up a
like Akbar’s inter-religious interests, accused big translation department for translating works
him of forsaking Islam. Akbar had established in Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, etc, into Persian. The
an Ibadat Khana (1575), a hall of worship Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Atharva Veda, the
in which initially Muslim clerics gathered Bible and the Quran were translated into Persian.
to discuss spiritual issues. Later he invited The Din Ilahi ceased to exist after Akbar.
Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Jains and
even atheists to discussions. 14.6 Jahangir (1605–1627)
In 1582, he discontinued the debates in Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim with
the Ibadat Khana as it led to bitterness among the title Nur-ud-din Jahangir. He was Akbar’s son
different religions. However, he did not give by a Rajput wife. His ascension was challenged by
up his attempt to know the Truth. Akbar his eldest son Prince Khusrau who staged a revolt
discussed personally with the leading lights of with the blessings of Sikh Guru Arjun Dev. Prince
different religions like Purushotam and Devi Khusrau was defeated, captured and blinded,
(Hinduism), Meherji Rana (Zorastrianism), while Guru Arjun Dev was executed. Jahangir
the Portugese Aquaviva and Monserrate also tamed the rebel Afghan Usman Khan in
(Christianity) and Hira Vijaya Suri (Jainism) Bengal. Mewar, which had defied Akbar under
Malik Ambar
Brought as a slave from Ethiopia to India, Malik Ambar changed several hands
before landing at the hands of the Prime Minister of Ahmad nagar named
Chengiz Khan. Malik Ambar learnt about statecraft, military and administrative
affairs from Chengiz Khan. After the death of Chengiz Khan his wife set Malik
Ambar free. By dint of his hard work Malik rising through several ranks became
the Military Commander and Regent of one of the south Indian Sultanates.
In the Deccan Muslims and Marathas had united to resist Mughal hegemony in
their bid to preserve their distinct regional and political identity. Malik Ambar
was the brain behind this move. Trained by Malik Ambar the Marathas became
a force to reckon with after Malik’s death at the age of 78 on 14 May 1626.

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Rana Udai Singh and intrigues that prevailed because of Nur-Jahan,

his son Rana Pratap led Prince Khurram to rebel against his father
Singh, was brought to but due to the efforts of Mahabat Khan, a loyal
terms by Jahangir after general of Jahangir, the rebellion could not be
a military campaign fruitful. Prince Khurram had to retreat to the
led by his son Prince Deccan. The intrigues of Nur-Jahan also made
Khurram (later to Mahabat Khan to rise in revolt which was
become Emperor effectively handled by Nur-Jahan. Mahabat
Shah Jahan) against Khan also retreated to Deccan to join Prince
Rana Amar Singh, Jahangir Khurram. Immediately after the death of
the grandson of Rana Jahangir, Nur-Jahan wanted to crown her son-
Udai Singh. They concluded a treaty whereby in-law Shahryar Khan but due to the efforts
Rana Amar Singh could rule his kingdom after of Nur-Jahan’s brother and Prince Khurram’s
accepting the suzerainty of Jahangir. In 1608 father-in-law Asaf Khan, Prince Khurram
Ahmad Nagar in the Deccan had declared succeeded as the next Mughal emperor with
independence under Malik Ambar. the title Shah-Jahan. Nur-Jahan, who ruled
Several attempts by prince Khurram the empire for ten years, lost her power and
to conquer Ahmad Nagar ended in failure. influence after Jahangir’s death in 1627.
Prince Khurram had conquered the fort of
Kangra after a siege of 14 months. Kandahar, 14.7 Shah Jahan
conquered by Akbar from the Persians in (1627-1658)
1595, was retaken by the Persian King Shah
When Shah Jahan ascended the throne in
Abbas in 1622. Jahangir wanted to recapture
Agra his position was secure and unchallenged.
it. But he could not achieve it due to the
rebellion of Prince Khurram. Jahangir’s reign Yet the affairs of the empire needed attention. The
witnessed the visit of two Englishmen – Afghan Pir Lodi, with the title Khanjahan, who
William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe. While had been governor of the southern provinces
the former could not get the consent of the of the empire was hostile. Despite Shah Jahan’s
Emperor for establishing an English factory in order transferring him from the government of
India, the latter, sent as ambassador by King the Deccan, he aligned with Murtaza Nizam Shah
James I, succeeded in securing permission to II, the Sultan of Ahmed-Nagar, and conspired
establish a British factory at Surat. against Shah Jahan. As the situation turned
serious, Shah Jahan proceeded to the Deccan
in person. The newly appointed governor of
the Deccan, Iradat Khan, who received the title
Azam Khan led the imperial army and invaded
the Balaghat. Seeing the devastation caused by
the imperial troops, Murtaza changed his attitude
towards Khanjahan. Khanjahan thereupon fled
from Daulatabad into Malwa, but was pursued
Sir Thomas Roe in Jahangir's court
and finally slain. Peace thus having been restored
in the Deccan, Shah Jahan left the Deccan after
Jahangir was more interested in art and dividing it into four provinces: Ahmednagar with
painting and gardens and flowers, than in Daulatabad; Khandesh; Berar; and Telengana.
government. His Persian wife Mehrunnisa, The viceroyalty of the four provinces was
renamed as Nur-Jahan by Jahangir, became the conferred by Shah Jahan on his son Aurangzeb,
real power behind the throne. The political then eighteen years of age.

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The Portuguese had authority over Goa

Deccan Sultanates
under their viceroy. In Bengal they had their
After flourishing for over a hundred years chief settlements in faraway Hugli. Shah Jahan
the Bahmani kingdom, that covered much ordered the Mughal Governor of Bengal, to
of Maharashtra and Andhra along with a drive out the Portuguese from their settlement
portion of Karnataka, disintegrated and at Hugli. About 200 Portuguese at Hugli owned
powerful nobles carved out new dominions nearly 600 Indian slaves. They had forced many
at Golkonda (Qutb Shahs), Bijapur (Adil of them to be baptised into the Christian faith.
Shahs), Berar (Imad Shahs), Bidar (Barid Moreover Portuguese gunners from Goa had
Shahs) and Ahmad Nagar (Nizam Shahs), assisted the Bijapur forces against the Mughals.
which go by the collective name of Deccan Though the Portuguese defended themselves
Sultanates or Southern Sultanates. valiantly, they were easily defeated.
In 1641, Shah Jahan’s
Thus the Deccan was brought under the
minister and father-in-law
effective control of the Mughal empire during
Asaf Khan died. Asaf Khan’s
the reign of Shah Jahan. Ahmad Nagar, which
sister and Shah Jahan’s old
offered resistance to the Mughals, was annexed
enemy Nur Jahan, survived
despite the efforts of Malik Ambar. Shah Jahan,
until December 1645, but
with the support of Mahabat Khan, subdued
lived in retirement and
the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmad Nagar in
never caused him trouble
1636. When the Shi’ite Qutub Shahi ruler of Nur Jahan
again.
Golkonda imprisoned his own minister Mir
Jumla it was used as a pretext by Aurangzeb A contemporary of Louis XIV of France,
to invade Golkonda. A treaty made the Qutub Shah Jahan ruled for thirty years. In his reign the
Shahi ruler a vassal of the Mughal empire. famous Peacock Throne was made for the King.
He built the Taj Mahal by the side of the Yamuna
In 1638 Shah Jahan made use of the
at Agra. Europeans like Bernier (French physician
political intrigues in the Persian empire and
and traveller), Tavernier (French gem merchant
annexed Kandahar, conquered by Akbar and
and traveller), Mandelslo (German adventurer
lost by Jahangir.
European Factories/Settlements during Mughal Rule

Portuguese : In 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur and made it the capital of
the Portuguese Empire in the East. Subsequently Daman, Salsette and Bombay on the west coast and at
Santhome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast had become Portuguese settlements.
Dutch: The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605), Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616), Bimilipatam
(1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Kasimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattinam (all
in 1658) and Cochin (1663).
Danes: Denmark also established trade settlements in India and their settlements were at Tranquebar in
Tamilnadu (1620) and Serampore, their headquarters in Bengal.
French: Surat (1668), Masulipatnam (1669), Pondicherry, a small village then (1673),
Chandernagore in Bengal (1690). Later they acquired Mahe in the Malabar, Yanam in Coromandal
(both in 1725) and Karaikal (1739).
English: The Company first created a trading post in Surat (where a factory was built in 1612), and then
secured Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). Though the Company had many factories,
Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and the Bombay Castle were the three major trade
settlements of theEnglish.

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Taj Mahal: The Taj Mahal, is the epitome of Mughal

architecture, a blend of Indian, Persian and Islamic
styles. It was built by the Shah Jahan to immortalize
his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Mumtaz Mahal died in
childbirth in 1631, after having been the emperor’s
inseparable companion since their marriage in 1612.
The plans for the complex have been attributed to
various architects of the period, though the chief
architect was Ustad Ahmad Lahawri, an Indian of
Taj Mahal
Persian descent. The complex - main gateway, garden,
mosque and mausoleum (including its four minarets)-were conceived and designed as a unified
entity. Building commenced in about 1632. More than 20,000 workers were employed from India,
Persia, the Ottoman Empire and Europe to complete the mausoleum by about 1638–39; the adjunct
buildings were finished by 1643, and decoration work continued until at least 1647.
and traveller), Peter Mundy (English Trader) and of all the competitors for the throne, Dara
Manucci (Italian writer and traveller) visited India Shukoh, Shuja and Murad, in a war of
during the reign of Shah Jahan and left behind succession. His reign of fifty years falls into
detailed accounts of India. two equal parts. During the first twenty-five
During the last days of Shah Jahan, there was years he resided in the north, chiefly at Delhi,
a contest for the throne amongst his four sons. and personally occupied himself with the
Dara Shukoh, the eldest, was the favourite of his affairs of northern India, leaving the Deccan
father. He had been nominated as heir apparent, a in the hands of his viceroys. Around 1681 he
fact resented by his brothers. Aurangzeb, the third was prompted by the rebellion of one of his
son, was astute, determined and unscrupulous. sons, Prince Akbar, to go to the Deccan. He
Dara, professed the Sunni religion, but was deeply never returned to Delhi, dying disappointed
interested in Sufism. A war of succession broke at Ahmad Nagar in 1707.
out between the four sons of Shah Jahan in which Aurangzeb conducted
Aurangzeb emerged victorious. several military campaigns
to extend the frontiers of the
Dara Shukoh, who lost the battle for the
Mughal empire. His wars in
throne of Delhi to his brother Aurangzeb,
the northwest and northeast
was known as the Philosopher Prince. He
drained the treasury.
brought different cultures into dialogue and
Already under his father,
found a close connection between Hinduism
the revenue of the crops had
and Islam. He translated the Upanishads Aurangzeb
been raised from a third
from Sanskrit to Persian.
to a half, and the extensive and the prolonged
Aurangzeb imprisoned Shah Jahan and military campaigns he waged required him to
crowned himself as the Mughal emperor. keep the peasantry heavily taxed. Aurangzeb
Shah Jahan died broken hearted as a royal retained Shah Jahanabad as his capital, but after
prisoner in January 1666 and was buried in some two decades the capital was shifted to
the Taj Mahal next to his wife. wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during
his long military campaigns.
14.8 Aurangzeb (1658–1707) In the north there were three major
Aurangzeb Alamgir (“World Conqueror”) uprisings against Aurangzeb. The Jats (Mathura
ascended the throne in 1658 after getting rid district), the Satnamis (Haryana region), and

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the Sikhs rebelled against Aurangzeb. The Jat rebellious attitude of the Shia kingdoms of
rebellion (1669), a constant feature even during Deccan like Golkonda and Bijapur and to
the reign of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, was curtail the rebellious activities of his son
crushed temporarily but they remained restive Akbar who had taken refuge in the Deccan.
even after the death of Aurangzeb. The Satnamis Aurangzeb came to the Deccan in 1682 and
revolt was crushed with the help local Hindu remained in the Deccan till his death in
zamindars. The Sikh (The Punjab) rebellion 1707. The Adil Shahi ruler Sikkandar Adil
erupted due to the political intrigues of Ram Shah of Bijapur resisted the different forces
Rai, a claimant for the position of Sikh Guru, sent by Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb first sent his
against the incumbent Guru Tegh Bahadur. son Azam Shah (1685) but to no avail. Then
This finally ended with the execution of Guru he sent another son, Shah Alam to capture
Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru. Bijapur. Though Bijapur Sultan, a Shia
Aurangzeb’s decision that the jizya (poll Muslim, ably defended the fort, he lost in the
tax) should be levied on Hindus of all classes end, because Aurangzeb himself entered the
agitated the chiefs of Rajasthan, who had until battlefield and inspired his forces to fight to
then served the empire faithfully. The death the finish. Golkonda was captured in 1687
of Jaswant Singh of Marwar brought about after defeating the ruler Abul Hasan.
a succession issue. The Rajput queen Rani Against Marathas
Hadi, wife of Raja Jaswant Singh, resented the The Marathas under Shivaji were a threat
move of Aurangzeb to install Indra Singh, a to Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb sent two of his great
grandnephew of Jaswant Singh, a titular chief generals Shaista Khan and Jai Singh one after
of the state. This led to a revolt with the help the other to capture Shivaji. Jai Singh captured
of Rathor Rajputs, but was effectively put Shivaji and took him to Delhi but Shivaji
down. The Rana of Mewar, Rana Raj Singh, managed to escape to the Deccan. Shivaji,
resenting the interference of Aurangzeb in employing guerrilla tactics, defied the Mughal
the affairs of Marwar rose in revolt and he forces till his death at the age of 53 in 1680.
was supported by Prince Akbar, the rebellious Aurangzeb was severely tested by the Marathas
son of Aurangzeb. However, the Rana could till his death in 1707 as the sons of Shivaji
not match the Mughal forces and fought a continued the rebellion. The death of Aurangzeb
guerrilla warfare till his death in 1680. In in 1707 marked a watershed in Indian history as
1681 Rana Jai Singh, the new Rana of Mewar, the Mughal empire virtually came to end even
signed a peace treaty with Aurangzeb. though the weak successors of Aurangzeb held
the throne the next 150 years.
Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy
The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was Aurangzeb against Others
motivated by the policy of containing the Aurangzeb nursed a grudge against the
growing influence of the Marathas, the Sikhs for having supported his brother and
Gol Gumbaz : Bijapur (modern Vijayapura) was the capital of the Adil Shahi dynasty during1480-1686.
It is famous for its magnificent buildings and dargahs. Gol Gumbaz (round dome) is the mausoleum of the
seventh ruler of the dynasty Mohammad Adil Shah (1627-1656). Mohammad Adi Shah commissioned the
mausoleum in his lifetime. Built of dark grey basalt and decorated plaster, the exterior of Gol Gumbaz is
simple but beautiful. On the four corners of the bare walls are four doomed octagonal towers. Each tower has
seven storeys and each storey has several windows which give the structure a striking look. The dome is the
second largest in the world after St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The huge chamber of 135 ft each wall and 178 ft
high contains an elevated platform on which five cenotaphs are placed. Those are of Muhammad Adil Shah,
his wife Arus Bibi, a daughter, a grandson and his favourite mistress Rambha.

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Kabul
AURANGZEB’S EMPIRE
Peshawar Kashmir
N
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Panipat
Delhi S
Agra
Rajputs
Ajmer
Patna
Malwa Allahabad
Gujarat Bengal
Asirgarh
Diu Ahmadnagar
Mumbai Gondwana
Purandhar
ARABIAN Bijapur BAY
SEA OF
BENGAL
Goa
Vellore
Senji
An
da m
Thanjavur
an
Calicut
an d ni c o b a r
(I N DI A )
(I N DI A )
Cochin Polygars
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principal rival to the throne, Dara Shukoh. 14.9 Mughal Society

Guru Tegh Bahadur, was killed at Aurangzeb’s
The population of India is estimated to
command. Aurangzeb sent a formidable army
have been around 15 crores in the 16th century
under his son Akbar to subdue the rebellious
and 20 crores in the 18th century. Large areas
Rajput kings, but the emperor had not reckoned
of land were under forest cover and the area
with his son’s traitorous conduct. Akbar, had
under cultivation would have been much less.
declared himself the emperor, but was compelled
As agriculture was the prime occupation of the
to flee to the Deccan, where he enlisted the help
society the village community was the chief
of Shivaji’s son, Sambhaji. Aurangzeb decided to
institution of social organisation. Though the
take to the field himself, and eventually drove
nature, composition and governance of village
his own son into exile in Persia. Sambhaji was
differed from place to place there were certain
captured in 1689 and executed. The Sultanates
similarities in the village administration.
of Bijapur and Golkonda were also reduced to
The Muqaddam, privileged headman of the
utter submission.
village, formed the Panch (Panchayat), an
Towards the end of his reign, Aurangzeb’s administrative organ of the village. The Panch
empire began to disintegrate and this process was responsible for collection and maintenance
was accelerated in the years after his death, of accounts at the village level. The Panch
when “successor states” came into existence. allotted the unoccupied lands of the village to
The empire had become too large and unwieldy. artisans, menials and servants for their service
Aurangzeb did not have enough trustworthy to the village.
men at his command to manage the more far- The middle class consisted of small
flung parts of the empire. Many of his political Mansabdars, petty shopkeepers, hakims
appointees broke loose and declared themselves (doctors), musicians, artists, petty officials of
independent. Aurangzeb’s preoccupation with Mughal administration. There was a salaried
affairs in the Deccan prevented him from class, and received grants called Madad-i-Mash
meeting political challenges emanating from from the Mughal emperor, local rulers and
other parts of the empire. Shortly after the death zamindars. This section often became part of the
of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire ceased to be rural gentry and a link between the village and
an effective force in the political life of India. the town. Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore,
Aurangzeb re-imposed jizya. He also Ahmadabad, Dacca and Multan were important
issued orders that new temples should not be cities of the empire which could be ranked along
constructed; but the repair of old long-standing with contemporary European cities like London
temples was permitted. These measures were and Paris.
rooted not only in his religious faith but also due The inequality in the standard of life
to political compulsions. As a staunch Muslim, amongst the privileged and the underprivileged
Aurangzeb had discontinued the practise of classes was clear. Among the lower strata of
levying abwab, a tax levied on the lands over and society, the men wore just a langota and the
above the original rent, not sanctioned by Shariah. women a sari. Footwear was not common. The
Likewise, the order on temples was also an older poor lived in houses made of mud and their
one which in practice applied to places where he diet consisted of wheat chapatis with pulses
had political adversaries. In areas where there was and vegetables. On the contrary the Mughal
no political insubordination, Aurangzeb provided privileged class consisting of zamindars and
endowments to build temples. It should be noted nobles led an ostentatious life. The nobles
that during the reign of Aurangzeb the number of were Mansabdars who received jagirs or land
Hindu officials increased when compared to the grants as payment according to their ranks.
reign of Shah Jahan. The jagirdars were exploitative and oppressive

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Raja Man Singh Raja Birbal Todar Mal
in nature. The nobles maintained a large train painters, musicians and singers of both Persian
of servants, large stables of horses, elephants, and Indian origin.
etc. The nobles lived in fine houses containing
The caste system was a dominant institution
gardens with fruit trees and running water.
in the society. Castes at lower levels were subject
They wore the finest of clothing.
to much repression. Despite the popular Bhakti
The Zamindars, members of dominant clans movement raising the banner of revolt against
and castes with armed retainers, were a dominant discrimination, the deprived and disadvantaged
class with privilege over lands of the peasants. classes, who were landless peasants, were subject
Abul Fazal in his Ain-i-Akbari enlists the castes to forced labour.
that were entitled to be zamindars. While mostly
The Hindu women had only limited
upper caste Hindus and Rajputs were zamindars,
right of inheritance. Widow remarriage was
in certain localities Muslim zamindars existed.
not permitted among upper caste women.
The zamindars had the right to evict the peasants,
in default of payment of rent. Along with household activities the women
were involved in spinning yarn and helped in
In Mughal social structure, the nobles came agricultural operations. Mughal administration
mostly from Central Asia and Iran. Afghans, discouraged the practise of sati that was
Indian Muslims (shaikhzadas), Rajputs and prevalent among communities of the higher
Marathas also obtained the status of nobility. It caste. Muslim brides were entitled to receive
is estimated that during the reign of Akbar over mehr (money mandatorily paid by the groom)
15% of the nobility consisted of Rajputs. Raja at the time of marriage, and also had the right to
Man Singh, Raja Todar Mal and Raja Birbal were
inherit property, though it was not equal to the
Rajput nobles of repute during Akbar. The Rajputs
share of the male members of the family.
appointed Kayasths and Khatris for various
positions in government administration. Jahangir,
14.10 Economy
Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb employed Marathas in
their nobility. For example, Shaji, father of Shivaji, The Mughal economy was a forest-
served Shah Jahan for some time. based agricultural economy. The forests
There were continuous migrations from provided the raw materials for the craftsmen.
Central Asia as there were better career Timber went to carpenters, wood carvers and
prospects in India. These migrations led to the shipwrights, lacquerware makers; wild silk to
enrichment of culture through assimilation reelers and weavers; charcoal to iron miners
of diversity. Though the nobility was divided and metal smiths. Hence the relationship
on ethnic lines they formed a composite class between manufacturing and the forest was
promoting a syncretic culture by patronising very close.

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Different classes of the rural population of the royal family and nobility. The excess
were involved in agriculture. Agriculture was production of the artisans was diverted
the chief activity in the economy. Landless to the merchants and traders for local and
agricultural labourers without right to distant markets.
property formed almost a quarter of the
Trade and Commerce
population. Zamindars and village headmen
possessed large tracts of land in which they The political integration of the country
employed labourers and paid them in cash with efficient maintenance of law and order
and kind. Well irrigation was the dominant ensured brisk trade and commerce. The
mode of irrigation. surplus was carried to different parts of the
country through rivers, and through the
The Ain-i-Akbari lists the various crops
roads on ox and camel drawn carts. Banjaras
cultivated during the Rabi and Kharif seasons.
were specialised traders who carried goods
Tobacco and maize were introduced in the
in a large bulk over long distances. Bengal
seventeenth century. Chilli and groundnut
was the chief exporting centre of rice, sugar,
came later. Pineapple was introduced in the
muslin, silk and food grains. The Coromandel
sixteenth century. Grafted varieties of mango
coast was reputed for its textile production.
came to be developed by the Portuguese.
Kashmiri shawls and carpets were distributed
Potato, tomato and guava came later. Indigo
from Lahore which was an important centre
was another important commercial crop
of handicraft production. The movement
during the Mughal period. Sericulture
of goods was facilitated by letters of credit
underwent spectacular growth in Bengal to
called hundi. The network of sarais enabled
the extent that it became the chief supplier of
the traders and merchants to travel to various
silk to world trade.
places. The traders came from all religious
As the farmers were compelled to communities: Hindus, Muslims and Jains.
pay land tax they had to sell the surplus in The Bohra Muslims of Gujarat, Marwaris of
the market. The land tax was a share of the Rajasthan, Chettiars on Coromandel coast,
actual produce and was a major source of and Muslims of Malabar were prominent
revenue for the Mughal ruling class. The trading communities.
administration determined the productivity
Europeans controlled trade with the West
of the land and assessed the tax based on
Asia and European countries, and restricted
the total measurement. Akbar promulgated
the involvement of Indian traders. Moreover,
the Zabt System (introduced by Todal Mal):
the Mughal empire, despite its vast resources
money revenue rates were now fixed on each
and a huge army, was not a naval power. They
unit of area according to the crops cultivated.
did not realise that they were living in an era
The schedules containing these rates for
of expanding maritime trade.
different localities applicable year after year
were called dasturs. Europeans imported spices, indigo,
Bengal silk, muslin, calico and chintz. In
The urban economy was based on craft
return, India obtained large quantities of
industry. Cotton textile industry employed
silver and gold. Mughal silver coinage fuelled
large numbers of people as cotton carders,
the demand for silver.
spinners, dyers, printers and washers. Iron,
copper, diamond mining and gun making
14.11 Religion
were other chief occupations. Kharkhanas
were workshops where expensive craft The Mughal period witnessed a continuing
products were produced. The royal assertion of all the basic elements in puranic
kharkhanas manufactured articles for the use traditions. Though it was difficult to speak

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of Hinduism as a single body of doctrine, in condemned image worship and rituals, and
view of the countless faiths and innumerable the caste system. His popular poetry written
customs and practices, having developed in in a simple language was spread orally across
mutual interaction and expressed in a large part large parts of north India.
in the same language (Sanskrit), the different
An interesting aspect of the Bhakti
sects of Hinduism yet shared the same idiom
poets was that they came from lower castes
and the same or similar deities. The sixteenth
practising craft and service occupations.
and seventeenth centuries were the centuries
Kabir was a weaver, Ravidas, a worker in
of Vaishnavism. Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas)
hides, Sain, was a barber, and Dadu, a cotton
a great proponent of Rama cult in his popular
carder. The Satnami sect in Haryana credited
verses of devotion portrayed Rama as a god
its origin to Kabir and his teachings. While
incarnate. The expression of bhakti was deeply
Sanskrit and Persian were the languages of
emotional as the object of bhakti (devotion) was
administration and intellectual activity, the
Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu.
vernacular languages demonstrated their
The Bhakti movement made great strides literary vitality.
during this period. Poets and saints emerged
from various parts of the country. They Sikhism
were critical of rituals, and criticised the Sikhism originated as a popular
caste system. Rather than using Sanskrit for monotheistic movement, and evolved into
expressing their devotion, they employed the one of the recognised religions of the world.
language of the common people. The radical Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of Sikhs,
ideas, and the easy but catchy language often contained the sayings of Muslim saint Shaikh
set to music made them popular among the Farid and of Bhakti poets such as Namdev,
masses. Some of the major religious figures Kabir, Sain and Ravidas. Guru Nanak
like Vallabhacharya and his son Vitthalnath believed in one God who was formless and
propagated a religion of grace; and Surdas, omnipresent. He condemned image worship
an adherent to this sect, wrote Sur-Saravali and religious rituals. He stressed ethical
in the local language. Eknath and Tukaram conduct, kindness to all human beings and
were Bhakti poets from Maharashtra. The condemned caste system.
Dasakuta movement, a bhakti movement in
Karnataka, popularised by Vyasaraya, turned Sufism
out to be a lower class movement. India was a fertile soil for the prevalence
The most important figure of the Bhakti of Sufism or Muslim mysticism that had
movement was Kabir. Said to be a weaver, its origin in Iran. It was accepted by the
Kabir propounded absolute monotheism, orthodox theologians as long as it fulfilled
the obligations of the shariah. Sufism played
a key role in creating religious harmony.
Christianity
Along with the European traders came the
Christian missionaries like Roberto De Nobili,
Francis Xavier. The early missionaries were
Catholics. The first Lutheran missionaries
under Danish patronage arrived in 1706 at
Tranquebar and Ziegenbalg translated the
New Testament of the Bible into Tamil in
Kabir 1714, and soon the Old Testament as well.

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14.12 Science and Technology noted for the massive structures decorated
with bulbous domes, splendorous minarets,
The Madrasas continued to be concerned cupolas in the four corners, elaborate designs,
principally with Muslim theology and its and pietra dura (pictorial mosaic work). The
vast literature. In great learning centres like mosques built during the time of Babur and
Varanasi, astrology was taught and there Humayun are not of much architectural
was no institution in India, as noted by the significance. The Sur dynasty left behind a
French traveller Bernier, to the standards of few spectacular specimens in the form of the
colleges and universities in Europe. This made Purana Qila at Delhi, and the tombs of Sher
the imparting of scientific subjects almost Shah and Islam Shah at Sasaram in Bihar.
impossible. Attention was, however, given to The Purana Qila with a raised citadel and the
mathematics and astronomy. Akbar’s court poet tombs on a terraced platform surrounded by
Faizi translated Bhaskaracharya’s famous work large tanks were novel features.
on mathematics, Lilavati. Despite the presence
During Akbar’s reign, Humayun’s tomb
of Europeans, there was no influence of them
was enclosed with gardens and placed on a
on the Indian society during the Mughal period.
raised platform. Built by Indian artisans and
The method of water-lift based on pin- designed by Persian architects it set a pattern
drum gearing known as Persian wheel had been to be followed in the future. The Agra fort built
introduced during Babur’s time. A complicated with red sandstone is a specimen where Rajput
system of water lift by a series of gear-wheels architectural styles were also incorporated. The
had been installed in Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar new capital city of Akbar Fatehpur Sikri enclosed
was also credited with popularizing the device within its walls several inspiring buildings. The
of cooling water using saltpetre. He is also the magnificent gateway to Fatehpur Sikri, the Buland
first known person in the world to have devised Darwaza, built by Akbar with red sandstone and
the ‘ship's camel’, a barge on which the ship is marble is considered to be a perfect architectural
built to make it easier for the ship to be carried achievement. The mausoleum of Akbar at Sikandra
to the sea. Some mechanical devices like the near Agra started by Akbar and completed by
screw for tightening, manually driven belt-drill Jahangir includes some Buddhist architectural
for cutting diamonds were in use. Agricultural elements. The tomb of Itimad-ud-daula, father of
tools continued to be the same, made entirely Nurjahan, built by Jahangir was the first Mughal
of wood. In metallurgy, the inability to produce building built completely with white marble.
cast iron remained an obvious drawback. As
Mughal architecture reached its apex
Irfan Habib observed, ‘India’s backwardness in
during the reign of Shah Jahan. The Taj Mahal is
technology was obvious when the matchlock
a marble structure on an elevated platform, the
remained the most common weapon in Indian
bulbous dome in the centre rising on a recessed
armies. In Europe the flintlock had long
gateway with four cupolas around the dome and
come into use. Indians continued to use the
with four free-standing minarets at each of its
expensive bronze cannon, long after these had
corners is a monument of universal fame. The
become obsolete in Europe. This was because
Red Fort in Delhi, encompassed by magnificent
of India’s inability to make cast iron even in the
buildings like Diwan-i Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti
seventeenth century.’
Mahal and Hira Mahal reflect the architectural
Architecture skills of the times of Shah Jahan. The Moti Masjid
inside the Agra Fort made exclusively of marble,
Architectural progress
the Jama Masjid in Delhi, with its lofty gateway,
during the Mughals is a
series of domes and tall and slender minarets
landmark in world art.
are the two significant mosques built by Shah
Mughal buildings were
Jahan. He also established a new township, Shah

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Buland Darwaza Fatehpur Sikri-Panch Mahal Red Fort
jahanabad (present-day Old Delhi) where Red Daswant and Basawan were famous painters
Fort and Jama Masjid are located. Aurangzeb’s of Akbar’s court. European painting was
reign witnessed the construction of Badshahi introduced in Akbar’s court by Portuguese
mosque in Lahore and the marble tomb of Rabia priests. During Jahangir’s time portrait
ud daurani, known as Bibi-ka-maqbara (Tomb painting and the painting of animals had
of the Lady) at Aurangabad. developed. Mansur was a great name in this
The Shalimar Gardens of Jahangir and Shah field. The great Dutch painter Rembrandt was
Jahan are showpieces of Indian horticulture. influenced by Mughal miniatures. While Shah
Apart from the many massive structures, the Jahan continued the tradition of painting,
Mughals contributed many civil works of public Aurangzeb’s indifference to painting led to
utility, the greatest of them being the bridge over dispersal of the painters to different parts of
the Gomati river at Jaunpur. The most impressive the country and thereby led to promotion of
feat is the West Yamuna Canal which provided painting in the provinces.
water to Delhi. Music and Dance
Mughal architecture influenced even According to Ain-i-Akbari, Tansen of
temple construction in different parts of Gwalior, credited with composing of many
the country. The temple of Govind Dev at ragas, was patronised by Akbar along with
Vrindavan near Mathura and Bir Singh’s 35 other musicians. Jahangir and Shah Jahan
temple of Chaturbhuj at Orchchaa (Madhya were patrons of music. Though there is a
Pradesh) display Mughal influence. popular misconception that Aurangzeb was
Paintings against music, a large number of books on
Indian classical music were written during
The Mughals achieved international his regime. His queens, princes and nobles
recognition in the field of painting. Mughal continued to patronise music. The later
miniatures are an important part of the Mughal Muhammad Shah was instrumental
museums of the world. Ancient Indian in inspiring important developments in the
painting traditions kept alive in provinces field of music. Paintings in Babur Namah and
like Malwa and Gujarat along with the central Padshah Namah depict woman dancing to the
Asian influences created a deep impact in the accompaniment of musical instruments.
world of painting. The masters of miniature
painting, Abdu’s Samad and Mir Sayyid Literature
Ali, who had come to India from Central Persian, Sanskrit and regional languages
Asia along with Humayun inspired Indian developed during the Mughal rule. Persian was
painters. The primary objective of painting the language of administration in Mughal Empire
was to illustrate literary works. The Persian and the Deccan states. It influenced even the
text of Mahabharata and Akbar Namah were Rajput states where Persian words were used in
illustrated with paintings by various painters.
administration. Abul Fazal patronised by Akbar

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Persian works in the form of Sanskrit translations.

Akbar’s astronomer Nilakantha wrote the Tajika
Neelakanthi, an astrological treatise. Shah
Jahan’s court poet Jaganatha Panditha wrote the
monumental Rasagangadhara.
The greatest contribution in the field
of literature during the Mughal rule was the
development of Urdu as a common language of
communication for people speaking different
dialects. Regional languages acquired stability
Abul Fazl presenting Akbarnama and maturity and some of the finest lyrical poetry
compiled the history of Akbar in Akbar Nama was produced during this period. Abdur Rahim
and described Mughal administration in his work Khan-e-Khanan composed Bhakti poetry with a
Ain-i-Akbari. The Ain-i-Akbari is commendable blend of Persian ideas of life and human relations
for its interest in science, statistics, geography and in the Brij form of Hindi. Tulsidas who wrote in
culture. Akbar Namah was emulated by Abdul Awadhi, the Hindi dialect spoken in the eastern
Hamid Lahori and Muhammad Waris in their Uttar Pradesh, was very popular for his devotional
joint work Padshah Nama, a biography of Shah ideals. Marathi literature had an upsurge due to
Jahan. Later Muhammad Kazim in his Alamgir the literary contribution of Eknath, Tukaram,
Nama, a work on the reign of the first decade of Ramdas and Mukteshwar during this period.
Aurangzeb, followed the same pattern. Babur’s Eknath questioned the superiority of Sanskrit over
autobiography written in Chaghatai Turkish was other languages. The verses of Tukaram kindled
translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-e- monotheism. Mukteshwar composed Ramayana
Khanan. Dabistan is an impartial account of the and Mahabharata in literary Marathi.
beliefs and works of different religions. Persian Krishnadevaraya, the Vijayanagar ruler,
literature was enriched by translations of Sanskrit through his Amuktamalyada (an epic poem on
works. The Mahabharata was translated under the Tamil woman poet, Andal) and his court Poet
the supervision of Abul Faizi, brother of Abul Allasani Peddana with his Manu Charitra were
Fazal and a court poet of Akbar. The translation the leading beacons of Telugu literature during
of Upanishads this period. Malayalam which had separated
by Dara Shukoh, from Tamil as a language received a separate
entitled Sirr- literary identity during this period. Ramayana and
I-Akbar (the Mahabharata were composed in Malayalam. In
Great Secret), is Assamese language the tradition of Bhakti poetry
a landmark. The was emulated by Shankara Deva who initiated
Masnawis of Abul a new literary tradition. Assamese literary
Faizi, Utbi and works were produced in the fields of astronomy,
Naziri enriched arithmetic, and treatment of elephants and horses.
Persian Poetry in Ramayana and Mahabharata were also retold
Dara Shukoh India. in the Assamese language. The Chaitanya cult
The Sanskrit works produced during the which portrayed the love of Krishna and Radha
Mughal rule are impressive. Sanskrit literature of in poetic verses promoted Bengali literature. The
this period is noted for the kavyas and historical Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs
poetry. Rajavalipataka, a kavya, written by Prajna compiled by Guru Arjun Dev in which the verses
bhatta which completed the history of Kashmir of the Sikh Gurus as well as Shaikh Farid and
belonged to reign of Akbar. Graeco-Arabic other monotheists are a landmark in the evolution
learning was transmitted to India through of Punjabi language.

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During this period Tamil literature was Akbar’s mansabdari system and inclusive
dominated by Saivite and Vaishnavite literature. religious policy as well as consolidation of
Kumaraguruparar, a great Saiva poet, is said to have Mughal rule through military conquests,
visited Varanasi in the late seventeenth century. notably the second Battle of Panipat, are
He composed important literary works such as dealt with.
Meenakshiammai Pillai Tamil and Neethineri Jahangir’s lack of interest in governance
Vilakkam. Thayumanavar wrote highly devotional and Nur Jahan functioning as defacto ruler
verses with compassion for all humanity and are discussed.
he formulated a sanmarga that tried to bridge Shah Jahan’s Taj Mahal, epitome of Mughal
differences between the various Saivite sects. The architecture, and the war of succession
Christian missionaries like Roberto de Nobili and fought among his three sons are elaborated.
Constantine Joseph Beschi (Veeramamunivar) The constant wars between Mughals led by
contributed much to Tamil language. Aurangzeb and Marathas represented by
The empire the Mughals built at the national Shivaji along with Aurangzeb’s Rajput and
level made an everlasting impact on India as they Deccan policies are related.
knit the fragments into a single political unit, The salient features of Mughal society are
well aided by an effective central administration. detailed.
Multiple identities also got synthesized in the
process leading to the evolution of a unique EXERCISE
culture that is Indian.
Q.R.Code
Elsewhere in the World I. Choose the
Akbar’s period, 1556 to 1605, Correct Answer
was the period of great rulers. 1. Babur won the First Battle of Panipat in 1526
His nearest contemporary with the effective use of _____________
was Elizabeth of England. (a) Infantry (b) Cavalry
Shakespeare was living (c) Artillery (d) Elephant corps
around this time. Henry 2. B attle of Ghagra was the last battle fought by
IV of France, first ruler of Babur against_____________
Abbas the Great
the Bourbon dynasty, and (a) Afghans (b) Rajputs
Abbas the Great of Persia, the strongest ruler of (c) Turks (d) Marathas
the Safavid dynasty, were ruling their kingdoms
3. _____________won the Battle of Chausa due
during his period. The revolt of the Netherlands to his superior political and military skills.
against Spanish rule in Europe that commenced
(a) Babur (b) Humayun
during this period lasted for about eighty years
(c) Sher khan (d) Akbar
and ended in 1648.
4. _____________is a land tenure system in
SUMMARY which the collection of the revenue of an
estate and the power of governing it were
The four battles Babar fought to establish
bestowed upon on official of the state.
Mughal dynastic rule is described.
(a) Jagirdari (b) Mahalwari
Humayun’s difficulties because of his
brothers and hostility of Afghans and (c) Zamindari (d) Mansabdari
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat leading to the rise 5. The fiscal administration of Akbar was largely
of Sur dynasty are explained. based on the methods of ----------
Rise of Sher Shah and his revenue and fiscal (a) Babur (b) Humayun
measures are highlighted (c) Sher Shah (d) Ibrahim Lodi

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6. _____________was executed by Jahangir for (c) The Battle of Haldighati (1576) was the
instigating prince Khusrau to rebel. last pitched battle between the Mughal
(a) Guru Arjan Dev forces and Rana Pratap Singh.
(b) Guru Har Gobind (d) The Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of
(c) Guru Tegh Bahadur the Sikhs, was compiled by Guru Arjun Dev.
(d) Guru Har Rai 15. From the following statements, find out the
7. _____________reimposed Jizya in his rule. correct answer
(a) Akbar (b) Jahangir (i) The ferocious march of Rana Sanga
(c) Shah Jahan (d) Aurangzeb with a formidable force confronted
8. _____________ is the first known person in the forces of Babur.
the world to have devised the ‘ship’s camel’, a (ii) After the battle of Kanauj, Akbar
barge on which a ship is built. became a prince without a kingdom.
(a) Akbar (b) Shah Jahan (a) (i) is correct.
(c) Sher Shah (d) Babur (b) (ii) is correct.
9. T ansen of _____________ was patronized by (c) (i) and (ii) are wrong.
Akbar. (d) (i) and (ii) are correct.
(a) Agra (b) Gwalior 16. From the following statements, find out the
(c) Delhi (d) Mathura correct answer
10. Padshah Namah was a biography of (i) Sher Shah repaired the Grant Trunk
_____________ Road from Indus in the west to
(a) Babur (b) Humayun Sonargaon in Bengal.
(c) Shah Jahan (d) Akbar (ii) Akbar laid the foundation for a great
11. _____________ was an astrological treatise. empire through his military conquests.
(a) Tajikanilakanthi (b) Rasagangadhara (a) (i) is correct.
(c) Manucharita (d) Rajavalipataka (b) (ii) is correct
12. Meenakshiammai Pillai Tamil was composed (c) (i) and (ii) are correct
by _____________. (d) (i) and (ii) are wrong
(a) Thayumanavar (b) Kumaraguruparar 17. A ssertion (A): Babur won the first Battle
(c) Ramalinga Adigal (d) Sivappirakasar of Panipat.
13. Find out the incorrect statement Reason (R): Babur used artillery in the
battle.
(a) Taj Mahal is the epitome of Mughal
architecture, a blend of Indian, Persian (a) A is correct; R is the correct explanation of A.
and Islamic style. (b) A is wrong; R is correct.
(b) The new capital city of Akbar, Agra, (c) A and R is wrong.
enclosed within its wall several inspiring (d) A is correct ; R is not the correct
buildings. explanation of A.
(c) The Moti Masjid is made extensively of 18. A ssertion (A): Towards the end of
marble. Aurangzeb’s reign, the Mughal empire
(d) The Purana Qila is a raised citadel. began to disintegrate.
14. Find out the incorrect statement Reason (R): Aurangzeb was friendly
(a) The Zat determined the number of soldiers towards all Deccan rulers.
each mansabdar received, ranging from 1 (a) A is correct; R is not the correct
to 10000. explanation of A.
(b) Sher Shah’s currency system became the (b) A is correct ; R is the correct explanation
basis of the coinage under the British. of A.

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(c) A is wrong and R is correct. 7. Kharkhanas

(d) A is correct but R is wrong. 8. Kabir
hich of the following pairs is wrongly
19. W 9. Abul Fazal
matched. 10. Sufism
(a) Bhaskaracharya - Neethineri Vilakkam IV. Answer the following in detail
(b) Amuktamalyada - Krishnadevaraya
1. “Sher Shah was the forerunner of Akbar
(c) Jagannatha Panditha - Rasagangadhara
in revenue administration” – Explain.
(d) Allasani Peddana - Manucharita 2. Explain how Akbar’s religious policy
20. Match the following was different from the religious policy of
(A) Abul Fazal - 1. Aurangzeb Aurangzeb.
(B) Jama Masjid - 2. Akbar 3. How did Aurangzeb’s Deccan policy ruin
(C) Badshahi Mosque - 3. Sher Shah the Mughal empire?
(D) Purana Qila - 4. Shah Jahan 4. Analyze Mughal society in terms of its
(a) 2, 4, 1, 3 (b) 3, 2, 1, 4 economy, trade and commerce.
5. Attempt an essay on the splendour of
(c) 3, 1, 4, 2 (d) 1, 3, 2, 4
Mughal architecture.
II. Write Brief Answers
Activity
1. What prompted Babur to invade India?
1. On the outline map of India, mark the
2. How did Akbar deal with Bairam Khan? following a) extent of Akbar’s empire b)
3. Write a short note on extent of Aurangazeb’s empire.
a) William Hawkins b) Sir Thomas Roe 2. Prepare a timeline of Mughal period.
4. Nur Jahan was the power behind the throne 3. Arrange for a debate on “the disintegration
during Jahangir’s reign – Explain. of the Mughal kingdom led to the
5. Which is called the epitome of Mughal establishment of European powers in India”.
architecture? Explain its structure.
Assignments
6. What were the three major uprisings against
1. Preparing an album by collecting pictures
Aurangzeb in the North?
related to Mughal architecture.
7. Write a note on a) Sikhism b) Sufism. 2. Making a model of Taj Mahal
8. How did the Bhakti Saints become popular 3. Attempting a brief account of important
among the masses? battles fought by Mughals during the
9. Describe the development of Tamil language course of their rule, along with pictures
and literature during the Mughal period. from instagram.
10. “The Mughals achieved international
recognition in the field of painting” – REFERENCE BOOKS
Elucidate. 1. Abraham Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock
III. Write Short Answers Throne: The Saga of The Great Mughals,
Penguin Books, New Delhi, 1997.
1. “Humayun stumbled out of his life as he
stumbled through it” – Explain. 2. Irfan Habib, Medieval India, The Story of
a Civilization, National Book Trust, New
2. What do you know of Din-i-llahi ?
Delhi, 2007.
3. The siege of Chittor by Akbar.
3. Stanely Lane-Poole, Medieval India under
4. The Mansabdari system of Akbar. Mohammedan Rule (AD 712-1764), Delhi,
5. European factories established during the 1963.
Mughal rule. 4. Satish Chandra, Medieval India, NCERT,
6. Dara Shukoh New Delhi,

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5. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, 2. https://www.britannica.com/topic/

Orient BlackSwan, New Delhi, 2007 Mughal-dynasty
6. R. Sathianathaier, A Political and Cultural 3. w w w. h i s t o r y w o r l d . n e t / w r l d h i s /
History of India, Vol. II. Madras, 1980. PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab99
4. www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/
Mughal_Empire
INTERNET RESOURCES
5. https://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_ History/Mughals/mughals.html
Empire 6. www.ncert.nic.in/NCERTS/l/gess104.pdf
GLOSSARY
ingenuity inventiveness, cleverness புத்திகூர்மை
forsaking abandoning கைவிடப்பட்டதற்காக
intrigue secret planning of something illicit, plotting சூழ்ச்சி, சதி
துர�ோகத்தனமான, நம்பிக்கை
traitorous disloyal, backstabbing
ம�ோசம் செய்கிற
emanating originate, derive, emerge வெளிவருகின்ற
shipwright ship builder கப்பல் கட்டுபவர்
lacqueware articles that have a decorative lacquer coating மர ஆபரணப் ப�ொருள்
reeler one who winds something on a reel சிட்டத்தில் நூல் நூற்பவர்
கற்பொறி மூலம் இயங்கும்
flintlock an old fashioned type of gun fired by a spark from a flint
துப்பாக்கி
a small dome, on the top of a larger dome, adorning a
cupolas roof or ceiling க�ோபுர வடிவக் குவிமாடம்
Sources for the Study of Mughal Empire
S.No Name of the Author Work Language Content

1. Babur Tuzuk I Baburi Turkish Autobiography of Babur
2. Mirza Muhammad Haider Tarikh I Rashidi Persian History of Mughals of Central
(Cousin of emperor Babur) Asia
3. Gulbadan Begum Daughter Humayun Namah Persian History of Humayun
of Babur
4. Abbas Khan Sarwani Tarikh I Sher Shahi Persian Describes the contest between
Humayun and Sher Shah
5. Rizaqullah Mushtaqi Waqiat I Mushtaqi Persian Elaborates on Sher Shah and
Islam Shah
6. Firishta (in the service of Tarikh I Firishta Persian History of Muhammedan Power
Bijapur Sultan Aadil Shah II) in India till 1612.
7. Abul Fazal Akbar Namah Persian History of Mughals with special
emphasis on Akbar
8. Abul Fazal Ain I Akbari Persian Administration of Akbar
9. Khwaja Nizamuddin Tabaqat I Akbari Persian Deals with Mughals up to
Ahmad Akbar.
10. Abdul Qadir Badauni Muntakhab-Ut- Persian General History of Muslims
(Member of Akbar’s Court Tawarikh
11. Jahangir Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri Persian Autobiography
12. Mutamid Khan Iqbal Namah Persian Description of the Mughals
13. Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshah Namah Persian Describes first ten years of
reign of Sha Jahan.

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ICT CORNER
The Mughal Empire
Let us create the timeline of

Mughal Empire.
Procedure
Step 1 Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step 2 Organize the timeline by clicking ‘Time, Date, Event’. Then
type ‘your name’ and ‘project name’’, Click the ‘START’ button.
Step 3 Click the timeline (centre line) a window will open. Type the
‘Label’, ‘Short description’, ‘Full description’, and ‘choose image’
of the king. Then click the ‘ ’ button.
Step 4 Similarly create for other rulers. Click the ‘Finish’ button.
Step 5 Save ‘final’ in the location that you need.
Step1 Step2 Step3 Step4
URL:
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/interactives/timeline_2/
Pictures are indicative only

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UNIT
The Marathas
15
Learning Objectives
Conditions that facilitated the rise of Marathas
Shivaji’s contribution to the establishment of Maratha kingdom
Shivaji’s administrative system
Peshwa rule and administration
Role of Maratha in Tamilnadu with special reference to Serfoji II
Introduction themselves on their loyalty, courage, discipline,

cunningness, and endurance. They had earlier
The Marathas played a major role in the served under the Bahmani Sultans and later,
decline of Mughal power. Under the dynamic after its disintegration, under the Sultans of
leadership of Shivaji, they posed a strong Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Bidar and
challenge to Mughal power during the 1670s. Berar.
By the middle of the 18th century, they had
Marathas avoided direct battles with the
succeeded in displacing Mughal power in
Mughal armies that were equipped with strong
central India. Nayak rule ended in 1674 in
cavalry and deadly cannons. "Guerrilla warfare"
Thanjavur, when the Maratha General Venkoji
was their strength. They possessed the ability to
(half brother of Shivaji) leading the Bijapur
plan and execute the surprise lightning attacks
forces invaded Thanjavur and succeeded in at night. Further, they exhibited skills to change
establishing Maratha rule in the Tamil region. their tactics according to the battle situation
Maratha rule in Thanjavur which started from without waiting for orders from a superior
1674 continued until the death of Serfoji II in officer.
1832.
(b) Bhakti Movement and its
15.1 Causes of the Rise of Impact
the Marathas
The spread of the Bhakti
(a) Physical features and Nature movement inculcated the
spirit of oneness among the
of the People
Marathas. Tukaram, Ramdas,
The region of the Marathas consisted and Eknath were the leading
of a narrow strip of land called Konkan. Its lights of the movement. The
precipitous mountains, inaccessible valleys and hymns of the Bhakti saints
impregnable hill-forts were most favourable were sung in Marathi and they
for military defence. The Marathas claimed a created a bond among people Ramdas
long tradition of military prowess and prided across the society.
225

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Military Conquests
“The religious revival [in Maratha country]
Shivaji began his military career at the age
was not Brahmanical” in its orthodoxy, it
of nineteen. In 1646, he captured the fortress
was heterodox in its spirit of protest against
of Torna from the Sultan of Bijapur. The fort
forms, ceremonies and class distinctions.
of Raigad, located five miles east of Torna, was
The saints sprang chiefly from the lower
captured and wholly rebuilt. After the death of
order of the society other than Brahmins.
Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji took over all
– Justice Ranade.
the jagirs of his father. Subsequently, the forts of
Baramati, Indapura, Purandhar and Kondana
(c) External causes came under his direct control. The Marathas
had already captured Kalyan, an important
The degeneration of Bijapur and Golkonda
prompted the Marathas to unite and fight town in that region.
together. The Deccan wars against the Sultans Shivaji’s father had been humiliated
of Bijapur, Golkonda and Ahmednagar had and imprisoned by the Sultan of Bijapur. He
exhausted the Mughal treasury. Shivaji rallied negotiated with Prince Murad, the Mughal
the Marathas who lay scattered in many parts of Viceroy of the Deccan and expressed his wish
Deccan under his leadership and built a mighty to join Mughal service. The Sultan of Bijapur
kingdom, with Raigarh (Raigad) as the capital. released Shahji in 1649 on some conditions.
So, Shivaji refrained from his military activities
15.2 Shivaji (1627–1680) from 1649 to 1655. During this period, he
Shivaji was born in consolidated his power and toned up his
Shivner near Junnar. He was administration.
the son of Shahji Bhonsle by In 1656, Shivaji re-started his military
his first wife Jijabai. Shahji was activities. He captured Javli in the Satara district
a descendant of the Yadava and the immense booty that he won made him
rulers of Devagiri from his popular among the Marathas. Many young men
mother’s side and the Sisodias joined his army. A new fort, Pratapgarh, was
of Mewar on his father’s side. built two miles west of Javli.
Shivaji
Shahji Bhonsle served under
Malik Ambar (1548–1626), former slave, and Confrontation against Bijapur
the Abyssinian minister of Ahmed Shah of After Mohammad Adilshah of Bijapur died
Ahmednagar. After the death of Malik Ambar, in November 1656, Adilshah II, a young man of
Shahji played a vital role in its politics. After the eighteen, succeeded him. Aurangzeb captured
annexation of Ahmednagar by the Mughals, he Bidar, Kalyani and Purandar in 1657. So, both
entered the service of the Sultan of Bijapur. Shivaji and the Bijapur Sultan were forced
Shivaji and his mother were left under the to make peace with Aurangzeb. At this time
care of Dadaji Kondadev who administered Shahji Shah Jahan fell ill, and a war of succession was
Bhonsle’s jagirs (land grants given in recognition imminent in Delhi. Aurangzeb left for Delhi to
of military or administrative services rendered) take part in it. Using this opportunity, Shivaji
at Poona. Shivaji earned the goodwill of the invaded north Konkan and captured the cities
Mavali peasants and chiefs, who were a martial of Kalyan, Bhivandi and fort of Mahuli.
people with knowledge about the hilly areas
Shivaji and Afzal Khan, 1659
around Poona. Shivaji made himself familiar with
the hilly areas around Poona. Religious heads, As there was no danger from the Mughals,
Ramdas and Tukaram, also influenced Shivaji. Bijapur Sultan decided to attack Shivaji.
Ramdas was regarded by Shivaji as his guru. Afzal Khan was sent with a huge army. He
226 The Marathas

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boasted that he would bring the “mountain- June 1665. The heroic resistance of Shivaji
rat” in chains. But, he found fighting in the became futile. Therfore he decided to come
mountainous country extremely difficult. to negotiate with Jai Singh. According to the
So, he planned to trick Shivaji but he was treaty of Purandar signed on 11 June 1665
outwitted. The Maratha forces ravaged South Shivaji yielded the fortresses that he had
Konkan and Kolhapur district and captured captured and agreed to serve as a mansabdar
the fort of Panhala. The Sultan of Bijapur and assist the Mughals in conquering Bijapur.
himself led the army and the war dragged on
Visit to Agra
for more than a year. Nothing substantial was
gained. Finally, after negotiations, Shivaji was Jai Singh persuaded Shivaji to visit the
recognised as the ruler of the territories in his Mughal court. He fed Shivaji with high hopes
possession. and took personal responsibility for his safety
at the capital. Shivaji and his son Sambhaji
Shivaji and the Mughals reached Agra in May 1666. But, they were not
In July 1658, Aurangzeb ascended the shown due respect. Humiliated, he burst out
throne as the Emperor. Shaista Khan was and abused the Emperor. When Shivaji was
appointed the Governor of the Deccan in imprisoned, he managed to escape by hiding
1660 with the main purpose of crushing himself in a fruit basket.
Shivaji. Shivaji hit upon a bold plan. He In 1666, Shivaji resumed his belligerent
entered Poona at night with 400 soldiers in policy and led Maratha soldiers in new
the form of a marriage party and attacked the conquests. As the Mughals were busy with
home of Shaista Khan. Aurangzeb was forced the Afghan risings in the North-West, they
to recall Shaista Khan from the Deccan in could not deal with Shivaji. Shivaji also
December 1663. occupied himself with the re-organisation
Shivaji and Jaisingh of his internal administration. Prince
Muazzam, Viceroy of the Deccan, was weak
In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the major
and indolent. Raja Jaswant Singh was friendly
Mughal port in Arabian Sea and his soldiers
towards Shivaji. Sambhaji was also made a
plundered the city. Aurangzeb despatched
mansabdar of 5000.
an army under the command of the Rajput
general Raja Jai Singh to defeat Shivaji and Conflict with the Mughals
annex Bijapur. At that time, Prince Muazzam, (1670)
(known as Bahadur Shah I), was the Governor
Aurangzeb took
of the Deccan. Jai Singh made elaborate plans
back a part of the jagir
to encircle Shivaji on all sides. Even Raigarh
in Berar which was
was under threat. Purandar was besieged in
once given to Shivaji.
Shivaji got annoyed and
recalled his troops from
Mughal service. He
recovered almost all the
forts he had ceded to the
Mughals by the treaty of Aurangzeb
Purandar. In 1670, he
again sacked Surat, the most important port
on the western coast. In 1672, the Marathas
imposed chauth or one fourth of the revenue
Shivaji and Jai Singh as annual tribute on Surat.
The Marathas 227

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Coronation He allowed his half-brother Venkoji or Ekoji to

On 6 June 1674, Shivaji was crowned at carry on administering Thanjavur. The Nayaks
Raigarh. He assumed the title of “Chhatrapathi”( of Madurai promised a huge amount as tribute.
metaphor for “supreme king ”). The Carnatic campaigns added glory and
prestige to Shivaji. Senji, the newly conquered
place, acted as the second line of defence for his
successors.
Last days of Shivaji
Shivaji’s last days were not happy. His
eldest son Sambhaji deserted him and joined
the Mughal camp. Although he returned,
he was imprisoned and sent to Panhala fort
by Aurangzeb. The relentless campaigns
affected Shivaji’s health. He died in 1680 at
Raigarh (Raigad) Fort
the age of 53.
Deccan Campaigns At the time of his death, Shivaji’s kingdom
In 1676, Shivaji began his career of conquests comprised the Western Ghats and the Konkan
in the south. A secret treaty was signed with the between Kalyan and Goa. The provinces in the
Sultan of Golkonda. Shivaji promised him some south included western Karnataka extending
territories in return for his support. He captured from Belgaum to the bank of Tungabhadra.
Senji and Vellore and annexed the adjoining Vellore, Senji and a few other districts were not
territories which belonged to his father, Shahji. settled at the time of his death.
N
W E
Marathas Kingdom of Shivaji
S
Nagpur
Surat MAHARASHTRAM
Diu Daman
Aurangabad
Ahmednagar
Mumbai Godavari
Poona
Raigarh
Prathapgarh
Satara Solapur Hyderabad
Ratnagiri Belgam
BAY
Goa
Bellari
OF
Karwar
BENGAL
Kolar Chennai
ARABIAN Bangalore
Vellore
SEA Arni
Calicut Senji
Varaingipettai
Tiruchi Thanjavur
Kochi
Map not to scale

Kollam
Sri lanka
I N DI A N O C E AN
228 The Marathas

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15.3 Marathas after Shivaji became a titular head. Tara

Bai was disappointed. Tara
A year after the death of Shivaji, his eldest Bai and Rama Raja died in
son and successor Sambhaji led a Maratha army 1761 and 1777 respectively.
into Mughal territory, captured Bahadurpur Shahu II, the adopted
in Berar, and plundered its wealth. Provoked son of Rama Raja, ruled
by this humiliation, Aurangzeb struck a till his death in 1808 as a
compromise with the Mewar Rajputs and led an nonentity. His son Pratap
army into the Deccan. Bijapur and Golkonda Singh who came to the
were annexed in 1686 and 1687 respectively. throne next was deposed
The next task of Aurangzeb was to punish by the British government
Tara Bai
Sambhaji for giving protection to his rebellious in 1839 on the charge that
son Prince Akbar II. In 1689 the Mughal forces he plotted against the British Government.
captured Sambhaji and killed him. Pratap Singh died as a prisoner in 1847. His
Sambhaji’s death did not deter the Marathas. younger brother Shaji Appa Saheb, Shaji II, was
His younger brother Rajaram renewed the fight made king by the British in 1839. Shahji II died
from the fortress of Senji in the Tamil country. The in 1848 without a successor.
fight continued for many years. After the death
15.4 Maratha
of Rajaram in 1700, resistance continued under
the leadership of his widow, Tara Bai. Acting on Administration
behalf of his infant son, she despatched an army
Central Government
of 50,000 horsemen and infantry to Hyderabad.
The capital was plundered and, as a result, trade Shivaji was a not only a great warrior
in Masulipatnam, the major port of the region, but a good administrator too. He had an
trade remained disrupted for many years. At the advisory council to assist him in his day-to-day
time of Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 Marathas still administration. This council of eight ministers
had many fortified places under their control. was known as Ashta Pradhan. Its functions
were advisory. The eight ministers were:
After Aurangzeb’s death, Sambhaji’s son
Shahu was released from prison and claimed the The Mukhya Pradhan or Peshwa or prime
Maratha throne. Tara Bai objected and it led to a minister whose duty was to look after the
civil war, in which Shahu emerged victorious and general welfare and interests of the State.
ascended the throne in 1708. Balaji Viswanath He officiated for the king in his absence.
was very supportive of Shahu and helped him The Amatya or finance minister checked
ascend to the throne in 1708. As a gesture of his and countersigned all public accounts of
gratitude Shahu appointed Balaji Viswanath as the kingdom.
the Peshwa in 1713. In course of time, the Peshwa The Walkia-Nawis or Mantri maintained
became the real ruler. Shahu retired to Satara the records of the king’s activities and the
and the Peshwa started to rule from Poona. proceedings in the court.
Tara Bai carried on a parallel rival Summant or Dabir or foreign secretary
government with Kolhapur as capital. But was to advise king on all matters of war
Raja Bai, the second wife of Rajaram and her and peace and to receive ambassadors and
son Sambhaji II imprisoned Tara Bai and her envoys from other countries.
son in 1714. Sambhaji II ascended the throne
Sachiv or Shuru Nawis or home secretary
of Kolhapur. However he had to accept the
was to look after the correspondence of the
overlordship of Shahu. After Shahu died in 1749,
king with the power to revise the drafts. He
Rama Raja who ascended the throne, made a
also checked the accounts of the Parganas.
pact with the Peshwa, according to which he
The Marathas 229

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Pandit Rao or Danadhyaksha or Sadar Liberal loans were also advanced to the peasants
and Muhtasib or ecclesiastical head was in for purchasing cattle, seed, etc.
charge of religion, ceremonies and charities.
Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
He was the judge of canon law and censor
of public morals. As the revenue collected from the state was
Nyayadhish or chief justice was responsible insufficient to meet its requirements, Shivaji
for civil and military justice. collected two taxes, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi,
from the adjoining territories of his empire,
Sari Naubat or commander-in-chief was the Mughal provinces and the territories of
in charge of recruitment, organization and the Sultan of Bijapur. Chauth was one-fourth
discipline of the Army. of the revenue of the district conquered by the
With the exception of the Nyayadhish Marthas. Sardeshmukhi was an additional 10%
and Pandit Rao, all the other ministers were of the revenue which Shivaji collected by virtue
to command armies and lead expeditions. All of his position as Sardeshmukh. Sardeshmukh
royal letters, charters and treaties had to get was the superior head of many Desais or
the seal of the King and the Peshwa and the Deshmukhs. Shivaji claimed that he was the
endorsement of the wfour ministers other than hereditary Sardeshmukh of his country.
the Danadyaksha, Nyayadhisha and Senapati.
Military Organization
There were eighteen departments under the
charge of the various ministers. Shivaji organized a standing army. As
we have seen, he discouraged the practice
Provincial Government of granting jagirs and making hereditary
For the sake of administrative convenience, appointments. Quarters were provided to the
Shivaji divided the kingdom into four provinces, soldiers. The soldiers were given regular salaries.
each under a viceroy. The provinces were The army consisted of four divisions: infantry,
divided into a number of Pranths. The practice cavalry, an elephant corps and artillery. Though
of granting jagirs was abandoned and all officers the soldiers were good at guerrilla methods of
were paid in cash. Even when the revenues of warfare, at a later stage they were also trained in
a particular place were assigned to any official, conventional warfare.
his only link was with the income generated The infantry was divided into regiments,
from the property. He had no control over the brigades. The smallest unit with nine soldiers
people associated with it. No office was to be was headed by a Naik (corporal). Each unit with
hereditary. The fort was the nerve-centre of 25 horsemen was placed under one havildar
the activities of the Pranth. The lowest unit of (equivalent to the rank of a sergeant). Over
the government was the village in which the five havildars were placed under one jamaladar
traditional system of administration prevailed. and over ten jamaladars under one hazari. Sari
Naubat was the supreme commander of cavalry.
Revenue Administration
The cavalry was divided into two classes: the
The revenue administration of Shivaji was bargirs (soldiers whose horses were given by the
humane and beneficent to the cultivators. The state) and the shiledars (mercenary horsemen
lands were carefully surveyed and assessed. The who had to find their own horses). There were
state demand was fixed at 30% of the gross produce water-carriers and farriers too.
to be payable in cash or kind. Later, the tax was
raised to 40%. The amount of money to be paid Justice
was fixed. In times of famine, the government The administration of justice was of a
advanced money and grain to the cultivators rudimentary nature. There were no regular
which were to be paid back in instalments later. courts and regular procedures. The panchayats
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functioned in the villages. The system of ordeals in 1731. And the Peshwa assumed the office of
was common. Criminal cases were tried by the the commander-in-chief also. By the treaty of
Patels. Appeals in both civil and criminal cases Warna signed in 1731, Sambhaji of Kolhapur
were heard by the Nyayadhish (chief justice) was forced to accept the sovereignty of Shahu.
with the guidance of the smritis. Hazir Majlim
Thana, Salsette and Bassein were captured
was the final court of appeal
from the Portuguese in 1738 and they were
15.5 Rule of the Peshwas driven out of the Konkan coast. At the same
(1713-1818) time, the English made friendly overtures to the
Marathas and got the right to free trade in the
The Peshwa or the prime minister was the Deccan region.
foremost minister in the Ashta Pradhan, the
council of ministers of Shivaji. The Peshwas
gained more powers and became dominant in
the eighteenth Century. Balaji Viswanath was
the first powerful Peshwa.
Peshwa is a Persian word which

means “Foremost” or the “First Minister”.
Balaji Viswanath (1713–1720)

Balaji Viswanath
assisted the Maratha Baji Rao I
emperor Shahu to
consolidate his control Balaji Baji Rao (1740–1761)
over the kingdom that had Balaji Baji Rao succeeded as the
been plagued by a civil Peshwa after the death of his father Baji Rao I.
war. Kanhoji Angre was Known as Nana Sahib, he proved to be a
the most powerful naval Balaji Viswanath
good administrator and an expert in handling
chief on the western coast. During the civil war financial matters.
Kanhoji had supported Tarabai. The Peshwa
convinced him of the common danger from
the Europeans and secured his loyalty to Shahu.
The practice of granting jagirs was revived. And
the office of Peshwa was made hereditary.
Baji Rao I (1720–1740)
After Balaji Viswanath, his son Baji Rao I
was appointed Peshwa in 1720 by Shahu. Baji
Rao enhanced the power and prestige of the
Maratha Empire by defeating the Nizam of
Hyderabad, the Rajput Governor of Malwa and
the Governor of Gujarat. He freed Bundelkhand Balaji Baji Rao
from the control of Mughals and for this the
Carnatic Expedition
Marathas got one third of the territories from
its ruler. The commander-in-chief, Trimbak Chanda Sahib, son-in-law of the Nawab
Rao, who troubled the Peshwa, was defeated of Arcot, after capturing Tiruchirappalli
and killed in the battle of Dabhai near Baroda threatened to lay siege to Thanjavur. Its
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Maratha ruler appealed to Shahu for help in the part of the Peshwa against the British, both
1739. Responding to this appeal, the Peshwa in Karnataka and Bengal, would have probably
sent Raghoji Bhonsle (Sahu’s brother-in- checked their advance. But the Peshwa’s undue
law) to Thanjavur. Raghoji Bhonsle defeated interests in Delhi earned the enmity of various
and killed the Nawab of Arcot, Dost Ali, regional powers. Ahmad Shah Abdali brought
in 1740. Tiruchirappalli was captured and about the disaster at Panipat in 1761.
Chanda Sahib imprisoned. As the Peshwa was
The Third Battle of Panipat, 1761
subsequently engaged in military expeditions
in Bundelkhand and Bengal, Mohammed Ali, The third battle of Panipat, 1761 is one of the
who succeeded Dost Ali, could easily retake decisive battles in the history of India. The defeat
Arcot and recapture Tiruchirappalli in 1743. in the battle dealt a severe blow to the Marathas
The Peshwa then sent his cousin Sadasiva Rao and the Mughal Empire and thereby paved the
to the Carnatic. Although the authority of the way for the rise of the British power in India.
Marathas was re-established, Tiruchirappalli
Circumstances
could not be regained.
The tottering Mughal Empire neglected
Battle of Udgir, 1760 the defence of the north-west frontier areas.
A war of succession broke out after the This prompted Nadir Shah, the then ruler
death of Nizam Asaf Jah in 1748. Peshwa of Afghanistan, to invade India. In spite of
supported the eldest son of the Nizam. The army his repeated demands, the Mughal ruler,
sent by Peshwa under Sadasiva Rao won the Muhammad Shah, provided asylum to the
battle of Udgir in 1760. This success marked the Afghan rebels. So, his invasions started in 1739.
climax of Maratha military might. The Peshwa Delhi was plundered. The Kohinoor diamond
took over Bijapur, Aurangabad, Dulatabad, and the valuable peacock throne were taken
Ahmednagar and Burhanpur. away by Nadir Shah.
The Marathas had brought Rajaputana When Nadir Shah was assassinated in 1747,
under their domination after six expeditions one of his military generals, Ahmad Shah Abdali
between 1741 and 1748. In 1751 the Nawab of became an independent ruler of Afghanistan.
Bengal had to cede Orissa and pay an annual After consolidating his position, he started
tribute to the Marathas. As the Marathas were his military expeditions. The Mughal emperor
always after the Mughal throne they entered made peace with him by ceding Multan and the
Delhi in 1752 to drive out the Afghans and Punjab. Mir Mannu, appointed by the Mughal
Rohillas from Delhi. Imad-ul-Mulk who was Emperor as the governor of Punjab, was to act
made the Wazir with the help of Marathas only as an agent of Ahmad Shah Abdali. On
became a puppet in their hands. After bringing Mir Mannu’s death, the widow of Mir Mannu,
the Punjab under their control, they expelled with the help of the Wazir of Delhi, Imad-ul-
the representative of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Mulk, appointed Mir Munim as the Governor
founder of the Durani Empire in Afghanistan. of the Punjab, without the consent of Abdali.
A major conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali Infuriated by this move Abdali invaded India
became therefore inevitable. and captured the Punjab. Mir Munim fled to
Delhi. Pursuing him Abdali captured Delhi
The Marathas tried to find allies among
and pillaged it in January 1757. Mathura and
the powers in the north-west. But their earlier
Brindavan were desecrated.
deeds had antagonized all of them. The Sikhs,
Jat chiefs and Muslims did not trust them. Before leaving Delhi, Abdali appointed
The Marathas did not help Siraj-ud-Daulah in Mir Bakshi as his agent in Delhi. Timur Shah,
the battle of Plassey in 1757. So no help was his son, was made the Viceroy of Lahore. An
forthcoming from Bengal either. A move on expedition under Malhar Rao Holkar and
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Raghunatha Rao reached Delhi after Abdali completely routed. The Peshwa’s son Viswas
had left. They removed the agent of Abdali at Rao, Sadasiva Rao and numerous Maratha
Delhi and appointed a man of their choice as commanders were killed. Holkar fled and
the Wazir. Thereafter they captured Sirhind the contingents of Scindia followed him. The
and Lahore in 1758. The Afghan forces were Peshwa was stunned by the tragic news. The
defeated, and Timur Shah deposed. Peshwa died broken hearted in June 1761.
So, Abdali returned to India in October After the battle of Panipat, Abdali
1759 and recovered the Punjab. The Marathas recognized Shah Alam II as the Emperor of
were forced to withdraw from Lahore, Multan Delhi. He got an annual tribute. The Marathas,
and Sirhind. The wildest anarchy prevailed in though they received a severe blow initially,
the region. So, the Peshwa sent Dattaji Scindia, managed to restore their power within ten years
the brother of Mahadhaji Scindia, to the in the north by becoming the guardian of the
Punjab to set matters right. But Abdali defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam.
and killed him in the battle (1760). Malhar
Peshwa Madhav Rao I
Rao Holkar was also defeated at Sikandara.
Thereupon the Peshwa recruited a huge army (1761–1772) and His Successors
under the command of Sadasiva Rao. In 1761, Madhav Rao, the son of Balaji Baji
Abdali responded by forming an alliance Rao, became the Peshwa under the regency of
with Najib-ud-Daulah of Rohilkhand and Raghoba, the younger brother of Peshwa.
Shuja-ud-Daulah of Oudh. The Marathas could Madhav Rao tried to regain the Maratha power
not find allies among the northern powers, as which was lost in the battle of Panipat. In
they had already alienated from the Nawab of 1763 a fierce battle was fought with the Nizam
Oudh, the Sikh and Jat chiefs and gained the of Hyderabad. His expeditions (1765–1767)
distrust of the Rajputs. against Haider Ali of Mysore were successful.
However Haider Ali soon recovered almost all
The Maratha army was under the nominal
his lost territories. But Madhav Rao regained
command of Vishwas Rao, the young son of
them in 1772 and Haider Ali was forced to sign
the Peshwa. The real command, however,
a humiliating treaty.
was in the hands of Sadasiva Rao. On their
way, they were joined by the Holkar, Scindia The Peshwa reasserted control over
and Gaikwar. Around this time, Alamgir II, northern India by defeating the Rohillas
the Mughal Emperor had been assassinated (Pathans) and subjugating the Rajput states and
and his eldest son crowned himself as Shah Jat Chiefs. Shah Alam II, the fugitive Emperor,
Alam II. But the Wazir who manoeuvred was in Allahabad under the protection of the
the assassination enthroned Shah Jahan III. British. In 1771, the Marathas brought him
Sadasiva Rao intruded and deposed Shah Jahan back to Delhi. The Emperor ceded Kora and
III and proclaimed Shah Alam II as Emperor. Allahabad to them. But the sudden death of
After the preliminaries were settled, Sadasiva Peshwa in 1772 brought an end to his glorious
Rao, instead of attacking the forces of Abdali, career.
remained quiet for a long time, until the scarcity As Madhav Rao I had no sons, his younger
of food became acute. Abdali stationed his brother Narayan Rao became Peshwa in 1772.
troops in the fertile doab from where he could But he was murdered the next year. His
get food without interruption. posthumous son Sawai Madhav Rao (Madhav
Rao II) was proclaimed Peshwa on the 40th day
Effects of the Battle of Panipat
of his birth. After the death of Madhav Rao II,
The third battle of Panipat was fought Baji Rao II, the son of Raghunath Rao became
on 14 January 1761. The Maratha army was the Peshwa and was the last Peshwa.
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15.6 The Anglo-Maratha in 1802. According to the treaty the territory

Wars to be ceaded should fetch an income of
Rs. 26 Lakhs. The leading Maratha States
(a) The First Anglo Maratha War regarded the treaty as humiliating and hence
(1775-1782) decided to defy it. So the second Anglo-
Maratha war broke out. In spite of the brave
Madhav Rao Narayan resistance put up by the Marathas, the Maratha
was an infant Peshwa leaders were completely routed. The Subsidiary
under the regency of Nana Alliance was accepted. The British got Doab,
Fadnavis. The usurping of Ahmednagar, Broach and all of the hilly regions.
power by Ragunath Rao,
uncle of the former Peshwa (c) The Third Anglo-Maratha War
Madhava Rao I, provided the scope for the (1817-1818)
Company administration to fish in the troubled Peshwa Baji Rao II became anti-British,
waters. The Company administration in Bombay as the prime minister of the Gaikwar (ruler)
supported Ragunath Rao in return for getting of Baroda Gangadhar Sastri was killed by
Salsette and Bassein. As Mahadaji Scindia and Trimbakji, a favourite of Peshwa. At the
the Bhonsle of Nagpur turned pro-British, the instance of the Resident at Poona, Mountstuart
Marathas had to concede Thane and Salsette Elphinstone, Trimabakji was imprisoned. The
to the latter. By the treaty of Salbai, in 1782, murderer however managed to escape from
Ragunath Rao was pensioned off. Following the prison with the assistance of the Peshwa.
this, peace prevailed between the Company and Peshwa was also charged with creating the
the Marathas for about two decades. Maratha confederacy and plotting with Scindia,
Bhonsle and Holkar against the British. So, the
British forced the Peshwa to sign a new treaty at
Poona in 1817. Accordingly,
The Peshwa resigned the headship of the
Maratha confederacy.
Ceded Konkan to the British and recognised
the independence of the Gaikwar.
Baji Rao was not reconciled to this
humiliation. So when the British were busily
engaged in the suppression of the Pindaris,
Baji Rao II burnt down the Poona Residency.
General Smith rushed to Poona and captured
it, with the Peshwa fleeing to Satara, which was
Anglo-Maratha War also captured by General Smith. Baji Rao fled
(b) The Second Anglo-Maratha from place to place. General Smith defeated his
War (1803-1806) forces at Ashta, Kirkee and Korgaon. Finally,
Baji Rao surrendered to Elphinstone in 1818.
The death of Nana Fadnavis resulted in
Outcome of the Third Anglo-
a scramble for his huge possessions. Peshwa
Baji Rao II was dethroned. In the then trying Maratha War
circumstances, he had to accept the help of The British abolished the Peshwai (office of
the British. Wellesley, the then Governor the Peshwa) and annexed all the Peshwa’s
General, forced the Subsidiary Alliance on dominions. But the jagirs of the fief holders
the Peshwa. The treaty of Bassein was signed were restored.
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Until his death in 1851 Baji Rao II remained the districts. They were responsible for every
a prisoner with an annual pension. branch of district administration. Deshmukhs
Pratap Singh, a descendent of Shivaji, was and Deshpandes were district officers who were
made the king of a small kingdom carved in charge of accounts and were to observe the
around Satara. activities of Mamlatdars and Kamavistars. It
was a system of checks and balances.
The Maratha Confederacy organised by
Baji Rao I comprising Bhonsle, Holkar and In order to prevent misappropriation
Scindia was dissolved. of public money, the Maratha government
collected a heavy sum (Rasad) from the
Mountstuart Elphinstone, who had been
Mamlatdars and other officials. It was collected
Resident at Poona, became Governor of
on their first appointment to a district. In Baji
Bombay.
Rao II’s time, these offices were auctioned off.
The clerks and menials were paid for 10 or 11
15.7 Maratha months in a year.
Administration under
Village Administration
Peshwas (1714-1818)
The village was the basic unit of
The Peshwa was one of the Ashta Pradhan administration and was self-supportive. The
of Shivaji. This office was not a hereditary one. Patel was the chief village officer and was
As the power and prestige of the king declined, responsible for remitting revenue collections to
the Peshwas rose to prominence. The genius the centre. He was not paid by the government.
of Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720) made the His post was hereditary. The Patel was helped
office of the Peshwa supreme and hereditary. by the Kulkarni or accountant and record-
The Peshwas virtually controlled the whole keeper. There were hereditary village servants
administration, usurping the powers of the who had to perform the communal functions.
king. They were also recognized as the religious The carpenters, blacksmiths and other village
head of the state. artisans gave begar or compulsory labour.
Central Secretariat Urban Administration
The centre of the Maratha administration In towns and cities the chief officer was
was the Peshwa Secretariat at Poona. It dealt the Kotwal. The maintenance of peace and
with the revenues and expenditure of all the order, regulation of prices, settling civil disputes
districts, the accounts submitted by the village and sending of monthly accounts to the
and district officials. The pay and rights of governments were his main duties. He was the
all grades of public servants and the budgets head of the city police and also functioned as
under civil, military and religious heads were the magistrate.
also handled. The daily register recorded all
revenues, all grants and the payments received Sources of Revenue
from foreign territories. Land revenue was the main source of
income. The Peshwas gave up the system of
Provinces
sharing the produce of the agricultural land
Provinces under the Peshwas were of followed under Shivaji’s rule. The Peshwas
various sizes. Larger provinces were under followed the system of tax farming. Land was
the provincial governors called Sar-subahdars. settled against a stipulated amount to be paid
The divisions in the provinces were termed annually to the government. The fertility the
Subahs and Pranths. The Mamlatdar and land was assessed for fixation of taxes. Income
Kamavistar were Peshwa’s representatives in was derived from the forests. Permits were given
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on the payment of a fee for cutting trees and The administration of justice also earned
using pastures. Revenue was derived even from some income. A fee of 25% was charged on
the sale of grass, bamboo, fuel wood, honey and money bonds. Fines were collected from persons
the like. suspected or found guilty of adultery. Brahmins
were exempted from duty on things imported for
The land revenue assessment was based on
their own use.
a careful survey. Land was divided into three
classes: according to the kinds of the crops, Police System
facilities for irrigation, and productivity of the Watchmen, generally the Mahars, were
land. The villagers were the original settlers employed in every village. But whenever crime
who acquired the forest. They could not be was on the rise, government sent forces from
deprived of their lands. But only the Patel could the irregular infantry to control crimes. The
represent their rights to the higher authorities. residents of the disturbed area had to pay an
Other sources of revenue were Chauth and additional house tax to meet the expenditure
arising out of maintaining these armed forces.
Sardeshmukhi.
The Chauth was divided into Baji Rao II appointed additional police
officers to detect and seize offenders. In the
25 percent for the ruler
urban areas, magisterial and police powers were
66 percent for Maratha officials and military given to the Kotwal. Their additional duties
heads for the maintenance of troops. were to monitor the prices, take a census of the
6 percent for the Pant Sachiv (Chief, inhabitants, conduct trials on civil cases, supply
a Brahman by birth) labour to the government and levy fees from
the professional duties given to the Nagarka or
3 percent for the tax collectors.
police superintendent.
Customs, excise duties and sale of forest
produce also yielded much income. Goldsmiths Judicial System
were allowed to mint coins on payment of The Judicial System was very imperfect.
royalty to the government and getting license There was no codified law. There were no
for the purpose. They had to maintain a certain rules of procedure. Arbitration was given high
standard. When it was found that the standard priority. If it failed, then the case was transferred
was not being met all private mints were closed for decision to a panchayat appointed by the
in 1760 and a central mint was established. Patel in the village and by the leading merchants
in towns. The panchayat was a powerful
Miscellaneous taxes were also collected. It institution. Re-trial also took place. Appeals
included 1. Tax on land, held by Deshmukhs were made to the Mamlatdar.
and Deshpandes. 2. Tax on land kept for the
In criminal cases there was a hierarchy of the
village Mahars. 3. Tax on the lands irrigated by
judicial officers. At the top was the Raja Chhatrapati
wells. 4. House tax from all except Brahmins and
and below him were the Peshwa, Deputy Subahdar,
village officials. 5. Annual fee for the testing of
the Mamlatdar and the Patel. Flogging and torture
weights and measures. 6. Tax on the re-marriage were inflicted to extort confession.
of widows. 7. Tax on sheep and buffaloes. 8.
Pasture fee. 9. Tax on melon cultivation in river Army
beds. 10. Succession duty. 11. Duty on the sale The Maratha military system under the
of horses, etc. When the Maratha government Peshwas was modelled on the Mughal military
was in financial difficulty, it levied on all land- system. The mode of recruitment, payment
holders, Kurja-Patti or Tasti-Patti, a tax equal to of salaries, provisions for the families of the
one year’s income of the tax-payer. soldiers, and the importance given to the cavalry
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showed a strong resemblance to the Mughal Navy

military system.
The Maratha navy was built for the
The Peshwas gave up the notable features purpose of guarding the Maratha ports, thereby
of the military system followed under Shivaji. checking piracy, and collecting customs duties
Shivaji had recruited soldiers locally from from the incoming and outgoing ships. Balaji
Maratha region. But the Peshwas drafted soldiers Vishwanath built naval bases at Konkan,
from all parts of India and from all social groups. Khanderi and Vijayadurg. Dockyard facilities
The army had Arabs, Abyssinians, Rajputs, were also developed.
Rohillas and Sikhs. The Peshwa’s army comprised
mercenaries of the feudal chieftains. As the fiefs 15.8 Maratha Rule in
of the rival chiefs were in the same area, there Tamilnadu
were lots of internal disputes. It affected the
solidarity of the people of the Maratha state. Circumstances leading to its
establishment
Cavalry
Krishna Devaraya, during his reign (1509-
The cavalry was naturally the main strength
1529), developed the Nayankara system.
of the Maratha army. Every jagirdar had to
bring a stipulated number of horsemen for a Accordingly, the Tamil country was divided into
general muster, every year. The horsemen were three large Nayankaras: Senji, Thanjavur and
divided into three classes based on the quality Madurai. Under the new system the subordinate
of the horses they kept. chieftains were designated as Palayakkarars and
their fiefdom as Palayams. Thanjavur which
Infantry and Artillery remained as a part of the Chola territories
The Marathas preferred to serve in the first and then of the Pandya kingdom became
cavalry. So men for infantry were recruited from a vassal state of the Madurai Sultanate, from
other parts of the country. The Arabs, Rohillas, which it passed into the hands of Nayaks. The
Sikhs and Sindhis in the Maratha infantry were rivalry between the Nayaks of Madurai and
paid a higher salary compared to the Maratha Thanjavur finally led to the eclipse of Nayak
soldiers. The Maratha artillery was manned rule of Thanjavur in 1673. Troops from Bijapur,
mostly by the Portuguese and Indian Christians. led by the Maratha general Venkoji, defeated
Later on, the English were also recruited. the Nayak of Madurai and captured Thanjavur.
Raja Desinghu: The Maratha king Rajaram,

threatened by Mughal forces, had to flee from Raigarh
and take asylum in Senji. Pursuing him, the Mughal
forces led by General Zulfikar Khan, and then by
Daud Khan, succeeded in taking over Senji. During
the Mughal expedition against Senji, a Bundela Rajput
chieftain, Swarup Singh was employed as Kiladar (fort
commandant) of Senji in 1700. In due course Swarup Senji Fort
Singh gained control over the entire Senji. After his
death in 1714, his son Tej Singh (Desinghu) assumed the
governorship of Senji. Desinghu refused to pay tribute to the Mughal emperor and invited the
wrath of Nawab Sadat-ul-lah Khan. In the ensuing battle Raja Desinghu, who was only twenty
two years old then, was killed. His young wife committed sati. The gallantry displayed by the
daring Rajput youth against the Nawab is immortalized in many popular ballads in Tamil.
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Venkoji crowned himself king, and Maratha ranging from residential

rule began in Thanjavur in 1676. arrangements for students
and innovations in
When Shivaji invaded the Carnatic in 1677,
curriculum and pedagogy.
he removed Venkoji and placed his half-brother
But his most important
Santaji on the throne. But Venkoji recaptured
proposal was a project
Thanjavur and, after his death, his son Shahji
submitted to the English
became the ruler of Thanjavur kingdom. Shaji Serfoji II
colonial government in
had no heir to succeed. So his brother Serfoji I
1812, urging it to sponsor
became the next ruler and remained in power
free schools for Indian children, for instruction
for sixteen years (1712-1728). After him one of
in Tamil and English. This was at a time when
his brothers Tukkoji succeeded him, followed by
English education was not available to non-
Pratap Singh (1739-1763), whose son Thuljaji
Christian Indians.
ruled up to 1787. Serfoji II aged 10, was then
crowned, with Thuljoji‘s brother Amarsingh Thomas Munro, governor of Madras,
acting as Regent. Disputing this succession, proposed a scheme for elementary public schools
the English thrust an agreement on Serfoji II, in the 1820s, but the Company government did
according to which the latter was forced to not establish a modern school for natives in
cede the administration of the kingdom to Madras till 1841. In contrast, from the start,
the British. Serfoji II was the last ruler of the the German missionaries had run several free
Bhonsle dynasty of the Maratha principality of vernacular and English schools in the southern
Thanjavur. provinces since 1707.
Serfoji II was in advance of both the
Serfoji II
missionary and the colonial state, for as early
Serfoji II was a as 1803 in Thanjavur he had established the
remarkable ruler. He was
educated by the German
The Saraswati Mahal library, built by
Christian missionary
the Nayak rulers and enriched by Serfoji
Friedrich Schwartz, Serfoji.
II contains a record of the day-to-day
Similarly Serfoji II turned
proceedings of the Maratha court - as
out to be a well-known
Modi documents, French-Maratha
practitioner of Western science and medicine.
correspondence of the 18th century. Modi
Yet he was a devoted, keeper of Indian traditions.
was the script used to write the Marathi
He mastered several European languages and
language. It is a treasure house of rare
had an impressive library of books in every
manuscripts and books in many languages
branch of learning. Serfoji’s modernising
projects included the establishment of a printing
press (the first press for Marathi and Sanskrit)
and enrichment of the Saraswati Mahal Library.
His most innovative project, however, was the
establishment of free modern public schools
run by his court, for instruction in English and
the vernacular languages.
Serfoji II found in his contemporary
missionary scholar C.S. John in Tranquebar,
an innovator in education. John carried
out reforms and experiments in schooling Saraswati Mahal library
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first modern public school for non-Christian Serfoji’s strategic initiatives in modern
natives. While Indian rulers often endowed education enabled the Thanjavur court elite and
educational institutions of higher learning, they subjects to enter and benefit from the emerging
did not establish elementary schools, nor did colonial social and economic order. The court
they administer any schools or colleges. officials, mostly Brahmins, trained in European
knowledge, technologies and arts became leading
Serfoji’s most striking initiative was the
agents of colonial modernity, equal to the English-
founding and management of free elementary educated dubashes, writers and interpreters, both
and secondary schools for orphans and the Hindu and Christian, who mediated between the
poor in Thanjavur city and other adjacent Europeans and Indian courts. Two of Serfoji’s
places. Included were schools for all levels, pandits (one of them was Kottaiyur Sivakolundu
charity schools, colleges and padashalas for Desigar) joined the Company’s College of Fort
Sanskrit higher learning. The schools catered to St.George and became leaders in translation and
the court elites, Vedic scholars, orphans and the print culture. The careers and projects of Serfoji
poor. A second innovation was the introduction and John illuminate the important roles that
of navavidya (‘modern’ or ‘new’ learning) in the enterprising individuals, and small places, such
state-run schools. as a Danish-Tamil fishing village and a Maratha-
Tamil principality, played in the history of change
According to an 1823 report produced for in colonial Tamilnadu.
Governor Munro’s census of education, Serfoji II was a patron of traditional
21 of the 44 free schools in the wider Indian arts like dance and music. He authored
Thanjavur district were run by Serfoji’s Kumarasambhava Champu, Devendra Kuravanji,
government, 19 by the missionaries, one and Mudra rakshaschaya. He introduced
by a temple. There were three schools that western musical instruments like clarinet, and
were run by teachers themselves free of violin in Carnatic music. He is also credited
cost. In the state-run free schools Serfoji with popularising the unique Thanjavur style
made modern education available to all. of painting. Serfoji was interested in painting,
gardening, coin-collecting, martial arts and
In 1822, at the free school in Muktambal patronized chariot-racing, hunting and bull-
Chattiram the king’s favourite almshouse fighting. He created the first zoological garden
established in 1803, 15 teachers taught a in Tamilnadu in the Thanjavur palace premises.
total of 464 students of diverse castes, in two Serfoji II died on 7th March 1832 after
classes, in the morning and in the evening. almost forty years of his rule. His death was
Serfoji also supported a free school for needy mourned throughout the kingdom and his
Christians, run by missionaries in the village of funeral procession was attended by more than
Kannandangudi. 90, 000 people. At his funeral, Rev. Bishop Heber
observed: ‘I have seen many crowned heads, but
Serfoji II established Dhanvantari Mahal,
no one whose deportment was more princely’.
a research institution that produced herbal
medicine for humans and animals. Maintaining SUMMARY
case-sheets of patients was introduced.
Physicians of modern medicine, Ayurveda, Shivaji’s rise, his military conquests and his
Unani and Siddha schools undertook research encounter with Aurangzeb are dealt with
on drugs and herbs for medical cure. They Shivaji’s administrative reforms are explained
produced eighteen volumes of research material. Shivaji’s successors and their achievements
Serfoji also catalogued the important herbs in under the Peshwas Balaji Viswanath, Baji
the form of exquisite hand paintings. Rao and Balaji Baji Rao are discussed
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Third Battle of Panipat and its consequences 7. ____________ treaty brought the first Anglo-
for the Marathas and the Mughals are Maratha War to an end.
analyzed (a) Treaty of Madras
The resistance of Marathas against the (b) Treaty of Pune
British policy of Subsidiary System and
the resultant outbreak of the three Anglo- (c) Treaty of Salbai
Maratha Wars are highlighted (d) Treaty of Bassein
Maratha ruler Serfoji II’s remarkable 8.
____________ was the British Governor-
contribution to the progress and General on the eve of the Second Anglo-
development of Thanjavur region is focused Maratha War.
(a) Lord Cornwallis (b) Lord Wellesley
(c) Lord Hastings (d) Lord Dalhousie
EXERCISE 9.
At the village level ____________ was
Q.R.Code responsible for the remission of the revenue
I. Choose the collections to the centre.
Correct Answer (a) Deshmukhs (b) Kulkarni
1.
Guerilla warfare was the strength of (c) Kotwal (d) Patel
____________ army. 10.
Serfoji II established ____________ that
(a) Maratha (b) Mughal produced herbal medicine for humans and
animals.
(c) British (d) Nayaks
(a) Saraswathi Mahal
2.
Treaty of Purandar was signed between
Shivaji and ____________. (b) Muktambal Chattram
(a) Afzalkhan (b) Shayistakhan (c) Navavidya
(c) Jai Singh (d) Aurangazeb (d) Dhanvantari Mahal
3.
The Council of Ministers of Shivaji was 11. Name the book which was not written by
known as ____________. Serfoji II.
(a) Ashta Pradhan (b) Astadiggajas (a) Kumarasambhava Champu
(c) Navarathnas (d) Panchapandavas (b) Devendra Kuravanji
4. In the Military organization of Shivaji, the (c) Mudrarakshaschaya

smallest unit was headed by a ____________. (d) Kumarasambhavam
(a) Naik (b) Havildars 12. Find out the correct statement
(c) Bargirs (d) Shiledars (a) A
fzalkhan was appointed the Governor of
the Deccan in 1660 with the main purpose
5. ____________ was the Peshwa who enhanced
of crushing Shivaji.
the power of the Maratha Empire.
(b) Senji acted as the first line of defence for
(a) Baji Rao I (b) Balaji Viswanath
Shivaji’s successors.
(c) Balaji Baji Rao (d) Baji Rao II
(c)
The revenue administration of Shivaji
6. The Kohinoor diamond was taken away by was humane and beneficent to the
____________. cultivators.
(a) Ahmad Shah Abdali (b) Nadir Shah (d) Sardeshmukhi was an additional 15% of
(c) Shuja-ud-Daulah (d) Najib-ud-Daulah the revenue which Shivaji collected.
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13. Find out the correct statement 17. A

ssertion (A): Men for infantry were
(a) The English made friendly relations with recruited from Maharashtra itself.
the Marathas and got the right to free Reason (R): The Marathas preferred to serve
trade in Deccan region. in the cavalry.
(b)
Sahu defeated and killed Dost Ali the (a) A is wrong; R is correct.
Nawab of Arcot in 1749. (b) A is correct; R explains about A.
(c) The Judicial System under Peshwas was (c) A and R are wrong
perfect. (d) A and R are correct
(d) Venkoji was the last ruler of Bhonsle dynasty 18.
Which of the following pair is wrongly
of Maratha principality of Thanjavur. matched
14.
From the following, find out the correct (a) Shivaji - Mountain-rat
answer
(b) Baji Rao I - Battle of Udgir
(i) The administration of Justice under Shivaji
(c) Timur Shah - Viceroy of Lahore
was of a primitive nature.
(d) Desinghu - Senji
(ii) There were regular courts and procedure.
(a) (i) is correct
(A) Amatya - 1) Records of Kings
(b) (ii) is correct
(B) Summant - 2) Public morals
(c) (i) and (ii) are correct
(C) Pandit Rao - 3) War and peace
(d) (i) and (ii) are wrong
(D) Walkia Nawis - 4) Public accounts
15.
From the following, find out the correct
(a) 4, 1, 2, 3 (b) 1, 2, 4, 3
answer
(c) 4, 3, 2, 1 (d) 1, 4, 2, 3
(i) The tottering Mughal Empire neglected
the defence of North East frontier area. 20.
Arrange the successors of Shivaji
chronologically.
(ii) This prompted Nadir Shah to invade India.
(a) Sambhaji, Shahu, Rajaram, Sambhaji II
(a) (i) is correct
(b) Sambhaji, Rajaram, Shahu, Sambhaji II
(b) (ii) is correct
(c) Rajaram, Sambhaji, Shahu, Sambhaji II
(c) (i) and (ii) are correct
(d) Sambhaji, Sambhaji II, Rajaram, Shahu
(d) (i) and (ii) are wrong
16. A
ssertion (A): The Third Battle of Panipat II. Write Brief Answers
paved the way for the rise of British power 1. Write a note on the conflict between Shivaji
in India. and Afzal Khan.
Reason (R): The defeat in this Battle dealt 2. What were the terms of the treaty of Purandhar?
a severe blow to the Marathas and the 3. Write about Tara Bai.
Mughals.
4. Write a note on (a) Chauth (b) Sardeshmukhi
(a)
A is correct; R is the correct 5. Point out the Provicion of the Treaty of Basslin
explanation of A.
6. What marked the climax of the Maratha
(b) A is correct; R is wrong. military might?
(c) Both A and R are wrong. 7. Mention the terms of the treaty signed in
(d)
A is correct; but R is not the correct 1817 between the British and the Peshwa.
explanation of A. 8. Write a note on Saraswati Mahal Library.
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9. In what aspect was Serfoji II in advance of Activity

both the missionaries and the colonial state? 1. On the outline map of India, mark the
10. What do you know about Kanhoji Angira? Maratha Empire under Shivaji.
2. Attempt a biographical sketch on Shivaji.
1. Narrate the causes for the rise of the Marathas. Assignment with Teacher's Guidance
2. Describe the military organization under Shivaji. 1. P repare a timeline chart for Maratha rulers.
3. Point out the results of the Third Battle of 2. List out the taxes that we pay to the
Panipat. government.
4. Give an account of the war fought during 3. Visit Saraswathi Mahal Library and have a
1775-1782. comparison with your nearby library.
5. What were the outcomes of the Third Anglo-
Maratha War? REFERENCE BOOKS
6. What was the Nayankara System? 1. V.D. Mahajan, India Since 1526, S. Chand
7. Explain the gallantry displayed by Raja Desinghu. & Company, New Delhi, 1991
8.
“The introduction of Navavidya was 2. Burton Stein, A History of India, OUP,
innovative” – How? 1998.
IV. Answer the following in detail 3. Jadunath Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times,
Longmans, London, 1920.
1. Highlight the military conquests of Shivaji.
4. Peterson, Indira Viswanathan, Serfoji
2.
Compare and contrast the Shivaji land II: Scholar King of Thanjavur, Oxford
revenue adminstration and Peshwa land University Press, 2010
revenue adminstration
3. Discuss the career and achievement of Baj Rao I.
INTERNET RESOURCES
4. Highlight the sources of revenue under the
Peshwas. 1. M.G. Ranade, Rise of the Maratha Power,
5. Describe Serfoji II’s contribution to modern archive.org/details/in.ernet
education. 2. Britanica.com -online encyclopaedia
GLOSSARY
impregnable indestructible தகர்க்க முடியாத

ravage plunder சூறையாடு
belligerent policy policy of intense war force தீவிரமாகப் ப�ோரிடும் க�ொள்கை
relentless unyielding விட்டுக்கொடுக்காத
ecclesiastical head head of the Roman Catholic திருச்சபை தலைவர்
church
endorsement approval ஒப்புதல்
breach violate மீறு
solidarity unity for causes ஒற்றுமை
pedagogy teaching method கற்பிக்கும் கலை
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UNIT
The Coming of the Europeans
16
Learning Objectives
To acquaint yourself with

I
European interactions with Indian states and society from 1600 to 1750
Commercial networks and institutions in India in the early modern period
The Indian ports and their importance in Indian Ocean trade
The impact of the entry of the European trading companies on Indian merchants, trade
and commerce
II
Portuguese trade interests in India
The impact of the Portuguese and Dutch presence in India
Rivalry and wars between the French and the Dutch
The colonial settlements of Denmark and their importance
Clashes over trading monopoly between the French and the British in the Carnatic region
The emergence of England as an undisputed power after the three Carnatic Wars
Introduction coast in 1510. Goa then became the political

headquarters for the Portuguese in India and
The beginning of British rule in India is
further east in Malacca and Java. The Portuguese
conventionally ascribed to 1757, after the Battle
perfected a pattern of controlling the Indian
of Plassey was won by the English East India
Ocean trade through a combination of political
Company against the Nawab of Bengal. But the
aggressiveness and naval superiority. Their forts
Europeans had arrived in India by the beginning
at Daman and Diu enabled them to control the
of the sixteenth century. Their original intention
shipping in the Arabian Sea, using their well-
was to procure pepper, cinnamon, cloves and
armed ships. The other European nations who
other spices for the European markets and
came to India nearly a century later, especially the
participate in the trade of the Indian Ocean.
Dutch and the English, modelled their activities
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to on the Portuguese blueprint. Thus we need to
establish themselves in India. Vasco da Gama understand the advent of the European trading
discovered the direct sea route to India from companies as an on-going process of engagement
Europe around the Cape of Good Hope of Africa with Indian political authorities, local merchants
at the end of the fifteenth century. Subsequently, and society, which culminated in the conquest of
the Portuguese conquered Goa on the west Bengal by the British in 1757.
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This lesson has two parts. The political Akbar had also tried to extend his empire
history of India and the changing scenario that in the east beyond Bihar by conquering Bengal.
emerged after 1600 are discussed in the first But Bengal was not really integrated into the
part. The second part deals with the arrival of empire until nearly three decades later, when
European trading companies in India and the it became one of the provinces (subah) under
impact each one made on Indian society. Jahangir. Under Akbar, the revenue system of
the empire had been revamped by Todar Mal
I so that a unified system of governance and
16.1 Political Affairs revenue collection could function throughout
the empire. At his death, therefore, Akbar left
1600-1650: The Mughal Empire
a powerful, economically prosperous and well-
This was the period when the Mughal administered empire.
empire was at the peak of its power. The
The Dutch, followed by the English,
Europeans were quite aware of the wealth and
arrived in Surat in the early years of the 1600s
power of the Mughals, and English poets even
to begin their trading activities. The Mughal
wrote about the fabulous “wealth of India”.
governor permitted them to trade, and to set
Travellers from all parts of Europe visited India
up their “factories” (as the business premises
regularly during the sixteenth and seventeenth
of the European traders which also functioned
centuries. The journals of their travels present
as warehouses were termed), but they were
a detailed contemporary account of the empire
not allowed to have any territorial authority
and society in India.
over any part of the city. This frustrated their
By 1600, Akbar had achieved his imperial ambitions to follow the Portuguese model.
dream and extended the frontiers of the Mughal
The English acquired the islands of
empire through his conquests in Rajasthan and
Bombay in 1668, and set up their headquarters
Gujarat. Gujarat was conquered in 1573, and
in Bombay in 1687. Their primary objective was
this gave the Mughal empire valuable access
to develop Bombay as an alternate base for their
to the port of Surat, which was the gateway to
operations. But Surat under the protection of
west Asia and Europe. Besides trade, the ships
the Mughal state still remained the preferred
carrying pilgrims to Mecca left from Surat. centre of commercial activity for the merchants.
The importance of Surat to the Mughals can
be appreciated from the fact that Surat had 1600-1650: South India after
two governors, one the governor of the city, Vijayanagar
and the other, the governor of the castle which South India, especially the Tamil region,
had been built on the river Tapti to protect the presented a sharp contrast to the centralized
city. The governor of the city was in charge of stability of the Mughal empire in these decades.
civilian affairs and collecting the revenues from Politically the region was fragmented and
customs duties. unsettled. Under Vijayanagar rule, three Nayak
kingdoms had been set up in the Tamil region:
in Madurai, Thanjavur and Senji. The objective
was to provide financial and manpower resources
to the empire. After the defeat of Vijayanagar in
1565 in the Battle of Talikota by the combined
forces of the rulers of Ahmednagar, Bijapur and
Golkonda, the central authority of the once
dominant kingdom became very weak. The Nayak
kingdoms became virtually autonomous, though
British factory at Surat they made a ritualistic acknowledgment of the
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authority of the Vijayanagar emperor. In addition overextended Mughal empire soon began to
to the larger Nayak kingdoms, several local chiefs reveal its inherent weakness. This became most
also controlled some parts of the region. The most apparent when the Marathas, under Shivaji, began
notable of them was probably the Setupati of to grow in power and military strength. They
Ramanathapuram, who was also keen to assert his attacked Surat with impunity in 1664, though
independence. Between 1590 and 1649 the region it was soon abandoned. But their second raid in
witnessed several military conflicts arising out of 1670 devastated Surat and its trade took several
these unsettled political conditions. Madurai and years to recover. This seriously challenged the
Thanjavur fought several times to establish their claim of Mughal invincibility and it sounded the
superiority. There were also rebellions against beginning of the gradual disintegration of the
the Vijayanagar emperor. Besides these on-going Mughal empire.
conflicts, Golkonda invaded the Coromandel in After the attack on Surat, Shivaji turned his
1646 and annexed the area between Pulicat and attention to south India, and defeated the Nayaks of
San Thome, which also changed the political Senji and Thanjavur. Though Senji was conquered
scenario in the region. by the Mughals a few years later, Thanjavur
The Dutch and the English were able to survived as a Maratha-ruled state. The Maratha
acquire territorial rights on the east coast during kings, with their inclusive policy of assimilating
these years. They realized that they needed a base Tamil intellectual and cultural traditions, made
on the Coromandel coast to access the piece goods Thanjavur the cultural capital of the Tamil region.
needed for trading with the spice-producing
1700-1750: The Mughal Empire
islands of Indonesia. The Dutch had successfully
negotiated to acquire Pulicat (Pazhaverkadu) and the Successor States
from the Nayak of Senji and constructed a fort Aurangzeb, the last of the “great Mughals”,
there. The English got a piece of land further south died in 1707. One of the major developments
from the local chief, Damarla Venkatadri Nayak following his death was the establishment
on which they built Fort St. George in 1639. Thus of what have been called ‘successor states’.
an English settlement came up which eventually Mughal viceroys in various parts of the country
grew into Chennai (Madras), the capital of the Oudh, Bengal, Hyderabad and the Carnatic
Madras Presidency. set themselves up as independent rulers. The
English and the Dutch had understood this
vulnerability of the Mughal state.
In Bengal and the Carnatic, the Nawabs had
borrowed heavily from the English, and assigned
vast tracts of land to them so that the English
could collect the land revenue as repayment for
the loans. This marks the beginning of British
rule as revenue collectors.
Fort St. George
The name Carnatic originally refered to the
1650-1700: The Mughal Empire region occupied by the Kannada- speaking
people. In the eighteenth century it included
Emperor Aurangzeb began an ambitious
the region lying between the Eastern Ghats
programme of extending his empire south to
and the Western Ghats, in the modern
the Deccan, and the kingdoms of Ahmednagar,
Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and
Bijapur and Golkonda were conquered in the
southern Andhra Pradesh. The Nawab of
1680s. This extended the Mughal control of
Arcot controlled this region.
the Deccan as far south as Chennai. But the
The Coming of the Europeans 245

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By this time the Dutch had given up Pulicat Cotton Manufactures

and moved their headquarters further south to India also had a strong manufacturing base
Nagapattinam. They had decided to shift their and was particularly famous for the variety of cotton
focus to the spice-producing islands of Indonesia fabrics produced at various centres across the
and established their capital at Jakarta (Batavia). country. Weaving was the second most important
Chennai, in the meantime, had grown into a economic activity in the country, supported by
prosperous town. The English, after many years subsidiary activities like spinning and dyeing.
of struggle, became a power to reckon with in Manufacturing – that is, handicraft production
the region. Surat continued to suffer due to the – was carried on both in urban and rural areas.
uncertain political conditions, and by 1750, the Luxury crafts, like metalwork were urban based.
local merchants had begun to declare themselves Weaving was mostly done in rural areas. India
to be “under the protection” of the Dutch or the had a great advantage in that cotton was grown
English in order to feel more secure. Bombay in our country. Indian craft communities also
therefore became a viable alternative as a trade possessed specialized knowledge about dyeing
centre, attracting merchants from Surat and cotton using chemicals like alum to produce
other parts of Gujarat. a permanent colour. The Coromandel region
was famous for its painted (kalamkari) fabrics
which had designs drawn on the cloth and then
dyed. By the sixteenth century these had become
staple products for consumers in south-east Asia,
especially the Indonesian islands. Cotton fabrics
were the most important exports from all parts of
India to the rest of the world. This continued well
into the eighteenth century.
Marketing
Nagapattinam in 1702 Production for an external market
was widespread, so that there was a high
16.2 The Economy degree of commercialization of production
Agriculture beyond subsistence levels. This required the
organization of marketing by agencies which
India was primarily an agricultural economy. were distinct from the producers, that is, a class
Most of the population lived in the rural areas and of merchants. Merchants thus linked producers
they depended on agriculture for their livelihood. who were dispersed in the rural areas with
In addition to food grains, they grew several urban markets within the country, and with
commercial crops. These included sugarcane, oil external markets outside the country. The
seeds, cotton and indigo. There was a brisk trade in extensive trade network in the country operated
food grains, ghee, sugar and other food products in several circuits, from the village markets, to
from the surplus areas to the deficit areas within regional markets and large urban commercial
India. Food grains, particularly, were transported centres, culminating in the ports which were
on coastal boats and the Tamil region, for instance, the gateways to the markets outside the country.
imported food grains from the Andhra region and
Bengal. On the west coast, food grains from Gujarat Merchant Groups
were exported to the Malabar region in return for Just as the various kinds of markets
pepper, cinnamon and ginger. Food grains were functioned at different scales, merchants were
also shipped to the Dutch establishments in Sri also not a homogeneous group. There were
Lanka and Batavia (Indonesia). traders and retailers who serviced markets in

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smaller centres. If mercantile activity can be Overseas Trade

deemed to be a pyramid, this class of merchants
The overseas trade from both the east and
would be at the base of the pyramid. At its top
west coast was incorporated into Indian Ocean
were the great merchants, who were the prime
trade which had stabilized into a well-set pattern
movers in overseas trade with great reserves
by the sixteenth century. Shipping in the Indian
of capital, who controlled the producers in
Ocean was segmented and carried on over several
the hinterland of the ports. They generally
demarcated stages. Ships coming from China
employed the services of a network of brokers
and the Far East sailed up to Malacca, where their
and sub-brokers to acquire goods from the
cargoes were unloaded, and in return, goods
interior regions or hinterland of the port towns.
from the west were taken back. From Malacca,
These agents could be said to form the middle
ships sailed to the west coast of India, to Calicut
tier of the merchant pyramid.
or Cambay or Surat in Gujarat. Such intermediate
Banking and Rise of Merchant ports were known as “entrepots”. Goods from
Capitalists Europe and West Asia were exchanged in these
ports for goods from the east, as well as locally
Commercial institutions were also well- produced pepper, spices, dyes, clothes and food
developed to promote such extensive trade. grains. In the sixteenth century, Calicut gradually
Because a variety of coins were in circulation, lost out to the Gujarat ports which were served
there were money-changers or shroffs to test by a much larger hinterland producing a wider
coins for their purity and decide their value range of products. The ports of the Coromandel
in current terms. They also served as local coast, like Masulipatnam, Pulicat and other ports
bankers. Instead of transferring money as cash further south served as intermediate ports for the
from one place to another, merchants issued ships from Burma and the Malay peninsula.
bills of exchange, known as hundis which would
be cashed by shroffs at different destinations at
16.3 Advent of Europeans
a specified rate of discount.
This well-developed infrastructure and The arrival of the Europeans, beginning
organization of trade enabled the rich merchants with the Portuguese, was the first major external
to amass large fortunes. Such merchant princes shock to this well established and regulated
or capitalists were found in all parts of India system of trade. The primary interest of the
– the banias and Parsi merchants of Surat, the Europeans was in securing spices for Europe
nagarseths of Ahmedabad, the Jagat Seths of directly. In the olden days, the spices were carried
Bengal, and the merchant communities of to the Persian Gulf ports and then overland to the
the Coromandel. Contemporary European Mediterranean. They soon learned that a simple
observers noted that these merchants bilateral exchange was not workable in the Asian
appropriated all the profits from trade to markets. This was mainly because there was no
themselves, while the earnings and condition demand in the local economies for the products
of the weavers and peasants were pitifully poor. of Europe, other than gold or silver. On the other
This rendered them especially vulnerable to hand, because of the universal demand in south-
natural calamities like famines. In the Madras east Asian markets for Indian textiles, clothes
region, for instance, famine occurred at least ten from India served as a substitute medium of
times between 1678 and 1750. Sometimes there exchange. The demand for the painted fabrics of
was widespread famine which lasted for several the Coromandel coast in the Indonesian islands,
years on end. This drove the rural poor to sell in particular, made the Dutch and the English
themselves into slavery. Dutch records from set up their establishments on the east coast
the Coromandel regularly mention male and to procure the cloth that could be profitably
female slaves among the cargo sent to Batavia. exchanged for spices.

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16.4 Collaboration with Over these one hundred and fifty years, the
Indian Merchants English in India were gradually undergoing a
metamorphosis from being traders to builders
From the beginning of their trading venture of a trading empire, eventually emerging as the
in India, the Europeans realized that they could virtual rulers of large parts of the country.
succeed only with the help and collaboration of
the leading Indian merchants. The merchants,
II
on their part, saw in the Europeans a great
new business opportunity for expansion, and 16.5 Arrival of Europeans
worked with them. In Surat, the merchants were and the Aftermath
functioning with the security of the Mughal
government to support them in case of any Portuguese in India
problems. But in Pulicat, and later in Chennai During his first
under the English and Pondicherry under the voyage Vasco da Gama
French, the merchants also saw in these early came with 170 men
colonial enclaves a place of security from where in three vessels. The
they could carry on business safely, free from the cordiality of Zamorin,
continuing political turmoil in the Tamil region. the ruler of Calicut, made
The Indian merchants were not at a him comfortable. He
disadvantage in their dealings with the journeyed back on 29
Europeans till about 1700. In Surat, the situation August 1498 with only Zamorin
changed because of the threat posed by the fifty five surviving men
Maratha incursions and the inability of the and of the three ships, two were laden with Indian
Mughal state to provide security. In Chennai goods. Gama’s success made Portugal to send 1200
the English had stabilized and they could put men with 13 vessels under Pedro Alvarez Cabral.
pressure on merchants to accept unviable terms On 29 October 1502 Gama visited Calicut for the
in order to increase their exports of cloth to second time with a fleet of 20 vessels. Gama moved
Europe. Gradually, the power relations between from Calicut to Cochin as its harbour was better.
the English and the local merchants began to He soon realized that the monopolistic trade of
change. The great merchant princes who were the Arabs needed to be broken if European trade
the dominant players on the trading scene in the was to thrive. He used the enmity between the
previous century virtually disappeared. two Hindu rulers of Cochin
and Calicut for this purpose.
The expansion of demand from Europe
Before he returned to Portugal
for Indian textiles also had an impact on the
he established a factory
indigenous economy. Initially, this increased
[warehouse] in Cochin and a
demand was beneficial to the local economy. The
prison at Kannur.
productive resources (labour, raw materials and
capital) could respond positively. However, as Consolidation of the Portuguese
the demand from Europe continued to grow, the Trade
pressure to increase production exponentially
The Portuguese stopped yearly expeditions
began to strain the productive resources. The
and instead decided to appoint a Viceroy. The
frequent famines in the south and the shortage of
first Viceroy was Francisco d’ Almeida who
food grains and raw materials, for instance, were
followed what is known as ‘Blue Water Policy,’ and
additional burdens which the weaver had to bear.
accordingly, he added more ships to strengthen
Thus, though the increased trade opportunities
the navy rather than adding more settlements.
were beneficial in the short run, the long term
He destroyed the fleet of Zamorin and a fleet sent
effects were not necessarily positive.

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by the Sultan of Egypt. He befriended the ruler was during the period of De Noronha (1571) the
of Cochin and built fortresses at Cochin, Kannur Mughal ruler Akbar visited Cambay in Gujarat
and other places on the Malabar coast. and the first contacts between the Portuguese and
Albuquerque (1509- the Mughal emperor established.
1515), the successor of In 1580 Philip II, King of Spain, defeated
Almeida, was the real Portugal and annexed it. In India the Dutch
founder of the Portuguese defeated the Portuguese in Ceylon and later seized
empire in India. He the Portuguese fort on Malabar Coast. Thereafter
defeated Yusuf Adil Khan, rather than protecting their settlements in India,
the ruler of Bijapur in 1510 Portuguese began to evince greater interest in
and captured Goa. He Brazil.
developed Goa into a centre
of commerce by making all The Impact of Portuguese
Albuquerque
the ships sail on that route. Presence
He encouraged people of all faiths to settle in For the first time in the political history of
Goa. He was in favour of Europeans marrying India the Europeans conquered and seized
Indian women and settling down in Portuguese territories from the Indian rulers.
controlled territories. His conquest of Malacca (in
Malaysia) held by the Muslims, who commanded Indian rulers remained divided and
the trade route between India-China and Mecca Europeans took advantage of it.
and Cairo, extended the empire. He attacked the The Europeans adopted new methods in the
Arabs and was successful in taking Aden. In 1515 warfare. Gun powder and superior artillery
he took control of Ormuz. played a significant role.
The Portuguese could contain the
Albuquerque attempted to stop the monopolistic trade of the Arabs. But it did
practice of Sati. not really help them. Instead, it benefited the
British who removed pirates on the sea routes
and made the sea voyage safe.
Two more viceroys played a significant role
The marriages between Europeans and
in consolidating the Portuguese empire in India.
Indians, encouraged by the Portuguese in the
They are Nino da Cunha and Antonio de Noronha.
territories occupied by them, created a new
Da Cunha occupied Bassein and Diu in 1534
Eurasian racial group. They were the ones
and 1537 respectively. The port of Daman was
who were later taken to other Portuguese
wrested from the hands of Imad-ul Mulk in 1559.
colonies in Africa and Asia.
Meanwhile in the middle of the sixteenth century,
the Portuguese control over Ceylon increased The presence of Portuguese is very much
with the completion of a fort in Colombo. It evident in Chennai’s San Thome. Mylapore
was the Portuguese ‘Black Town’. (Black Town
of the British period was George Town)
Following the establishment of Portuguese
settlements, Jesuit missionaries visited India.
Notable among them are: 1. Roberto de
Nobili, whose linguistic ability enabled him
to write extensively in Tamil and Sanskrit.
He is considered the father of Tamil prose. 2.
Henriques introduced printing in Tamil and
Akbar’s Contact with European Traders is called the father of printing press.

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The Amboyna Massacre – twenty servants of

British East India Company, Portuguese and
Japanese were tortured and killed by the agents
of Dutch East India Company at Ambon Island
in Indonesia in the year 1623.
Roberto de Nobile San Thome Church
Clashes occurred between the Portuguese and

the Muslim groups on the pearl fishery coast in the
1530s over the control of fishing and pearl diving
rights and a delegation of Paravas complained to
the Portuguese authorities at Cochin about the
atrocities inflicted on them by Arab fleets and
sought protection. Seizing the opportunity, the Amboyna Massacre
Portuguese sent their Roman Catholic priests
(Padres) who converted thousands of fisher people created a Dutch East India company in 1602
to the Catholic religion. Following this St. Francis [known as the United East Indies Company
Xavier, one of the founders of the Society of (in Dutch: Verenigde Oost-Indische
Jesus, arrived in Goa in 1542 and travelled as far Compagnie-abbreviated to VOC). The newly
as Thoothukudi and Punnakayal to baptize the created company established its hold over the
converts. Xavier established a network of Jesuit Spice Islands (Indonesia). In 1641 the Dutch
mission centres. His visit is evident from the
captured Malacca from the Portuguese and
shrines dedicated to St. Xavier and the towering
in 1658 the Dutch forced Portuguese to part
churches that came up in the fishing villages on
with Ceylon. The Dutch were successful in
the Coromandel Coast.
Spice Islands but they suffered reverses in
The Portuguese threatened disruption India at the hands of the British.
of trade by violence unless their protection,
cartaz, was bought. Under the cartaz system, the Dutch in Tamil Nadu
Portuguese exacted money from the traders as
The Portuguese who established a control
price for protection against what they termed as
over Pulicat since 1502 were overthrown by
piracy. But much of this was caused by Portuguese
the Dutch. In Pulicat, located 60 kilometers
freebooters themselves and so the whole system
north of Chennai, the Dutch built the Castle
was a blatant protection racket.
Geldria. The remains of this 400 year old fort
The Dutch can be seen even now. This fort was once the
The first Dutch expedition to the South seat of Dutch power. The Dutch established
East Asia was in 1595 by a trader (Jan control of Masulipatnam in 1605 and they
Huyghen van Linschoten), a merchant from established their settlement at Pulicat in 1610.
Netherlands who lived in Lisbon. There were The other Dutch colonial forts and possessions
several companies floated by the traders and include Nagapattinam, Punnakayal, Porto
individuals to trade with the East. The state Novo, Cuddalore (Tiruppathiripuliyur) and
intervened and amalgamated them all and Devanampatinam.

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The French
The French attempted to establish a trade
link with India as early as 1527. Taking a cue
from the Portuguese and the Dutch, the French
commenced their commercial operations through
the French East India Company, established
in 1664. Unlike other European powers which
appeared in India through the private trading
companies, the French commercial enterprise
was a project of King Louis XIV. His minister of
Dutch Cemetery, Pulicat
finance, Colbert, was instrumental in establishing
Pulicat served as the Coromandel the French East India Company.
headquarters of the Dutch East India Company. As the French effort was a government
Diamonds were exported from Pulicat to the initiative, it did not attract the general public of
western countries. Nutmeg, cloves, and mace France who viewed it as yet another way to tax
too were sent from here to Europe. A gun people.
powder factory was also set up by the Dutch to
augment their military power. Pondicherry through Madagascar
The French traders arrived in Madagascar
One less known fact about the Dutch is they
(in Africa) in 1602. Though the French colonized
were involved in slave trade. People from Bengal
Madagascar, they had to abandon it in 1674,
and from settlements such as Tengapattinam
excepting a small coastal trading post. Berber,
and Karaikal were brought to Pulicat. The Dutch
a French agent in India obtained a firman [a
employed brokers at Madras for catching and royal command or authorization] on September
shipping slaves. Famines, droughts and war that 4, 1666 from Aurangzeb and the first French
resulted in food shortage led to the flourishing factory was established at Surat in December
of the slave trade. 1668, much against the opposition of the Dutch.
Within a year the French established another
Wil O Dijk, a Ph.D. Scholar at Leiden factory at Masulipatnam.
University in one of her research papers noted
that the passenger list of slaves transported in Factory in the then context referred to
VOC ships within and from the Bay of Bengal a warehouse or a place where factors, or
from June 1621 to November 1665 showed commercial agents, resided to transact
a total of 26,885 men, women and children business for their employers abroad.
– of which 1,379 died. She further wrote
that the export of Coromandel slaves surged Realizing the need for a stronger foothold
during a famine caused by the Nayak rulers of in India, Colbert sent a fleet to India, led by Haye
Thanjavur, Senji and Madurai, after the fall of (Jacob Blanquet de la Haye). The French were able
Vijayanagara empire. to remove the Dutch from San Thome in Mylapore
in 1672. The French sought the support of Sher
A subsequent invasion of the Bijapur army Khan Lodi, the local Governor, who represented
led to the destruction of fertile agricultural lands the Sultan of Bijapur, against the Dutch. The
of Thanjavur pushing more people into slavery. Dutch befriended the King of Golkonda who was
This time (1646) around 2118 slaves, mostly a traditional foe of Bijapur. It was Sher Khan Lodi
drawn from places situated along the coasts like who offered Pondicherry (Puducherry) as a suitable
Adiramapattinam, Tondi and Kayalpattinam. site for their settlement. Pondicherry in 1673

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was a small fishing village. Francis Martin who Nadu, Serampore in West Bengal and Nicobar
became the Governor of Pondicherry later had Islands were their possessions in India. On March
spent four years in Madagascar before arriving 17, 1616 the King of Denmark, Christian IV, issued
Surat. He made Pondicherry the strategic centre a charter and created a Danish East India Company.
of French settlements in India. This Company did not get any positive response
from the Danish traders. Admiral Ove Gjedde
“The countryside through which we led the first expedition to Ceylon in 1618. The
passed (outskirts of Pondichérry) was well- Danes could not get any trade contract in Ceylon.
cultivated and very beautiful. Rice was to be While they were returning in disappointment
found in abundance... where there was water their main vessel was sunk by the Portuguese at
while cotton was grown....” Francis Martin Karaikkal. Thirteen stranded sailors with their
about the landscape of Pondicherry in his trade director Robert Crappe were taken to the
diary. Nayak ruler of Thanjavur. Robert Crappe ably
negotiated with the Thanjavur King and struck an
Rivalry and Wars with the Dutch agreement. According to the agreement signed on
20 November 1620, the Danes received the village
French attempts to capture Pondicherry were
of Tarangambadi or Tranquebar and the right to
not easy. They had to deal with their main rivals,
construct a Fort there.
the Dutch. From 1672 France and Holland were
continuously at war. In India the French lacked
men, money and arms, as they had diverted them
to Chandranagore, another French settlement
in Bengal. Therefore the Dutch could capture
Pondicherry easily in 1693. It remained with the
Dutch for six years. In 1697, according to the treaty Tarangambadi Fort
of Ryswick, Pondicherry was once again restored
The Danish fort at Tarangambadi was
to the French. However, it was handed over to the
vulnerable to high tidal waves which frequently
French only in 1699. Francis Martin remained as
damaged roads and houses. Despite their
its governor till his death in 1706.
involvement in the Thirty Years War and the
The French secured Mahe in 1725 and financial loss they suffered, the Danish managed
Karaikal in 1739. The French were also successful to set up a factory at Masulipatnam. Small
in establishing and extending their settlements in trading posts were established at Pipli (Hoogly
Qasim Bazaar, Chandranagore and Balasore in the River) and Balasore. Investors in Denmark
Bengal region. Pierre Benoit Dumas (1668–1745) wanted to dissolve the Danish East India
was another able French governor in Pondicherry. Company, but King Christian IV resisted it.
However, the French had to face the threat of Finally after his death in 1648 his son Frederick
the English who proved too strong for them. abolished it.
Eventually they lost out on their hard earned A second Danish East India Company
fortunes to the English. was started in 1696. Trade between Denmark
The influence of the French can still be seen and Tarangambadi resumed and many new
in present day Pondicherry, Mahe, Karaikkal, and trade outposts were also established. The Nayak
Chandranagore. king of Thanjavur gifted three more villages
surrounding Tarangambadi. Two Danish
The Danes
Missionaries, the first protestant missionaries,
Denmark and Norway (together till 1813) arrived on 9 June 1706. The Danish settled in
possessed colonial settlements in India and Tamil Andaman and Nicobar in 1755, but due to the
Nadu. Tarangambadi or Tranquebar in Tamil threat of malaria they abandoned it in 1848.

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During the Napoleonic wars the British caused Queen Elizabeth I to have a share in the lucrative
heavy damage to their possessions. Serampore spice trade with the East. The Company, headed
was sold to the British in 1839 and Tranquebar by a governor, was managed by a court of 24
and other settlements in 1845. Directors. In 1611, King James I obtained from
Mughal Emperor Jahangir through William
The Danes in Tamil Nadu
Hawkins, permission for regular trade. The
The Danish Fort built English obtained some trading privileges in
in Tarangambadi is still Surat. The Viceroy of Gujarat, Prince Khurram
intact. Bartholomaeus granted trading privileges, but the British could
Ziegenbalg along with not operate freely because the Portuguese
Heinrich Pluetshau exercised a powerful influence in the region.
arrived in Tranquebar in
Madras was ceded to East India Company
September 1706, as the
in 1639 by the Raja of Chandragiri with
first Lutheran missionaries Bartholomaeus
permission to build a fortified factory which
in India. They began Ziegenbalg
was named Fort St. George. This was the first
preaching, and baptized
landholding recorded by the Company on Indian
their first converts within ten months of their
soil. In 1645, the ruler of Golkonda overran
stay. Their work was opposed both by Hindus and
the territories under the Company’s control in
by the local Danish authorities, and in 1707-08
Madras. Aurangzeb conquered Golkonda in
Ziegenbalg had to spend four months in prison,
1687 and brought the Company territories under
on a charge that by converting the natives he
Mughal rule. But the privileges granted to the
was encouraging rebellion. The Copenhagen
English continued. Within a short time Madras
Missionary Society wanted to encourage an
replaced Masulipatinam as the headquarters of
indigenous Christian Church, and accordingly
the English on the Coromandel Coast. The island
instructed its missionaries simply to preach the
of Bombay, which Charles II had inherited as
Gospel, and not to bother about other matters.
dowry, was transferred to the Company in 1668.
Ziegenbalg, however, contended that a concern
The Charter of 1683 empowered the Company to
for the physical welfare of others was implicit in
raise military forces and the right to declare war
the Gospel.
or make peace with the powers in America, Africa
Ziegenbalg set up a printing press, and and Asia. In 1652 Madras became a presidency.
published studies of the Tamil language and of In the year (1655) its position as presidency was
Indian religion and culture. His translation of nullified. Madras was re-elavated to the status
the New Testament into Tamil in 1715 was first of a presidency in 1684. In 1688 Madras had a
in any Indian language. The church building municipal government with a Mayor. In 1693
that he and his associates constructed in 1718 is the Company obtained another grant of three
still in use today. He succeeded in establishing a villages surrounding Madras and in 1702 five
seminary for the training of local clergy. When more villages were granted.
he died on 23 February 1719, he left behind a full
Tamil translation of the complete Bible and of
Genesis to Ruth (Bible Story book series), many
brief writings in Tamil, two church buildings,
the seminary, and 250 baptized Christians.
Advent of the British
The English East India Company
A group of wealthy merchants of Leadenhall
Street in London secured a royal charter from Chandragiri Fort

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EUROPEAN TRADING CENTRES

N
IN INDIA
W E
Trading centres S
-
DA Danish
-
D Dutch
-
E English
-
F French
-
P Portuguese
Agra (E)
Patna (E) Chinsura (D)

Ahmedabad (E)
Hoogli (E)
Broach (E)
Chandranagore (F)
Surat (E)
Diu (P) Daman (P) Kolkata (E)
Tarapore (P) Balasore (F)
Mumbai (E)
BAY
ARABIAN
OF
SEA Yanam (P)
Goa (P) BENGAL
Masulipatnam (D)
Pulicat (D)
Chennai (E)
A
Kannur (P)
nda
Pondicherry (F)
m
Mahe (F) Tranquebar (DA)

a n an d ni c o b a r
Calicut (P) Karaikal (F)

(I N DI A )
(I N DI A )
Nagapattinam (D)
Cochin (P)
i sl
ds n
an
ds
Sri Lanka
Map not to scale

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Bengal First Carnatic War: 1746-1748

In Bengal it was a long drawn struggle for the The Austrian War of Succession and Seven
British to obtain trading rights. The Company Years War fought in Europe had their repercussions
obtained trading privileges from Shah Shuja, in India. The Austrian ruler Charles VI died in
the second son of Shajahan and the Governor of 1740 and was succeeded by his daughter Maria
Bengal, but there was no royal confirmation of Theresa. France did not support her succession
such privileges. The trading rights for the British and joined hands with German-speaking
in Bengal were obtained only in 1680. Local territories of Austria such as Bavaria, Saxony and
officials interfered with the trading rights of the Spain. Frederick II (known as Frederick the Great
British and this resulted in the Company declaring of Prussia) taking advantage of the emerging
war with the ruler representing the Mughals. political situation invaded and annexed Silesia,
Peace was restored in 1690 and the Company an Austrian province, with the support of France.
established its first settlement at Sutanuti, a site The wars fought between Britain and France in
which became the future Calcutta. The factory Europe also led to clashes between these two
was fortified in 1696 and in 1698 the Company countries over their colonial possessions in North
secured the zamindari rights over three villages, America and India.
Sutanuti, Kalikata and Gobindpur in return for
When the war broke
a payment of 1200 rupees a year. The fortified
out, the new Governor of
factory was called Fort William which became
the headquarters of the Presidency in 1770. Pondicherry, Dupleix appealed
to Morse, the Governor of
Norris Mission: Sir William Norris, Madras, to remain neutral.
sent by the English King William III in But a British squadron under
1698, met Aurangzeb to get full English Commodore Barnett captured
jurisdiction over the English settlements. some of the French vessels with Dupleix
This was to confirm the existing privileges Indian goods and precipitated
and to extend their trading rights further. the situation. Dupleix, shocked by this incident,
But this request was conceded only during appealed to Anwar- ud-din, the Nawab of Carnatic,
1714-1717, when a mission under Surman to help him to avoid war with the English. Calm
sent to the Mughal Emperor Farukhsiyar prevailed for some time.
obtained firman (grant of trading rights) Meanwhile Dupleix contacted La
addressed to the local rulers of Gujarat, Bourdonnais, the French Governor of Isle of
Hyderabad and Bengal. France, who appeared in the Indian waters with
eight warships. Peyton, who led the English
The Carnatic Wars squadron with his four ships, intercepted the
The British had to fight French squadron and in the battle on 6 July 1746
three wars (1746-1763) with Peyton suffered reverses and retreated to Hoogly,
the French to establish their Calcutta expecting some more ships from Britain.
supremacy, which in history
Fall of Madras
are called the Carnatic wars.
The French squadron succeeded in capturing
The Carnatic is a region in South India lying the undefended Madras on 15 September 1746.
between the Eastern Ghats and the Coromandel Governor Morse was asked to surrender but the
Coast. This region constitutes the present day Madras Governor turned to Anwar-ud-din for
Tamil Nadu, eastern Karnataka, north-eastern help. Dupleix was clever in convincing the Nawab
Kerala and southern Andhra Pradesh. that he was securing Madras from the British to
be handed over to him. On 21 September 1746

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the English were forced to part with Madras. But

Anandarangam Pillai Diary
when the Nawab of Carnatic asked the French to
hand over Madras to him as promised, the French Anandarangam (1709-1761), was born
dodged. Thereupon the Nawab sent a force of to a leading merchant of the time named
10,000 men under the command of his son Tiruvengadam Pillai. After his father’s
Mahfuz Khan. death at Pondicherry, in view of the support
given by the French Governors Dumas and
The Battle of San Thome and Adyar
Dupleix became the greatest merchant
Nawab’s forces blockaded Fort St. George but at Pondicherry. Dupleix appointed him
the French forces pushed the Nawab’s forces to the Chief Dubhashi (one who knows two
San Thome. The French received reinforcement languages) and Chief Commercial Agent
and Mahfuz Khan attempted to halt the progress (1746). This enabled him to emerge as a
of the French on the banks of river Adyar. The man of substantial political influence at
French forces were able to wade through the water Pondicherry. But his real fame rests on his
and inflict a severe attack on the Nawab’s forces voluminous Diary in Tamil which is a very
resulting in heavy losses. valuable source of history for the period
Dupleix then set his eyes on Fort St. David from 1736 to 1760, particularly for the
at Cuddalore which was in British possession. Governorship of Dupleix. It is also a good
The English, with the help of the Nawab of Arcot, summary of Anandarangam’s views and
were trying to regain the places lost but Dupleix impressions on contemporary events.
again played a diplomatic game by promising
that he would hoist the flag of the Nawab in Nizam and the Nawab
the Fort St. George for a week and after that he of Carnatic.
requested the Nawab to hand over the town to the The English,
British. Further, the French offered the Nawab after losing Madras, a
gifts worth Rs. 40,000/- to make him withdraw precious possession,
his proposed help to the British. Meanwhile had only Fort St. David
two attempts of the British under Rear-Admiral under their control.
Boscowen to take Pondicherry also failed. By In order to reduce
this time, in 1748, France and the English had the influence of the
signed the Treaty of Aix La Chapelle. Under this French, the English
treaty the British and the French ceased their Arcot Nawab
Muhammad Ali supported the rival
hostilities in India. It was agreed that the French candidates Nasir Jung
would hand over Madras to the British in return for the throne of Nizam of Hyderabad and that of
for Louisburg in North America. Muhammad Ali after the death of Anwar-ud-din
The Second Carnatic War: 1749-1754 in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
In Europe peace prevailed between the British
The Battle of Ambur (1749)
and the French. But the two colonial powers could
not live in peace in India. They played one native Muzaffar Jung, the contender for Nizami of
ruler against the other. Dupleix wanted to enhance Hyderabad, and Chanda Sahib, a claimant
the French influence by involving in the wars of to the Nawabi of Carnatic, with the help
succession in both Hyderabad and Arcot. of the disciplined French infantry inflicted
huge casualties on the Nizam and Anwar-
Dupleix supported the claims of Muzzafar
ud-din’s forces. Anwar-ud-din was killed.
Jung, the grandson of Asaf Jah, who died in 1748
Chanda Sahib entered Arcot as the Nawab.
in Hyderabad, as the Nizam of Hyderabad. In the
Muhammad Ali, son of Anwar-ud-din,
Carnatic, he supported the claim of Chanda Sahib.
escaped to Tiruchirappalli.
A triple alliance was formed amongst the French,

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The battle of Ambur was followed by the Clive in the Second Carnatic War
entry of victorious forces to Deccan. Nazir Jung
Dupleix was also determined to take over
was killed by the French Army and Muzaffar
Tiruchirappalli with the help of Chanda Sahib.
Jung was made the Nizam of Hyderabad in
Chanda Sahib’s troops were joined by 900
December 1750. Dupleix’s dream of establishing
Frenchmen. Muhammad Ali had only 5000
a French empire appeared good for some time.
soldiers and not more than 600 Englishmen to
Dupleix received huge money and territories
help him. Robert Clive’s idea changed the course
both from the Nizam and the Nawab of Arcot.
of history. He suggested the idea of storming
When Muzaffar Jung required French protection,
Arcot when the French and the Nawab were busy
Dupleix sent Bussy, the French general, with a
concentrating on Tiruchirappalli.
large French force. Muzaffar Jung did not live long
and the same people who killed Nasir Jung also Clive moved from Fort St. David on 26
killed him. Bussy promptly placed Salabat Jung, August 1752 with only 200 English and 300
brother of Nazir Jung, on the throne. In order Indian soldiers. As expected the English received
to reduce the influence of British and also with help from many rulers from small territories.
a view to capturing Mohammad Ali (who fled to The Raja of Mysore and the ruler of Thanjavur
Tiruchirappalli after Anwar-ud-din was killed) rallied to support Muhammad Ali. Chanda
Chanda Sahib decided to take Tiruchirappalli, Sahib dispatched a force of 3000 under his son
with the help of the French and the Nizam. Raja Sahib to take Arcot. Clive seized Arcot on
August 31 and then successfully withstood a
Robert Clive was 53-day siege by Chanda Sahib’s son, Raja Sahib,
born in September who was helped by the French forces. In the battle
29, 1725. He had no of Arni the English and the Maratha ruler Murari
interest in studies and Rao faced an unequal number of French and the
was expelled from forces of Nawab of Arcot. In several battles that
three schools for his followed, including one at Kaveripakkam, Chanda
indiscipline and lack Sahib was captured and executed. Muhammed
of interest in studies. However, Clive had Ali became the undisputed ruler of Carnatic.
developed notoriety for fighting. Disgusted
In Europe Britain and France were not
by his behaviour his father secured him a
involved in any war and so neither of them
writer’s post in the East India Company and
approved the policy of their Companies fighting in
sent him to Madras. Clive was later promoted
India. The French government recalled Governor
as the governor of Fort St David and was
Dupleix. The Treaty of Pondicherry was signed
involved in the Carnatic Wars and the siege of
in 1755 with the English; both countries agreed
Trichinopoly. He won the Battle of Plassey in
not to interfere in the quarrels of the Indian
Bengal from where the British Empire came to
princes. The Treaty also defined their mutual
evolve in India. Clive returned to India to take
territorial possessions in India, a situation that was
up his governorship and secured the Diwani
maintained for nearly two centuries until Indian
rights from the defeated Mughal emperor in
1765. Clive amassed huge wealth and left India independence.
a fabulously rich man, with a personal fortune The Third Carnatic War: 1756-1763
to the then value of 234, 000 pounds. This
The third Carnatic War was an echo of the
apart, his jagir in Bengal fetched him an annual
rental income of 27,000 pounds. When he Seven Years War (1756-1763) which broke out in
returned to England he faced a parliamentary Europe in 1756. It was a global conflict and was
inquiry over allegations of corruption. Though fought between the two arch-rivals Britain and
exonerated, Clive committed suicide. France. The war was fought in North America
(resulting in the American War of Independence),

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and West Africa (which later became the French Battle of Buxar (1764)
West Africa). In India it manifested itself in the
After fleeing from Bengal Mir
Third Carnatic war. Before turning our attention
Qasim aligned with the Mughal Emperor
to the Third Carnatic War, let us see what
Shah Alam II and the Nawab of Oudh, Shuja-
happened in Bengal in the meantime.
ud-daulah, who were equally aggrieved by
Battle of Plassey (1757) the interference of the Company in their
internal affairs. They declared war against
The East India Company abused the
the British. The battle was fought at Buxar
trade permits (dastaks) granted by the Mughal
(1764). By virtue of its superior armed the
Emperor by not paying taxes to the Nawab of
Company forces won the battle. The victory
Bengal, and by involving itself in internal trade.
of the British led to the signing of the Treaty
This apart, the Company had given asylum to
of Allahabad (1765) by Robert Clive with
the son of the Nawab Siraj-ud-daula’s hostile
Shah Alam II. By this treaty the Company
aunt. As the Company refused to oblige the
got the Diwani right to collect land revenue
Nawab, who demanded the return of his nephew,
from the princely states of Bengal, Bihar
Fort St. William was captured and Europeans
and Orissa. Besides, the Company obtained
imprisoned. Responding to this situation, the
three districts, Burdwan, Chittagong and
Company at Fort St. George despatched a strong
Midnapur, in Bengal and sovereignty over
contingent under Robert Clive and Watson. The
Calcutta. British virtually became the rulers
battle that ensued is called the Battle of Plassey.
of Bengal.
It was alleged that Outbreak of Third Carnatic War
146 European
With the outbreak of the Seven Years
prisoners were kept
War, Clive captured Chandranagore, the
in a room measuring
French settlement in Bengal. With this the
18 by 15 feet and
French influence ended in Bengal. But they
it is said that all
retained their power in the south. The French
except 23 prisoners
government sent Count de Lally as the
died of suffocation.
Nawab Siraj-ud daula The veracity of this Supreme Commander of the French forces
in India. As the British were active in Bengal,
incident, known as the “Black Hole Tragedy
Lally promptly secured Fort St. David after a
of Calcutta” in British accounts, has been
short siege. Lally’s next move was Thanjavur
debated among historians.
but the French were after money from the
Raja which he could not give. Without a
The battle of Plassey (1757) changed
penny the siege of Thanjavur was lifted
the position of the British from being a
because there was a threat of British attack
commercial power to that of a territorial
on Pondicherry.
power. It confirmed the privileges obtained
by the Company and replaced Siraj-ud-daula
with the betrayer Mir Jaffar. The Company’s
sovereignty over Calcutta was recognized
and it was given sufficient land to maintain
a military force. Mir Jaffar also agreed for a
Company’s resident in the court. Mir Jaffar
was replaced by Mir Qasim and the latter
tried to assert his independence, which was
not to the liking of the Company officials.
Lally Bussy

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Lally wanted Bussy to come from Hyderabad now lost. Finally, the hostilities came to an end
to help him to defend Pondicherry in the case of with the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763)
attack. Bussy left Hyderabad and joined Lally. In at the end of the Seven Years War. Pondicherry
Deccan the political situation changed quickly and Chandranagore were restored to the French.
and the French lost both Rajahmundry (1758) The French had to henceforth be content with
and Masulipatam (1759). Salabat Jung, the Pondicherry, Karaikal and Yanaon (Yanam)
Nizam of Hyderabad, without fighting a battle (all in Union Territory of Puducherry), Mahe
signed an agreement with the British. The Nizam (Kannur district in Kerala), and Chandranagore
transferred Masulipatam and Northern Circars (Chandannagar in Bengal). The English emerged
from the French to the English. as the undisputed colonial power in India,
The combined forces of Bussy and Lally changing from a trading company into that of a
captured Kanchipuram and proceeded to take territorial power.
Madras. As the British were busy in Bengal,
Madras had only about 800 Englishmen and SUMMARY
2500 Indian soldiers. The Siege of Madras began I
on 12 December 1758. The French could not Akbar’s expansion of his empire in Gujarat
progress till February 1759, but both sides and Bengal facilitating his contact with
suffered casualties. The French, however, could European trading companies and the
not continue with the siege as supplies were establishment of Dutch and English
dwindling. Meanwhile General Pocock brought settlements with the consent of Akbar and
a fleet to the relief of Madras. Lally was forced to Jahangir are narrated
lift the siege and fall back on Kanchipuram. During the corresponding period how the
Nayak rule in south India, especially the
The Battle of Wandiwash and the Nayak kingdoms in Madurai, Thanjavur and
Fall of Pondicherry Senji had come about, are explained. Dutch
Settlement in Pulicat with the permission
Lally retired to
of Nayak king in Senji is pointed out
Pondicherry leaving a French
Shivaji stalling Aurangzeb’s ambitious plans
contingent in Arcot. The
to extend his influence in south India and
British moved towards
his victory over the Nayak rulers of Senji
Wandiwash but suddenly and Thanjavur facilitating Maratha rule in
fell upon Kanchipuram Thanjavur are highlighted
and captured it. A fresh The establishment of successor states after
Sir Eyre Coote detachment of British forces the death of Aurangzeb, the moving of the
arrived under the command of Sir Eyre Coote. Dutch from Pulicat to Nagapattinam, and
The last ditch battle was fought between Eyre the English moving from Surat to Bombay
Coote and Lally at Wandawashi (Wandiwash) are dealt with
in January 1760. Bussy was defeated and taken The economic condition of India
prisoner. Lally retreated to Pondicherry but it was during the period of survey of political
not besieged immediately. Meanwhile the British developments (1600-1750), with focus
captured Senji and proceeded to Pondicherry on cotton cultivation in the field of
and laid siege to it. Lally had reorganized the agriculture, weaving in manufacturing
defences and put up a heroic resistance to the sector and merchant groups involved in
British. The siege of Pondicherry continued for overseas trade are explained
several months and finally on 4 February 1761 Advent of Europeans and their
Pondicherry fell. In the same year the British collaboration with Indian merchants,
took control of Mahe, another French possession laying the foundation for building a trading
in the west coast. All French possessions were empire by the English are traced

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II 4.
______________ is associated with “Blue
Portuguese Settlements with Goa as Water Policy”.
headquarters and the impact of Portuguese (a) Francisco d’ Almeida
presence in India, in particular in Tamilnadu, (b) Albuquerque
are elaborated
(c) Nino da cunha
The Dutch East India Company’s activities
with focus on slave trade are discussed (d) Antonio de Noronha
Pondicherry becoming French settlement 5.
______________ is called the “Father of
and the rivalry between the French and the Printing Press”.
Dutch resulting in elimination of Dutch (a) Roberto de Nobile (b) Albuquerque
presence in the south are explained (c) Henriques (d) Francisco d’ Almeida
The Danes establishing their Lutheran mission 6. ______________ were responsible for “The
in Tranquebar and the role of Ziegenbalg as a Amboyna Massacre”.
missionary and the impact they made in the (a) English East India Company
region are described
(b) Dutch East India Company
English East India Company’s rivalry with
the French and the resultant three Carnatic (c) Portuguese East India Company
Wars with focus on the leading roles played (d) French East India Company
by Robert Clive on the side of the English and 7. Francis Martin made ______________ the
Dupleix on the side of the French are detailed strategic centre of French settlements in
Battles of Plassey and Buxar that decisively India.
made the British a territorial power in India (a) Masulipatnam (b) Nagapattinam
are highlighted
(c) Goa (d) Pondicherry
8. ______________ was inherited by Charles II
EXERCISE as dowry, which he transferred to the English
Q.R.Code East India Company.
(a) Madras (b) Calcutta
I. Choose the
(c) Bombay (d) Delhi
Correct Answer
9.
During the First Carnatic War,
1.
______________ became the political ______________ was the Governor of
headquarters for the Portuguese in India. Pondicherry.
(a) Goa (b) Diu (a) Peyton (b) La Bourdonnais
(c) Daman (d) Surat (c) Dupleix (d) Morse
10. Robert Clive consolidated the British rule in
2. ______________ was the gateway to west
Bengal by winning the ______________
Asia and Europe.
(a) Carnatic wars (b) Seven Years’ Wars
(a) Diu (b) Calcutta
(c) Battle of Buxar (d) Battle of Plassey
(c) Bombay (d) Surat 11. Battle of Wandiwash was fought between
3. The English got a piece of land from the local ______________
chief on which they built ______________ in (a) Eyre Coote and Lally
1639. (b) Robert Clive are Lally
(a) Fort St. George (b) Fort St. Williams (c) Eyre Coote and Bussy
(c) Vellore Fort (d) Golconda Fort (d) Robert Clive and Bussy

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12. ______________ concluded the Seven (a) (i) is correct

Years War. (b) (ii) is wrong
(a) Treaty of Pondicherry (c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct
(b) Treaty of Allahabad (d) Both (i) and (ii) are wrong
(c) Treaty of Paris 17. A
ssertion (A): Europeans had arrived in
(d) Treaty of Srirangapatnam India in the 16th Century
13. Find out the correct statement Reason (R): Their intention was to procure
(a) The Europeans were quite aware of the pepper, cinnamon, cloves and other spices
wealth and power of the Mughals. for European markets.
(b) The Dutch followed by the English arrived (a) A is correct; R is the correct explanation of A.
at Bombay. (b) A is correct; R is wrong.
(c) Thanjavur survived as a Mughal–ruled (c) A is wrong; R is correct.
state.
(d) A is correct; R is not the correct explanation A.
(d) Bombay, as an important trade centre,
18. Assertion (A): India had a strong
attracted merchants from Surat and other
manufacturing base and was particularly
parts Odisha.
famous for the variety of cotton fabrics.
14. Find out the wrong statement
Reason (R): Agriculture was the most
(a) Indian rulers admired foreigners and the
important economic activity in the county.
Europeans took advantage of it.
(a) A & R are correct.
(b) The Dutch were successful in the Spice
Islands. (b) A is correct; R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) Colbert was instrumental in establishing (c) A is correct; R is the correct explanation of A.
the French East India Company. (d) A & R are wrong.
(d) The influence of the French can still be 19.
Which of the following pairs is wrongly
seen in Pondicherry. matched.
15. From the following statements, find out the (a) Tarangambadi - Danish
correct answer. (b) Sir Thomas Roe - French
i. The Battle of Plassey changed the British (c) Anwar-ud-din - Nawab of Carnatic
from a commercial power to that of a
(d) Albuquerque - Portuguese
territorial power.
20. Match the following.
ii. After the Battle of Wandiwash, the English
emerged as a commercial power from that (A) Zamorin - 1. Printing Press
of a colonial power. (B) Fr. Henriques - 2. Nizam of Hyderabad
(a) (i) is correct (C) Muzaffar Jung - 3. Chanda Saheb
(b) (ii) is correct (D) Nawab of Arcot - 4. Ruler of Calicut
(c) (i) and (ii) are correct (a) 4, 1, 2, 3 (b) 4, 3, 2, 1
(d) (i) and (ii) are wrong (c) 3, 2, 1, 4 (d) 2, 1, 4, 3
16. From the following statements, find out the
correct answer. II. Write brief answers
i. Albuquerque was the real founder of the 1. Why were the Nayak kingdoms setup? What
Portuguese Empire in India. were they?
ii. Albuquerque attempted to stop the practice 2.
How did the English establish their
of Sati. settlement at Madras?

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3. Write a note on craft manufacture. 4. “The British virtually became the rulers of
4. What do you know of shroffs and hundis? Bengal” – When and How?
5. Attempt an account of Dupleix's career and
5. Name the first Portuguese viceroy in India.
achievements in India.
Explain the policy that he introduced.
6. What is meant by Cartaz system? Activity
7.
Name the Dutch colonial forts and 1.
On the outline map of India, mark the
possessions in India. European trading centres.
2. Visit Fort St. George Museum and prepare a
8. What is a factory? List out the European
report about your visit.
factories established in the 16th Century.
3. Chennai Day and its associated activities.
9. What were the causes for the outbreak of the
First Carnatic War. Assignments
10. Name the treaty signed in 1765. What were 1. Prepare an album, collecting pictures related
its terms? to the Portuguese and French settlements.
III. Write short answers 2. Write the biography of Robert Clive.
1. The political condition in South India after

1565
REFERENCE BOOKS
2. The traders were not a homogeneous group 1. Sinnappa Arasaratnam, Merchants, Companies
– explain. and Commerce on the Coromandel Coast, 1650-
1740, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1986.
3. What made the Europeans to set up their
establishments on the east coast? m Prakash, The New Cambridge History of India
2. O
4.
“The expansion of demand for Indian European Commercial Enterprise in Precolonial
textiles from Europe had an impact on the India, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
indigenous economy” – How? 3. Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Improvising Empire:
5. Pulicat. Portuguese Trade and Settlement in the Bay
of Bengal, 1500–1700, New Delhi, Oxford
6. Tarangambadi.
University Press, 1990.
7. The Battle of Ambur.
4. M. Manickam, Trade and Commerce in
8. Anandarangam Pillai Diary.
Pondicherry (A.D.1701-1793), Unpublished
IV. Answer the following in detail Ph.D. Thesis, Pondicherry University, 1995.
1. Describe the impact of Portuguese presence 5. Bipan Chandra, History of Modern India, Orient
in India. Blackswan, New Delhi, 2009.
2. How did the English East India Company 6. Danna Agmon, Traders, Missionaries and Tamil
establish its trading rights in Madras, Intermediaries in the Eighteenth century French
Bombay and Calcutta. India. Ph.d thesis submitted in the department
3. Highlight the causes for the Anglo–French of Anthropology and History in the University
rivalry in the Carnatic region. of Michigan (US) 2011.

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GLOSSARY
revamped changed something again திருத்தியைமக்கப்பட்ட

devastated destroyed அழிந்துேபாதல்
political turmoil a state of confusion அரசியல் அைமதியின்ைம
incursion a sudden attack ஊடுருவல்
metamorphosis a complete change உருமாற்றம்
stranded struck by a difficult situation ைகவிடப்பட்ட
invincibility impossible to defeat ெவல்லமுடியாத
ICT CORNER
The Coming of the Europeans
Let us learn about the

‘Coming of the Europeans’
Procedure
Step 1 Type the URL or scan the QR code to open the activity page.
Step 2 Click on the Timeline given below to select the British period.
Step 3 Scroll below to know about the coming of Europeans.
Step 4 In another way, select the ‘British India’ in the list which is located
at the right-side of the page.
URL:
https://www.timemaps.com/history/south-asia-1837ad/
https://is.muni.cz/do/law/kat/kupp/hrim/index.html
Pictures are indicative only


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UNIT
Effects of British Rule
17
Learning Objectives
To acquaint oneself with the knowledge of
British East India Company's emergence as a territorial power
Failure of dual government established by Robert Clive and assumption of direct
responsibility of the Company under Regulating Act of 1773
Cornwallis’ Permanent Settlement in Bengal and Thomas Munro’s Ryotwari System in
Madras Presidency
Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance and Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse leading to annexation of
more number of Indian territories without war
The Company government’s relationship with Indian Rulers
Reforms in civil and judicial administration carried out by Cornwallis and Wellesley
Social and educational reforms and the building of rail and communication networks
attempted by Bentinck and Dalhousie
Neglect of irrigation and exploitation of forest resources by the colonial state leading to
frequent famines, forcing the peasants and artisans to move out of the country as indentured
labourers
Drain of Wealth theory of Dadabhai Naoroji
Introduction the country. Railways and telegraph, introduced

for easier communication, also served the
The general breakdown of the central purpose of curbing resistance and the control
authority, in the wake of Mughal’s fall, resulted of the local population. However, their agrarian
in a English trading company taking over India. and commercial policies had a ruinous impact
Initially, the English East India Company’s focus on the economy. India’s wealth was drained in
was not on administration. Its aim was ensuring several forms. By the 1830s there was large scale
smooth trade. However, after the terrible Bengal emigration of ruined peasants and weavers to
famine of 1770, they began to exercise power plantations in the British Empire countries.
with some responsibility. Not withstanding their
exploitative economic policy, their professed 17.1 Establishment of
objective was the safety of the people they British Raj
governed and administration of justice. The Buxar was the real foundation battle for
justification for their expansionist policy was the British dominion in India. Not only the Nawab
extermination of tyranny of the local rulers and of Bengal and Oudh, but the Mughal emperor
the harassment by robbers and marauders in ShahAlam II and his prime minister were also
264

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opposed to the British. As a result of the Battle

of Buxar, the Company ceased to be a company The administrative head of East India
of merchants and became a formidable political Company was Governor (of Fort William
force. Under the pretext of corruption in Bengal or of Fort St. George) until 1772. Warren
administration Clive was appointed Governor of Hastings who was Governor of Fort William
Fort William. Clive did not like his predecessor was made Governor-General of Bengal
Vansittart’s decision restoring Oudh to Shah according to the Regulating Act of 1773.
Alam. So he called for fresh negotiation with The Charter Act 1833 designated this post
Shuja-ud-daulah. As a result of this, two treaties as Governor-General of India and William
of Allahabad were signed. The emperor granted Bentinck was appointed the first Governor-
the Diwani (revenue administration) of Bengal, General of united British India. The
Bihar and Orissa to the Company. The emperor Governor-General was selected by the Court
Shah Alam II was to get the districts of Allahabad of Directors of the East India Company, to
and Kora, besides an annual allowance of 26 whom he was responsible. After the great
lakhs of rupees from the revenues of Bengal, rebellion of 1857, when the government of
Bihar and Orissa. The province of Oudh was India was transferred from the East India
restored to Shuja-ud-daula on the payment of Company to the Crown, the title “Viceroy
war indemnity. The treaties held the Nawab of and Governor-General” was first used in the
Bengal responsible for the governance of Bengal, queen’s proclamation of 1858. Canning was
Bihar and Orissa. the first Viceroy and Governor-General of
India accountable to the British Parliament.
Before the emperor granted the Diwani to
Clive, the Nawab of Bengal, successor of Mir
Jafar, had practically transferred the Nizamat 17.2 Land Tenures:
(civil administration) to the Company. So the Permanent Settlement
Company had to function as Diwan and the
Nizam. The Diwan’s duty included the collection
and Ryotwari Settlement
of revenue and the control of civil justice. The The Regulating Act of 1773 imposed on the
Nizam’s function was to exercise military power court of Directors the legal obligation of
and to dispense criminal justice. Thus the informing all revenue transactions of the
Company acquired the real power, while the Company servants to the British Treasury. The
responsibility of administration was with the Governor and Council consisting of the
Nawab. This arrangement is called Dual System Commander-in-Chief and two counsellors sat
or Double government or Dyarchy. as a Board of Revenue which discussed revenue
But soon the dual system began to break matters. The Pitt India Act of 1784 separated the
down. Governance without responsibility led to civil and military establishments in India.
the outbreak of a terrible famine in 1770. Nearly
one third of Bengal's population perished. The Governor-General Cornwallis, himself a
miseries of the province were intensified by the big landlord, wanted to create landlords after
Company servants who the British model in India. Cornwallis came to a
had monopolized the sale settlement with the revenue
of rice and realized huge farmers. This resulted
profits. Finally, the Company in the creation of a new
realized its responsibility and type of middlemen, called
passed the Regulating Act of zamindars, reducing the
1773. Warren Hastings was cultivators to the position
appointed the Governor of mere tenants. This
General of Bengal. Warren Hastings settlement that Cornwallis Cornwallis
Effects of British Rule 265

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made with the zamindars of Bengal, Bihar and By 1814 the Court of Directors had
Orissa in 1793, in pursuance of the instruction decided to introduce the ryotwari system.
from the Directors, is called the Permanent This was a system formulated by Governor
Settlement. ‘Settlement’ refers to the assessment Thomas Munro. Under this system the ryot, an
and fixing of the quantum of land revenue to Anglicization by the British in India of the Arabic
be paid by each zamindar to the government. word ra'īyah, meaning a peasant or cultivator,
For Bengal, Bihar and Orissa(Odisha), this was the proprietor and tax payer of the land.
was fixed permanently. Thus the zamindars The government dealt with him directly without
who were originally tax collectors acquired the intervention of any middlemen. The peasant
hereditary rights over the land assigned by the was entitled to possession of land so long as he
government. The zamindars pocketed whatever paid the land revenue. Apart from eviction,
they collected over and above the settlement. default could result in attachment of livestock,
The first quarter of the nineteenth household property and personal belongings.
century was a formative period in the land The government assessed the revenue of each
revenue history of the Madras Province. First cultivated field. The revenue assessment was
after a great deal of deliberations Permanent reviewed once in thirty years, taking into
Settlement was adopted. The districts of account the changes in grain prices, marketing
Chengalpattu, Salem and Dindigul were opportunities, irrigation facilities and the like.
divided into a number of mittahs and sold to The ryotwari system introduced the concept of
the highest bidders. Most of the purchasers,
after fleecing the peasants, failed in the course Thomas Munro: Munro
of a year or two. The experiment was therefore arrived Madras in 1780.
abandoned. Then the Board of Revenue tried In the first 12 years he was
a system of village leases. engaged in Mysore War
as soldier. He worked in
Mahalwari was introduced in 1833 during the Baramahal (Salem
the period of William Bentinck. Under the district) from 1792-1799
system the revenue settlement was made Thomas Munro
and Kanara from 1799-
with the proprietor of the estate but the 1800. He was collector of Ceded Districts:
land revenue was collected from individual Kadapa, Kurnool, Chittoor, Anantapur. It
cultivators. was during this period that he conceived
the idea of Ryotwari Settlement. In 1820 he
Under the Village Lease system the became Governor of Madras Presidency
assessment of each village was to be fixed for and served for seven years. In 1822 he
a period of three years based on the actual officially enforced the Ryotwari System in
collections over a series of past years. In districts Madras. During his governorship, he gave
where mirasi rights existed, the mirasdar was attention to education and regarded any
made responsible for the rent collections. In expenditure on it as an investment. He
districts where the mirasi rights did not exist, also emphasized the need for Indianization
an arrangement was made with the village of the services. He died of Cholera at
headman. This system failed due to various Pattikonda (Karnool district) in July
reasons such as bad monsoons, low price of 1827. A very popular governor, people
grains and the short period of lease. When constructed shrines in his honour, and
crops failed entire villages defaulted and fled named their children after him. His statue
without paying the revenue. The government was erected at Madras in 1839 by public
had to seek the help of the district collectors to subscription.
bring back the peasants to the village.
266 Effects of British Rule

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private property in land. The individual holders brought under the system became dependent on
were registered and issued pattas. They were the Company in political and military matters,
permitted to sell, lease, mortgage or transfer the sacrificing their own sovereignty and status.
right over land. The Subsidiary System increased the
military resources and efficiency of the
17.3 Subsidiary Alliance Company government. The immediate result
and Doctrine of Lapse of this system was the discharge of thousands
Governor General of professional soldiers by the political powers.
Wellesley (1798-1805) The disbanded soldiers indulged in freebooting
pursued a forward policy to activities. Pindaris (marauders) began to
establish British supremacy swell on account of the Subsidiary System.
in India. His annexation of In view of the guaranteed support to the
territories was not a result Princes by the Company, the protective States
of victory in war. It was by mal-administered and paved the way for the
Wellesley
assumption of the entire annexation.
administration of an Indian State, with its
rulers retaining his title and receiving a fixed Distinction between ‘Presidency’ and
allowance. ‘Province’: The British called Presidency the
place where the office of Chief Administrative
Before Wellesley, the Company concluded
Head was situated. Madras, Bombay and
alliances with Indian princes. The Nizam and
Calcutta were the three Presidencies. Later
the Nawab of Oudh received subsidies for
when the Presidency became unwieldy for
the maintenance of British contingents. Such
governance, they created provinces like
forces were generally stationed outside the
Central and United Provinces.
State concerned. Payment was made in cash.
Difficulties arose when the payments were not
promptly paid. Wellesley broadened the scope Doctrine of Lapse
of this arrangement by his Subsidiary Alliance Traditionally Hindu
System, bringing under it Hyderabad, Mysore, custom allowed the adoption
Lucknow, the Maratha Peshwa, the Bhonsle of a son in the absence of
(Kolhapur) and Sindhia (Gwalior). male heirs. The adopted
The provisions of the Subsidiary Treaty are: son had the right to inherit
(a) An Indian ruler entering into Subsidiary property. In this context the
Alliance with the British had to dissolve his question raised was whether
own armed forces and accept British forces such an adopted prince Dalhousie
and a British Resident in his territory. (b) He holding the state subordinate
had to pay for the British army’s maintenance. to the Paramount Power (England) could
If he failed, a portion of his territory would be succeed without the consent of the latter. Before
taken away and ceded to the British. (c) The Dalhousie’s arrival, the custom was to obtain the
protected prince was to sever all connections sanction of the Company government before
with European powers other than the British, or after adoption. Governor General Dalhousie
especially the French. (d) No European should held that the paramount power could legally
be employed without the permission of the refuse to sanction adoption in the case of rulers
British. (e) No negotiation with any Indian of States dependent on it. This meant that
power should be held without the Company’s dependent States could be regarded as lapsed to
permission and (f) No other Indian power to the paramount power, by its refusal to sanction
interfere in its internal affairs. Thus the states the succession of adopted sons.

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By applying this policy known as Doctrine that the Company was in no way responsible
of Lapse, the first state to fall was Satara. Shahji for the administration of the Indian States.
of Satara died (1848) and the son he adopted Thus, under the Subsidiary System, each Prince
on the eve of his death was not recognized by was secure on his throne, notwithstanding
Dalhousie. Gangadhar Rao, Raja of Jhansi died the discontent of his people or by his jealous
in November 1853 and Dalhousie annexed that neighbours. In regions such as Kathiawar and
state immediately. (His widow, Rani Lakshmi Central India, divided among a great number
Bai, played a prominent role in the Great of petty chiefs, the Company’s close supervision
Rebellion of 1857.) Raghuji Bhonsle III died in became indispensable for prompt action.
1853 without a child. Nagpur was immediately The Company army helped the Indian
annexed. In 1851, the last Peshwa died. He had rulers under the Subsidiary system to quell any
been a pensioner of the Company for thirty- rebellion or disturbance within the State. In
three years, but Dalhousie refused to continue Hyderabad, the authority of the Nizam did not
paying the pension to his son, the Nana Sahib. prevail in certain areas, as the Arab troops lived
The Doctrine of Lapse, thus, served as an without any control. The assistance of British
instrument for the pursuit of its annexation troops helped reduce the Arabs to obedience.
policy. When the Crown took over India in In Mysore state the financial management of
1858 Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn. the raja provoked a rebellion in 1830 and the
treaty of Wellesley only provided authority for
17.4 Native States and
the Company to interfere. William Bentinck,
British Paramountcy as Governor General, relieved the raja of
In the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey all his powers and appointed Mark Cubbon
(Palashi) (1757), when the Company embarked to administer Mysore. In Gwalior, during a
on its career of expansion, it established minority, the parties at the durbar quarrelled
the system of dual government. Under this bitterly among themselves. The army of the State
system, everything was sought to be done by passed out of control. Ellenborough moved
the Company’s servants in the name of some with a strong army, but the State army resisted.
powerless and dependent prince. In theory the At the battle of Maharajpur, the State army was
Company was only the diwan (the collector defeated and new terms of conditions including
of revenue), but in practice it exercised full the limitation of the military forces maintained
authority. This authority was asserted by the by it were imposed in 1843.
refusal to continue the payment of annual tribute Dalhousie’s new method of annexing
to the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II promised territories, Doctrine of Lapse, as we have seen,
by Clive. Cornwallis even stopped affirming increased the territories under British domain.
obedience in letters to the emperor. Wellesley Every accession of territory also increased the
carried matters further with his objective of influence of the Company over the governments
establishing British predominance through his of the Indian princes.
Subsidiary Alliance System. Wellesley made
subsidiary alliances with the three of the major 17.5 Reforms in Civil and
States of India: Hyderabad, Poona and Mysore. Judicial Administration
Hastings (Moira) who became Governor Cornwallis organized company
General in 1813 ordered the removal of the phrase administration securing the services of William
denoting the imperial supremacy from his seal. Jones, a judge and an Orientalist. He set up a
He refused to meet Emperor Akbar II, unless machinery for the detection and punishment
he waived all authority over the Company’s of crime, thereby ending the dual system of
possessions. But Hastings laid down a policy government established by Clive. The collection

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of revenue was separated from administration and history of India, in addition to their
and justice. He deprived the collectors of liberal education in England. With this object,
their judicial function and confined them to the College of Fort William was founded at
revenue collection. Civil and criminal courts Calcutta in 1800. A three year course of study
were thoroughly reorganized. At the top of the was provided for the Company’s civil servants.
judicial system were the Sadar Diwani Adalat The college was staffed by European professors
and the Sadar Nizamat Adalat. These two and eighty Indian pundits. This became the
highest civil and criminal courts of appeal at Oriental School for Bengal civilians. In 1806 the
Calcutta were presided over by the Governor East India College was established in England.
General and his Council. Under them were four In Madras, the College of Fort St George was set
provincial courts of appeal at Calcutta, Deccan, up by F.W. Ellis in 1812 on the lines of College
Murshidabad and Patna. Each was to function of Fort William. It was here that the theory
under three European judges, aided by Indian that the South Indian languages belonged to a
advisers. Next came the District and City courts, separate family of languages independant of
each presided over by a European judge assisted Sanskrit was formulated.
by Indians. Every district and important city
17.6 Education and
was provided with a court. At the bottom of the
judicial system were courts under Indian judges, Development under
called munsifs. In civil cases, Muslim law was Company Rule
imposed and followed. In criminal cases, Hindu Education
and Muslim laws were applied according to the The establishment of a Madrasa by a learned
religion of the litigants. maulvi with the support of Warren Hastings
The biggest contribution of Cornwallis was the beginning of initiatives of British
was the reform of the civil services. Cornwallis government to promote education. This Madrasa
provided scope for employing capable and started with forty stipendiary students. What
honest public servants. He put an end to the Warren Hastings had done for the Muslims, his
old tradition of the civil service wherein the successor was prepared to do for the Hindus.
Company’s servants were given a small salary but Cornwallis established a Sanskrit college (1791)
were permitted to trade. Cornwallis appointed in Benares. The successive governors in the next
people solely on merit but considered that twenty years, however, did nothing to follow
efficiency required the exclusion of Indians from it up. The Company held the view that it was
the Company’s service. not desirable in its own interests to encourage
education in India. In 1813, when the Company
Every district was divided into thanas
Charter was renewed, it contained a clause
(police circles). Each thana was under a daroga,
intended to force on the Company the initiative
an Indian officer. Cornwallis’ police system was
for a regular educational policy. Hastings
further improved under Warren Hastings. The
encouraged the foundation of vernacular schools
rigid separation of judicial and revenue powers
by missionaries. He was the patron of the
was given up. The Collector began to function
Hindu College, established at Calcutta in 1817,
as Magistrate as well.
supported by the Indian public for the teaching
Cornwallis, who toned up the civil and of English and of Western science. The cause of
criminal administration, however, did not pay education was further promoted by missionaries
adequate attention to the education of Company like Alexander Duff. Thanks to Hastings’ liberal
servants. It was Wellesley who emphasized the outlook, press censorship instituted in 1799 was
need for educating and training them. Wellesley abolished. It was in such an atmosphere that
thought the civilians should have a knowledge the Bengali Weekly, the Samachar Darpan was
of the languages, laws, customs and manners started in 1818.

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The Charter of 1833 emphasized the

development of the country primarily in the A charter is a grant by a country’s sovereign
interest of its inhabitants. William Bentinck, power to start a company, university, or city
appointed the first Governor General of united with rights and privileges clearly stated.
India reformed the society by suppressing The East India Company was started with
thuggee (robbery and murder committed by Queen Elizabeth’s Charter of 1600. It came
the thugs in accordance with their ritual), to be renewed every twenty years, after
abolishing sati and introducing English as the Warren Hastings took over as Governor
General since 1773. The Charter of 1853
medium of instruction in schools and colleges.
was the last one before the Company
This he thought would facilitate Indianization
government was taken over by the Crown.
of the services. Bentinck founded the Calcutta
Medical College in March 1835. The students
comprehensive scheme of education-primary,
of this college were sent to London in 1844
secondary, collegiate. Departments of Public
to complete their studies. Ten years after
Instruction and a university for each of the three
the establishment of the Calcutta Medical Presidencies were organized for the purpose.
College, the Grant Medical College in Bombay University of Madras was established under
was founded in 1845. In 1847 the Thomason this plan (1857), along with universities in
Engineering College at Roorkee (now IIT Bombay and Calcutta. Dalhousie modified the
Roorkee) came into existence. In 1849 a school policy of Macaulay by encouraging educational
for girls was founded in Calcutta. institutions in vernaculars too. He also agreed
Macaulay came to India as a law member to the principle of grants-in-aid to private effort,
in 1835. He was appointed President of the irrespective of caste or creed.
Board of Education. He had a poor opinion of
indigenous learning. Macaulay recommended 17.7 Efforts at Safety
and government accepted to make English the and Developmental
literary and official language of India. Measures
Dalhousie showed keen interest in
Pindari War
education. He approved of the system of
vernacular education designed by James Pindaris were freebooters composed of
Thomason, Lieutenant Governor of the North- both Muslim and Hindu bands. The Subsidiary
Western Provinces (1843-53). The Educational Alliance of the Company had led to the
Dispatch of Charles Wood (1854) outlined a disbandment of thousands of soldiers and most
Macaulay: Macaulay found nothing good in Indian literature, philosophy and

medicine. Macaulay, in his minute of 1835 wrote: ‘I have no knowledge of either
Sanskrit or Arabic. But I have read translations of the most celebrated Arabic and
Sanskrit works. I have conversed both here and at home with men distinguished
by their proficiency in the Eastern tongues. I have never found one among them
who could deny that a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole
native literature of India and Arabia. Macaulay
... We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the
millions whom we govern, -a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes,
in opinions, in morals and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular
dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western
nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great
mass of the population.

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Railways, Postal & Telegraph

Systems
The first serious proposal for constructing
railways was made by the European business
community. The Directors were doubtful
whether railways could be successfully built in
India. Governor General Dalhousie however
The villagers burning themselves
William Bentinck persuaded them arguing that the railways would
to avoid Pindaris
bring very considerable economic advantage.
of them joined them and swelled their numbers Yet before the Great Rebellion less than three
in central India. The British proclaimed Pindari hundred miles of track had been laid.
War. But it turned out to be a war against Though several proposals for the laying of
Marathas and the outcome of this prolonged telegraph communication between India and
war (1811 to 1818) was that the whole of Central London were put forward, the telegraph service
India came under British rule. was inaugurated only in 1854. During the Great
Suppression of Thuggee Rebellion of 1857 its importance was realised.
In the aftermath of 1857, it became an urgent
The Thugs were robbers operating between
necessity. The time of communication between
Delhi and Agra from the fourteenth century.
London and Calcutta came down from several
They were bound together by oaths and ritual
days to twenty eight minutes. With the opening
and murdered unsuspecting travellers in the
of Suez Canal in 1869, the journey between
name of the goddess Kali. Bentinck placed
Europe and India was reduced by some 4000
William Sleeman in charge of the operation to
miles. By1870 the government of British India
eliminate the Thuggee menace. Between 1831
was in effective contact with Secretary of State,
and 1837 more than three thousand Thugs were
India Office, London. Subsequently, with the
convicted. Five hundred became approvers. By
exception of Curzon, Governor Generals were
1860 the problem of thuggee had ceased to exist.
reluctant to do anything without seeking the
permission of Whitehall, the headquarters of
the East India Company.
The railway line from Bombay to Thane

was opened in 1853; from Howrah to
Raniganj in 1854-55. The first railway line in
south India ran from Madras to Arakonam
in 1856. Royapuram was one of the railway
Thuggees
stations inaugurated in that year.
Abolition of Sati
Bentinck showed great courage and
humanity by his decision to abolish sati, the
practice of burning widows alive with the
corpses of their husbands. Previous governors-
general were reluctant to prohibit the custom as
an interference in religion but Bentinck enacted
a law (Sati Abolition Act, 1829) to put an end to
this practice. Raja Rammohan Roy’s campaigns
and efforts played a decisive part in getting this First Train: Bombay(Mumbai) to Thane
inhuman practice abolished.

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Irrigation were needed to build railway tracks. Indian

trees, particularly sal, deodar, and teak, were
The British neglected
preferred for their strength over other Indian
irrigation. The irrigation
timbers. These three species were intensively
channels and tanks built by
exploited. Much sal was extracted from the
Indian rulers fell into disuse
and there was little effort forests of the Jungle Mahals of West Bengal
on the part of the Company and Bihar. Timber went to England too for
to undertake repairs or the building of railways. The myth that India’s
renovation works. In Madras, Arthur Cotton forests were inexhaustible was exploded. It was
as we will see in the following section, a few in this background that the colonial state, in
irrigation works were carried out because of order to manage and control forest resources,
the personal enthusiasm of Arthur Cotton, an started the Forest Department and passed the
Engineering officer. Against much opposition, Indian Forest Act, 1865. This was a draconian
Cotton built a dam across the Kollidam act which restricted the use of forest resources
(Coleroon) in 1836. In 1853, a dam across the by indigenous groups who resented it. In
Krishna river had also begun. In the north, order to contain protest and resistance the
before the takeover of India by the Crown, British enacted the dreaded Criminal Tribes
Jumna canal was completed in 1830 and by Act, 1871. During the entire colonial period
1857 the Ganges canal had been extended to there were frequent insurrections by tribal
nearly 450 miles. In the Punjab area the Bari people against the colonial state. The legacy
Doab canal had been excavated by 1856. But of the colonial forest acts continues to haunt
the canal water contributed to soil salinity and contemporary times as well.
water logging causing great ecological distress.
Forests
17.8 Deindustrialization
and Drain of Wealth
Land revenue was the mainstay of the
British Indian government’s fiscal system. Europe had always imported more from
Therefore, in their effort to extend the areas of the East than was exported here. There was little
cultivable land, forests were destroyed. Zamins that the East required from the West in return
were created out of Jungle Mahal forests and for the spices, silks, calicos, jewels and the like
auctioned off for regular cultivation. The it sent there. The industrial revolution in textile
original inhabitants of this region, the Santhals production that took place in England reversed
were evicted. Therefore it was the Santhals this relationship for the first time. India was
who were the first tribal group to resist the systematically de-industrialized. Rather than
British rule in India. Slope cultivation was being the world’s leading exporter of cloth and
encouraged in the hilly and mountainous textiles, India became a market for Lancashire
tracts. Land was provided to European cottons. Cheap machine-made British goods led
enterprises at a throwaway price for slope to the flooding of Indian markets. Indian cotton
cultivation. Further, in their enthusiasm to try piece goods began to lose ground gradually
plantation crops, zamindars and Indian rulers given that machine-made goods were more
destroyed the forests. Coffee, for instance, did durable and cost less.
not grow in many places. Yet in the process The Company government, in the first
of attempting coffee cultivation large tracts of three decades, followed a policy of allowing
virgin forests were destroyed. Timber came unrestricted flow of imports of British goods into
to be exploited with the massive construction India. Without any import duty English goods
of the railway system. In the 1870s, it was were much cheaper than domestic products. At
calculated that every year one million sleepers the same time, Indian manufactures were shut

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out from the British market by high protective Our policy on the contrary, has been the reverse
duties. This policy ruined the Indian weavers of this– cold, selfish and unfeeling.’
and traders. Large numbers of weavers were Military and civil administrative costs
thrown out of employment and forced to seek
in British India consumed an average of
livelihood in agriculture, which increased the
eighty per cent of the budget, leaving twenty
pressure on the already overcrowded land.
per cent to be divided among the various
departments concerned. Agriculture was left
Charles Travelyan to a Select Committee to its deteriorating condition. Irrigation was
of the House of Commons in 1840 made neglected. Arthur Cotton wanted the colonial
the following observation: “The peculiar state to give priority to irrigation rather than
kind of silky cotton formerly grown in building railway network, but his suggestion
Bengal, from which the fine Dacca muslins was turned down by the imperial goverment in
used to be made, is hardly ever seen. The England. Outbreak of successive famines in the
population of the town of Dacca has fallen last quarter of the nineteenth century ultimately
from 150, 000 to 30, 000 or 40,000 and the prompted the government under British Crown
jungle and malaria are fasten croaching to initiate some steps for the building of dams.
upon the town. … Dacca, which was the
The Ryotwari system intended to create a
Manchester of India has fallen off from a
very flourishing town to a very poor and large body of independent peasants, who would
small one; the distress there has been very be protected from the “corrupt and faithless
great indeed.” zamindar,” however, in reality achieved the
contrary result of strengthening the position of
Abbe Dubois, a French the big landlords. The government showed little
Catholic missionary, interest in protecting the interests of tenants in
before his return to ryotwari areas. Since land was the main source
Europe in 1823 wrote: of revenue, its rigorous collection became an
“misery and desolation imperative policy of the British. The Torture
prevailed everywhere Commission, appointed by the Company
and that thousands of government in Madras in its report presented in
weavers were dying of Abbe Dubois
1855 exposed the atrocities perpetrated by the
hunger in the different districts of the Indian revenue and police officials in the process
Presidency [Madras].” of collecting land tax from the cultivators. The
“The misery hardly finds parallel in the Torture Act which justified forcible collections
history of commerce…. The bones of of land revenue was abolished only after 1858.
cotton weavers are beaching the Gangetic
plains of India,” said the Governor General 17.9 Famines and
William Bentinck. Indentured labour
Famine, though no stranger to India,
Contrasting Muslim rule with British increased in frequency and deadliness with
governance William Bentinck himself the advent of British colonial rule. Between
acknowledged the benevolent nature of the 1800 and 1825, there were only four famines.
former. ‘In many respects’, Bentinck wrote, ‘the But in the last quarter of the century there
Muhammedans surpassed our rule; they settled were 22 famines. It is estimated that over five
in the countries which they conquered; they million died. By 1901, Romesh Chunder Dutt,
intermarried with the natives; they admitted them a former ICS officer and a staunch nationalist,
to all privileges, the interests and sympathies of enumerated 10 mass famines since the 1860s,
the conquerors and conquered became identical. putting the total death toll at 15 million.

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The laissez faire (non-intervention of purpose. But after the Company government
government in trade) principles to which the abolished slavery in India (1843), the system
colonial state was committed since 1833 was of indentured was used. Under this system,
applied to famines also. For years, western- labourers were hired on contract for a period
educated Indians had argued that British rule of five years (indenture) and they could return
was grossly impoverishing India. The Orissa to their homeland with passage paid at the
(Odisha) famine, in which one third of the end. Many impoverished peasants and weavers
population died of starvation and disease, served went hoping to earn some money. But in effect
as a patent proof of this thesis. It prompted it was worse than slave labour. The colonial
nationalist Dadabhai Naoroji, to begin his state allowed agents (kanganis) to trick or
lifelong investigations into Indian poverty. kidnap indigent landless labourers. 150
indenture labourers “the innocent victims of a
An eye witness (an Englishman) of the new system of slavery” were first taken from
terrible famine in the Guntur district Thanjavur in 1828 to the new British coffee
of Madras Presidency in 1833 said: ‘It plantations in Ceylon. All of them deserted.
is dreadful to see what revolting food Therefore, recruitment coupled with criminal
human beings may be driven to partake laws prohibiting desertion started in the 1830s.
of. Dead dogs and horses are greedily People courted this new form of slavery to
devoured by these surviving wretches; escape starvation deaths.
and the other day, an unfortunate In 1815, the Governor of Madras received
donkey having strayed from the fort, a communication from the Governor of
they fell upon him like a pack of wolves, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) asking for coolies to
tore him limb from limb and devoured work on the coffee plantations. The Madras
him on the spot.’
Governor forwarded this letter to the collector
of Thanjavur, who after enquiry reported back
Madras Famine of 1876-78: The failure saying that the people were very much attached
of two successive monsoons caused a severe to the soil and hence unless some incentive was
famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876- provided it was not easy to make them move
78. The viceroy Lytton adopted an hands-off out of their native soil. But the outbreak of two
approach similar to that followed in Orissa. 3.5 famines (1833 and 1843) forced the people,
million people died in the presidency. without any prompting from the government,
The introduction of plantation crops to leave for Ceylon to work as coolies in coffee
and slope cultivation in Ceylon, Mauritius, and tea plantations under indentured labour
Fiji, Malaya, the Caribbean islands, Natal system. During 1843-1868, nearly 1.5 million
and South Africa required enormous labour. people (1,444,407) had gone from Madras to
Initially slave labour was used for this Ceylon as indentured labourers.
Famine in Madras Famine in Orissa Indentured labourers

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scalpel cut to the very heart, and yet, there is no

Indentured Labour System: It was a penal wound to be seen, and soon the plaster of the
contract system, totally differing from the high talk of civilization, progress and what not
contractual labour system of the present covers up the wound.
day. According to the Indentured Labour
System, the coolie (the term applied to an Naoroji argued that a great deal of wealth was
Indian indentured labourer) had to work drained to England in the form of Home Charges.
in jail-like condition, was punishable by The following constituted the Home Charges:
forfeiture of wages or imprisonment for Incentive to the shareholders of the
(a) negligence of duty or refusal to attend Company
to work (b) insolence or disobedience of Savings and the salaries of European
orders or other misconduct (c) quitting officials, European traders and Planters
service before the expiry of the contract. remitted to England.
By invoking one of these provisions the
Pensions to those who retired from civil
planters on the flimsiest pretexts invariably
and military services.
either deprived the labourers of their wages
or put them behind bars. The contract The salaries of the staff and the Secretary to
prohibited the formation of associations by Home Government, India Office at London
coolies either with the objective of claiming Expenses on wars fought in India and
increase in wages or for termination of their interests for the loans obtained from the
contract. The Plight of women in plantations banks for the conduct of wars and for the
is described poignanatly in Bharati’s famous building of railroads.
song ‘Karumbu thottathile’ India’s loan to England was 130 million
pounds in 1837. It increased to 220 million
Drain of Wealth pounds, of this 18 percent was for conducting
wars waged against Afghanistan and Burma. A
Dadabhai Naoroji in
government report of 1908 informed that on
his Poverty and Un-British
account of railways, India had incurred a debt
Rule in India explained
of 177.5 million pounds. In order to give outlet
how the English rulers
to the saturated capital the British secured the
were different from the
earlier invaders. He said, in capital from private enterprise in England. In
the case of former foreign the form of guaranteed interest of 5 percent, the
invaders, they plundered Colonial state promised to repay the interest in
and went back. They made, Dadabhai Naoroji sterling. There was a loss of 220 million pounds
no doubt, great wounds, but India, with her to India on this score.
industry, revived and healed the wounds. When Calling this as drain of wealth Dadabhai
the invaders became rulers of the country they Naoroji lamented that had the money drained
settled down in it; whatever was the condition to England remained in the pockets of Indians,
of their rule, there was at least no material India would have economically progressed.
or moral drain in the county. But with the Even Gazni Mahmud’s pillage stopped after
English the case was different. There are the eighteen times but the British plunder seemed to
great wounds of the first wars in the burden be unending, he quipped. R.C. Dutt estimated
of the public debt and those wounds are kept that during the last decade of the reign of Queen
perpetually open and widening by draining Victoria (1891-1901), of the total income 647
away the lifeblood in a continuous stream. The million pounds, 159 million pounds drained to
former rulers were like butchers hacking here England. This worked to 44 percent of the total
and there, but the English with their scientific income of the country.

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SUMMARY 3.__________ introduced the Dual system in

Bengal.
The consequences of “assumption of power
without responsibility” by the Company (a) Warren Hastings (b) Dupleix
are highlighted
(c) Cornwallis (d) Robert Clive
Bringing more Indian territories under
British domain through Subsidiary Alliance 4.
__________ was passed to regulate the
and Doctrine of Lapse is explained Company affairs in India.
Zamindari land tenures and Permanent (a) Regulating Act (1773)\
Settlement in Bengal and the Ryotwari
(b) The Pitt India Act (1784)
System in Madras Presidency are discussed
Changes effected in civil and judicial (c) Charter Act (1813)
administration are highlighted (d) Charter Act (1833)
Socio-cultural and educational reforms and
5.
__________ was the first Viceroy and
developmental programmes of successive
Governor General of India accountable to the
governor generals are examined
British Parliament.
How railways and telegraph enabled the
British to have closer control of the people (a) Cornwallis (b) Canning
they governed is explored (c) Wellesley (d) Hastings
Dadabhai Naoroji’s analysis of drain of
6. Cornwallis made the Permanent Settlement
wealth is dealt with.
with the Zamindars of __________.
Company goverment’s exploitative policies
leading to famines forcing the peasants and (a) Mysore (b) Bombay
artisans to move out to work as indentured (c) Bengal (d) Madras
laboures in British colonies elsewhere.
7. __________ introduced the ryotwari System.
(a) Cornwallis
EXERCISE
(b) Thomas Munro
Q.R.Code
(c) Robert Clive
I. Choose the
Correct Answer (d) Warren Hastings
8. Th
e British officer who ended the menace of
1. __________ was the real foundation battle Thuggee was __________
for British dominion in India. (a) William Adam
(a) Plassey (b) First Carnatic War (b) William Sleeman
(c) Buxar (d) Wandiwash (c) James Holland
2. According to the __________ treaty, Shah (d) John Nicholson
Alam II granted the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar 9. _ _________ was the first state to fall under
and Orissa to the company. the policy of Doctrine of Lapse.
(a) Allahabad (b) Madras (a) Nagpur (b) Oudh
(c) Poona (d) Pondicherry (c) Jhansi (d) Satara

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10. __________ justified forcible collection of 16. Assertion (A): The British Government
land revenue. initiated steps for the building of dams.
(a) ryotwari Act eason (R): There were successive famines
R
in last quarter of the 19th Century.
(b) Pitt India Act
(a) A is correct; R is wrong.
(c) Permanent Settlement Act
(b) A is correct R is not the correct explanation
(d) Torture Act
of A.
11. _ _________ introduced English as the
(c) A is correct; R is the correct explanation
literary and official language of India.
of A
(a) Cornwallis (b) William Bentinck
(d) A is wrong; R is correct
(c) Macaulay (d) Thomas Munroe
17.
Which of the following pairs is wrongly
12.
Madras University was established in matched?
__________.
(a) Gangadhar Rao - Jhansi
(a) 1837 (b) 1861
(b) Raghuji Bhonsle - Nagpur
(c) 1844 (d) 1857
(c) Shaji - Satara
13. The efforts of __________ played a decisive
(d) Scindia - Kolhapur
part in getting the practice of sati abolished.
(a) Warren Hastings
(A) Arthur Cotton - 1.Sanskrit College
(b) William Jones
(B) William Sleeman - 2. Kollidam
(c) Raja Rammohan Roy
(C) William Bentinck - 3. Thuggee Menace
(d) Dayanand Saraswati
(D) Cornwallis - 4. Abolition of
14. The first railway line in south India ran from
Sati Act
Madras to __________ in 1856.
(a) 4, 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 3, 4, 1
(a) Vaniampadi (b) Katpadi
(c) 3, 2, 1, 4 (d) 2, 1, 4, 3
(c) Villupuram (d) Arakonam
15. Find out the correct statement. II. Write Brief Answers
(a)
The Governor General was selected by 1. The Regulating Act, 1773.
the Court of Directors of the East India 2. Governor Thomas Munro.
Company.
3.
Distinction between ‘Presidency’ and
(b)
The Subsidiary System decreased the ‘Province’.
military resources and efficiency of the
4. “The biggest contribution of Cornwallis was
Company.
in the field of civil services” – Explain.
(c) The establishment of the Madrasa by Lord
5. Write a note on irrigation development under
Wellesley was the beginning of British
the British.
Government to promote education.
6. Write a note on Dacca Muslin.
(d)
Lord Dalhousie founded the Calcutta
Medical College in March 1835. 7. “Drain of wealth impoverished India” – How?

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III. Write Short Answers Assignment

1. “Dual System”. 1. Prepare a comprehensive report on the drain
2. How did the Zamindars acquire hereditary of wealth by the British in India.
rights over the lands assigned by the 2. “The network of Indian Railways in India
Government? owes its origin to the British” – Narrate the
3. Doctrine of Lapse. recent attempts at modernization in this
4. Reforms of Cornwallis in judicial sector in India.
administration.
5. Dispatch of Charles Wood. REFERENCE BOOKS
6. Pindaris and Thuggees. 1. Michael Edwardes, British India 1772-1947,
7. Impact of Industrial Revolution on Indian Rupa & Co, 1993.
handloom weavers. 2. Dharma Kumar, Land and Caste in South
8. Indentured Labour System. India, Cambridge University Press, 1965.
3. Dharma Kumar and Tapan Raychaudhuri
(eds), The Cambridge Economic History of
1. Explain the Subsidiary Alliance introduced India, Cambridge University Press, 2008.
by Lord Wellesley. 4. L.S.S. O’Malley, Modern India and the West,
2.
What was the nature of educational OUP, 1968.
development under Company’s Rule? 5. Sarada Raju, The Agrarian Structure of
the Madras Presidency: Impact of British
3.
Narrate the circumstances leading to the
Administration, University of Madras.
passing of the Indian Forest Act, 1865 and
point out its effects. 6. William Digby, Prosperous British India, New
Delhi: Sagar Publications, 1969.
Activity 7. Geoghegan, Report on Coolie Emigration from
1. Compare and contrast the Railways and Post India, 1874.
& Telegraph Systems of the British with that 8. Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, This
of India. Fissured Land, OUP, 1992.
2.
Arrange a debate on the advantages and 9. Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India,
disadvantages of British colonialism in India. Publication Division, Govt. of India.
GLOSSARY
in pursuance a follow up செயல்படுத்தும் விதமாக
scalpel surgical knife அறுவைக் கத்தி
contingent a part of a military force இராணுவப் பிரிவு
ceded granting of some possessions விட்டுக் க�ொடுத்தல்
paramount supreme ஒப்புயர்வற்ற
farrier a person who makes and fits metal குதிரைக்கு லாடமடிப்பவர்
plates for horse’s feet
draconian heartless க�ொடுமையான
insurrection rebellion கிளர்ச்சி
devoured to eat or swallow something eagerly விழுங்குதல்
pillage loot expecially during war சூறையாடுதல்

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UNIT Early Resistance to

British Rule
18
Learning Objectives

The early resistance of Mysore Sultans to the British East India
Company rule
The establishment of palayakkarar system in south India and the revolt
of southern palayakkarars
The revolt of Theeran Chinnamalai in the Kongu region and other
displaced rulers in Vellore.
The peasant and tribal uprisings against the Company, Mahajans and Zamindars
The great rebellion of 1857, resulting in the final takeover of the Company by the Crown
Introduction 18.1 Mysore Sultans and

The conquest of territories and the their Resistance
expansionist policy of the British East Rise of Haider Ali
India Company led to a series of rebellions
of deposed kings, or their descendants, Mysore was a small feudatory kingdom
uprooted zamindars, and palayakarars. under the Vijayanagar Empire. After
Historians describe this as primary resistance. Vijayanagar fell in 1565, the ruling dynasty
Independent of such revolts were the uprisings of Wodeyars asserted their independence
of the dispossessed peasants and tribals. The and the Raja Wodeyar ascended the throne
rapid changes introduced by the British in in 1578. The capital moved from Mysore to
the agrarian relations, land revenue system, Srirangapatnam in 1610. Wodeyar dynasty
continued to reign until 1760, when the real
and judicial administration, elaborated in
power changed hands to Haider Ali.
the previous lesson, greatly disrupted the
agrarian economy, resulting in widespread Haider’s father Fateh Muhammad was
misery among various sections of the society. the Faujdar (garrison commander) of Kolar.
Therefore, when the aggrieved erstwhile After his death Haider’s soldierly qualities
ruling class raised a standard of revolt, the helped him to rise through the military ranks.
support of the mass of peasants and artisans By 1755 he had secured a powerful position,
was not lacking. In this lesson we discuss the commanding 100 horsemen and 2000
happenings of that time in south India as well infantry men. Haider suppressed an army
as the great rebellion of 1857. mutiny in Mysore and restored the places
279

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of the Mysore kingdom trouble arose when the English occupied those
occupied by Marathas. He districts. Yet a treaty was signed with Nizam
received the title of “Fateh Ali who acquiesced in the session. In return
Haider Bahadur” or (“the the English promised to help out in case of any
brave and victorious danger from the enemies. This promise meant
Lion”). In 1760 Haider English help to the Nizam against Haider Ali.
allied himself with the Here lay the genesis of the later Subsidiary
French at Pondicherry System. Despite the treaty, Nizam came to an
against the English, but understanding with Haider in 1767 and the
Haider Ali
his position at home was British therefore declared a war against Haider.
endangered by the plot engineered by the This is called First Anglo-Mysore War or First
Marathas. As Haider successfully handled the Mysore War.
situation and thereafter he became not only An English army from Bombay captured
Dalawai but the de facto ruler of Mysore. In Mangalore and other surrounding places
1770 the Mysore king Nanjaraja was poisoned on the West Coast. But Haider succeeded in
to death and Haider’s hand was suspected. recovering both. The English made an attempt
Thereafter Wodeyar kings functioned only as to capture Bangalore but to no avail. In 1768
nominal rulers. The real royal authority vested Haider pounced on Baramahal (Salem district)
in Haider. and marched on Karur and then Erode and
took over both by defeating Captain Nixon.
Haider Ali and the British
Meanwhile, his general Fazalullah Khan
After obtaining Diwani right (right to marched on Madurai and Tirunelveli. Haider
collect taxes on behalf of the Mughal emperor advanced to Thanjavur and from there to
from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa), the Company Cuddalore. Though Haider did not want stop
had to safeguard its territories. As the Company his offensive against the English, the threat of
was not strong enough, it avoided interfering Maratha invasion forced him to negotiate peace
in the internal affairs of the Indian states. with the English. The terms of Treaty of Madras
Warren Hastings maintained buffer states were as follows: the conquered territories to be
to live within a “Ring Fence”. The Company restored to each, excepting Karur which was
was, however, drawn towards the affairs of to be retained by Haider. Mutual assistance
the Carnatic, due to the successive struggles was to be rendered in wars of defence. This
for its Nawabship. The English traders saw in meant the English were under obligation to
this a great opportunity to directly interfere in help Haider against the Marathas. But when
Indian politics. However, there were threats assistance from English was not forthcoming,
from two strong powers represented by Haider Haider turned against the English.
Ali and the Nizam of Hyderabad.
Haider and the Second
First Mysore War (1767-69) Mysore War (1780-84)
In the third Carnatic War Colonel Forde After the American War of Independence,
while conducting the forces from Bengal France had signed a treaty of friendship with
captured Masulipatnam in 1759. This led to America (1778) and so Britain declared war
a treaty with Salabad Jung, who ceded the against France. In a similar context of Spain
Northern Sarkars to the British (districts of reaching an agreement with America, and
Ganjam, Vizagapatnam, Godavari, Krishna and thereby being dragged into the war against
Guntur). English acquisition of the Northern England (1779) England remained isolated. In
Sarkars was legalized by the Mughal emperor India the coming together of the Nizam and the
in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad. In 1766, Marathas, supported by the French aggravated
280 Early Resistance to British Rule

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the situation further. Haider Ali wanted to with the English after the First Anglo-Maratha
turn England’s difficulty to its advantage and war in 1782, also joined the British. The British
marched on Karnataka. position was thus greatly strengthened.
Colonel Baillie, who was to join the force Tipu sent an embassy
led by Hector Munro, was badly wounded in a to Constantinople and
sudden attack by Haider. This forced Munro to another in 1787 to Paris.
move Madras. Haider captured Arcot (1780). These diplomatic efforts
Now on request from Madras government of Tipu were intended to
Sir Eyre Coote, the victor of the Battle of strengthen him against
Wandawashi, was sent from Calcutta to besiege the English. The French
Madras by sea. Having scored a victory against Monarch Louis XVI was
Haider, Coote proceeded to Pondicherry. hospitable, but could give
Tipu Sultan
Haider in the meantime overran the kingdom only vague promises of
of Thanjavur. Coote reached Porto Novo and support to the Sultan.
won a decisive victory over Haider. Haider
Tipu’s attack on Travancore which was an
narrowly escaped capture. Colonel Braithwaite
ally of the British and his capture of Cranganore
was thoroughly defeated near Kumbakonam by
(Kodungallur) was treated as a declaration of
Haider’s son Tipu and taken prisoner. In order
war on the Company government. Hence the
to divert the attention of the Mysore Sultan,
third Anglo-Mysore War broke out.
an expedition was undertaken by General
Mathews to capture Mangalore. Expectedly
Tipu abandoned Karnataka and moved to
West Coast.
The death of Haider due to cancer in
1782, the signing of Treaty of Paris (1783) at
the end of American War of Independence,
and the protracted siege of Mangalore
enabled the English to be aggressive against
Tipu. Karur and Dindigul were captured
by Colonel Lang, Colonel Fullerton seized
Palghat and Coimbatore but this advance on Srirangapatnam Fort
Srirangapatnam was pre-empted by Tipu with
Colonel Hartley defeated Tipu’s general
his proposal for peace. The Treaty of Mangalore
Husain Ali at Calicut. In response Tipu
was signed in March 1784, according to which
captured Tiruvannamalai. His effort to get the
both parties agreed to give up their conquests
support of French Pondicherry Governor did
and release the prisoners.
not materialise. Cornwallis himself marched
Third Mysore War (1790-92) from Vellore and reached Bangalore. On his
In the meantime Lord Cornwallis had way he encountered Tipu and defeated him
become governor general. Cornwallis wanted near Srirangapatnam. But lack of provisions
to deal with Tipu in a revengeful manner. The compelled Cornwallis to retreat. At this juncture
two great southern powers, the Nizam of the Marathas helped the British in supplying the
Hyderabad and the Maratha confederacy, required provisions. The reinforced army of the
supported the British as its allies. The Nizam of English marched on Srirangapatnam again and
Hyderabad supplied resources and even troops besieged it. Unable to withstand the onslaught
for the British to war against Tipu. The of the British forces Tipu offered peace and
Marathas, who had signed the Treaty of Salbai accepted the terms imposed by Cornwallis.
Early Resistance to British Rule 281

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According to the treaty of Srirangapatnam, The elimination of Tipu and the

the Tipu was to give up half of his dominions, restoration of the old Wodeyar dynasty to the
pay three crores of rupees as indemnity, and Mysore kingdom marked the real beginning of
pledge two of his sons as hostages. The allies, Company rule in south India. The sons of the
Marathas and British, were given equal shares of slain Tipu were interned first at Vellore, and
the indemnity and of the ceded territories. The later, after the Vellore Revolt of 1806, shifted to
English got Malabar, Dindigul and Barmahal. Calcutta. Thus ended the valiant fight of Mysore
Tipu lost Coorg (Kudagu), whose raja became Sultans against the British
a feudatory to the Company. Tipu’s power was
greatly reduced. And after their stay at Madras 18.2 Early Resistance
as hostages the boys returned to Srirangapatnam of Southern
on 29 May 1794 when their father had paid all Palayakkarars against
the dues to the English. Tipu could hardly forget the British
his humiliation and the heavy territorial and
monetary losses suffered. Origin of Palayams and
The Mysore king Chamaraj IX died in Palayakkarars
1796. Tipu resolved not to observe the formality After the decline of Vijayanagara Empire,
of appointing a king. Synchronizing with this Nagama Nayak who arrived as a viceroy to
resolve came the announcement of the French Madurai and his son Viswanatha Nayak asserted
colonial Governor of Mauritius General Malartic themselves as independent rulers of Madurai
that, after obtaining French help, he would and Tirunelveli. Under the able guidance of
declare war on the English. In July 1798 Tipu’s prime minister Ariyanatha Mudaliyar, all the
correspondence with the French Directory little kingdoms of the former Pandian Empire
and later with Napoleon and his evasiveness were classified and converted into 72 palayams.
in his correspondence with Wellesley led to his Viswanatha Nayak constructed a formidable
declaration of war against Tipu. fort around Madurai city, which consisted of
seventy two bastions. Each of them was placed
Fourth Mysore War (1799)
under a chief.
Tipu made all out efforts to strengthen
his military and financial resources. In 1796 The origin of the Palayakkarar (poligari)
Tipu sent emissaries to Paris again. In 1797 he system dates back to the 1530s. It is
received a French emissary to confirm French believed that this system was practiced
support from Mauritius. A Jacobin club was earlier in Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal.
started in Srirangapatinam and the flag of The literal meaning of Palayakkarar is the
the French Republic was hoisted to mark the holder of a camp as well as the holder of
cordiality established between the French and an estate on military tenure. Prior to the
the Sultan of Mysore. enforcement of this system Servaikarars
Irked by Tipu’s alliance with the French and Talayaris collected fees for police
Wellesley, now the new Governor General, work. After the creation of palayams, the
insisted on a standing army at Mysore under Servaikarars turned Palayakkarars and
the Subsidiary System. Tipu turned down subordinated Talayaris to their authority.
Wellesley’s proposal and the British declared
the fourth Anglo-Mysore war in 1799. General A Palayakkarar was bound to pay a fixed
David Baird stormed Srirangapatnam. Tipu’s annual tribute or supply troops to the king
offer of peace was rejected and in the eventual and to keep order and peace over a particular
battle Tipu was wounded and soon after shot area. In order to enable him to perform these
dead by a European Soldier. duties and attend to other services, a certain

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number of villages were granted for revenue

collection. In addition he was presented with Yusuf Khan born as Maruthanayakam,
several titles and privileges. Palayakkarars had belonged to Ramanathapuram district.
judicial powers and dispensed justice over civil When in Pondicherry he embraced Islam.
and criminal cases. He joined the company of sepoys under
Clive in 1752 and participated in the
Based on the topographical distribution siege of Tiruchirappalli during 1752-54.
they are classified as western palayams and From 1756 to 1761 he was in charge of
eastern palayams. The palayams held by Maravar the districts of Madurai and Tirunelveli as
chieftains were mostly in the western parts of Governor under the Madras Government
Tirunelveli. The settlement of Telugu migrants which had been controlling them though
in the black soil tracts, lying in the eastern part they belonged to the Nawab of Arcot.
of Tirunelveli, left those parts under Nayak He defeated Haider Ali and captured
Palayakkarars. Solavandan. At the time Lally’s siege of
Madras (1758-59), he rendered splendid
Revolt of Palyakkarars
service to the English. As one in charge of
The Nawab of Arcot, who had borrowed administration of Madurai and Tirunelveli
heavily by pledging the villages in several parts regions he encouraged the weaving industry
of Tamilnadu, entrusted the task of collecting of Madurai. He gave a fixed amount for
land revenue arrears to the Company the conduct of worship in the temples of
administration. Yusuf Khan, remembered as Madurai and retrieved the temple lands.
Khan Sahib, had been employed as commander Yusuf Khan rebelled because the English
of the Company’s Indian troops. He was ordered him to serve the Nawab of Arcot.
entrusted not only with the command of the
forces, but also with the collection of revenue.
At the request of the Nawab, a force of 500 Three Pathan officers, Nawab Chanda
Europeans and 200 sepoys was (1755), ordered Sahib’s agents, named Mianah, Mudimiah and
to proceed into the “countries of Madurai and Nabikhan Kattak, commanded the Madurai
Tirunelveli” to assist him. The encroachment and Tirunelveli regions. They supported
of East Indian Company administration Tamil palayakkarars against Arcot Nawab
into palayakkarar’s authority aroused stiff Mohamed Ali. Puli Thevar had established close
resistance. relationships with them. The palayakkarars
of Uthumalai, Surandai, Thalaivankottai,
Mafuzkhan (Arcot Nawab’s elder
Naduvakurichi, Singampatti, Urkad, Seithur,
brother) was appointed by the Nawab as his
Kollamkondan and Wadakarai joined Puli
representative in those territories. Mafuskhan
Thevar’s confederacy. With the promise of
along with Colonel Heron proceeded towards
restoring Kalakkadu, Puli Thevar had already
Tirunelveli. They easily took Madurai. An
won over the ruler of Tranvancore to his
expedition was sent to reduce Kattabomman,
confederacy.
the palayakkarar of Panchalamkurichi but
had to be recalled. While returning Colonel Nawab, on his side, sent an additional
Heron was urged to storm the fort of Nel- contingent of sepoys to Mahfuzkhan and the
Kattum-Seval.Its palayakkarar Puli Thevar reinforced army proceeded to Tirunelveli.
wielded enormous influence over the western Besides the 1000 sepoys of the Company,
palayakkarars. For want of cannon and of Mahfuzkhan received 600 more sent by
supplies and pay to soldiers, the attack of the Nawab. He also had the support of
Colonel Heron had to be abandoned and the cavalry and foot soldiers from the Carnatic.
force retired to Madurai. Before Mafuskhan could station his troops

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near Kalakadu, 2000 soldiers from Travancore daughter of Chellamuthu

joined the forces of Puli Thevar. In the battle of Sethupathy, the raja of
Kalakadu, Mahfuzkhan's troops were trounced. Ramanathapuram. She
The organized resistance of the married Muthu Vadugar
Periyaudayar, the Raja
palayakkarars under Puli Thevar gave an
of Sivagangai, and had a
opportunity to the British to interfere directly
daughter named Vellachi
in the affairs of Tirunelveli. From 1756 to
Nachiar. When her
1763, aided frequently by Travancore, the
husband was killed by
palyakkarars of Tirunelveli led by Puli Thevar Velu Nachiyar
the Nawab’s forces, Velu
were in a constant state of rebellion against
Nachiyar escaped with her daughter and
the authority of the Nawab. Yusuf Khan who
lived under the protection of Haider Ali at
had been sent by the Company would not
Virupachi near Dindigul for eight years.
venture to attack Puli Thevar unless the big
During this period she organized an army
guns and ammunition from Tiruchirappalli
and succeeded in securing an alliance with
arrived. As the English were involved in a
Gopala Nayaker and Haider Ali. In 1780
war with the French, as well as with Haider
Rani Velu Nachiyar fought the British with
Ali and Marathas, big guns arrived only in
military assistance from Gopala Nayaker and
September 1760. Yusuf Khan began to batter
Haider Ali and won the battle.
the Nerkattumseval fort and this attack
continued for about two months. On 16
May 1761 Puli Thevar’s three major forts Velu Nachiyar employed her intelligence
namely Nerkattumseval, Vasudevanallur and gathering agents to discover where the
Panayur came under the control of Yusuf British stored their ammunition. One of
Khan. After taking Pondicherry the English her followers Kuyili, doused herself in
commanded respect, as they had eliminated oil, set herself alight, and walked into the
the French from the picture. Consequently storehouse. She also employed another
the unity of palyakkarars began to break agent, her adopted daughter Udaiyaal, to
up as French support was not forthcoming. detonate a British arsenal, blowing herself
Travancore, Seithur, Uthumalai and Surandai up along with the barracks. Velu Nachiyar
switched their loyalty. Yusuf Khan, who was formed a woman’s army.
negotiating with the palayakkarars without
informing the Company administration, was The Nawab of Arcot placed many obstacles
charged with treachery and hanged in 1764. to the advancement of the Rani’s troops.
However she overcame all the hurdles and
Puli Thevar, who had taken asylum
entered Sivagangai. The Nawab of Arcot was
elsewhere after the forts were taken over by
defeated and taken captive. Velu Nachiyar
Yusuf Khan, returned and began to organize
recaptured Sivagangai and was again crowned
against the British. Captain Campbell who
queen with the help of Marudu brothers.
was sent this time by the British, laid siege and
captured Nerkattumseval in 1767. Nothing After ascending the throne Velu Nachiar
is definitely known about the last days of Puli appointed Chinna Marudu as her adviser and
Thevar. Periya Marudu as commander. In 1783 the
English forces invaded Sivaganagai again. This
Velu Nachiyar time the Marudu Pandiyan saved the place
The Sethupathys ruled the area that by some diplomatic moves. In 1790, Vellachi
covered Ramanathapuram, Sivagangai, Nachiyar, daughter of Velu Nachiyar who was
Virudhunagar, and Pudukkottai districts married to Vengan Periya Udaya Thevar who
of the present day. Velu Nachiyar was the became the king of Sivagangai state due to

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compromise formula of the Englishmen, died

under mysterious circumstances. Velu Nachiyar Pagoda was the dominant currency in use
became sick and died in three years later in1796. at the time of arrival of European traders.
It was a gold coin of Vijayanagar descent.
Veera Pandiya Kattabomman It was called varagan in Tamil. During
While Velu Nachiyar was the reign of Tipu Sultan, one pagoda was
fighting the British and the equivalent of three and half rupees in
engaging their complete Mysore. “Shaking the pagoda tree” was
attention on Ramanathapruam a phrase used in England to describe the
and Sivagangai, Veera Pandiya opportunities for making quick fortunes in
Kattabomman’s resistance India.
against the British was on
progress. Kattabomma Nayak When Jackson halted at Chokkampatti, Sivagiri,
was the playakkarar of Sattur and Srivilliputhur to receive tribute from
Veera Pandiya
Kattabomman P a n c h a l a m k u r i c h i . the Palayakkarars, Veera Pandiyan sought an
Kattabomman Nayak was a interview but was told that he could meet the
family title. The chieftain of the Colonel Heron’s collector only at Ramanathapuram.
time was Jagaveera Kattabomman, the
grandfather of Veera Pandiya Kattabomman. Despite this humiliation, Kattabomman
This Veera Pandiya Kattabomman, born in followed the Englishman for twenty three days
1760, became the palayakkarar on the death of over 400 miles through the latter’s route and
his father. The collection of tribute continued to reached Ramanathapuram on 19 September.
be a problem as there was a constant tussle An interview was granted the same day and
between the Company and the southern the collector expressed his satisfaction that the
palayakkarars. In September 1798 as the tribute Palayakkarar had behaved properly and thereby
from Panchalamkuriuchi fell into arrears, “saved himself from ruin”. Upon a verification
Collector Jackson wrote to Veera Pandiyan in of accounts Jackson was convinced that
his characteristic arrogance. Kattabomman had cleared most of the arrears,
leaving only 1080 pagodas as balance to be
The country experienced
settled. Denied of courtesy, the palayakkarar and
a severe drought, in
his minister Sivasubramania Pillai had to stand
consequence of which the
before the arrogant collector. Finally he directed
palayakkarars found it difficult
them to stay inside the Ramanathapuram fort.
to collect taxes. Collector
Now a few sepoys appeared, apparently to
Jackson wanted to send an
arrest Kattabomman. But they escaped. At
expedition to punish Veera
the gate of the fort a clash occurred, in which
Pandiyan but the Madras administration did
some including Lieutenant Clarke were killed.
not agree. The Company had already withdrawn
Siva subramania Pillai was taken prisoner but
its forces from Tirunelveli to be employed in the
Kattabomman made his escape.
war against Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and did not
desire to risk a conflict in the far south at this After his return to Panchalamkurichi,
juncture. It directed the collector to summon the Kattabomman wrote to the Madras Council
Palayakkarar at Ramanathapuram and hold a blaming the attitude of Jackson for the scuffle.
discussion. Accordingly, on the 18 August 1798 In the meantime Governor Edward Clive had
Jackson despatched an order directing Veera issued a proclamation, inviting the palayakkarar
Pandiyan to meet him at Ramanathapuram to submit to the authority of the Company. In the
within two weeks. After sending the summons, event of surrender he assured a fair investigation
the collector started on a tour of Tirunelveli. into the Ramanathapuram incident. If he

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refused, he threatened Kattabomman with The Palayakkarars of Nagalapuram,

dire consequences. In response Kattabomman Mannarkottai, Powalli, Kolarpatti and
appeared before the committee which acquitted Chennulgudi had already formed themselves
him of the charges of rebellion and condemned into a combination due to the efforts of Marudu
the conduct of the collector. S.R. Lushington brothers. They asserted their rights to collect
was appointed collector in the place of Jackson, taxes from certain villages in the Company’s
who was eventually dismissed from service. territory. Kattabomman proceeded to join this
league to take up its leadership by virtue of the
However, Kattabomman remained
influence that he wielded and the resources
irreconciled. At this time Marudu Pandiyan of
he possessed. Determined to strengthen this
Sivaganga along with Gopala Nayak of Dindigul
league, he persuaded the chieftains of Satur,
and Yadul Nayak of Anamalai, was engaged in
Yezhayirampannai, Kadalgudi and Kulathoor to
organising a Confederacy against the British. In
join it.
view of the identity of interests Kattabomman
and Marudu Pandiyan came closer. On 1 September 1799 Major Bannerman
served an ultimatum directing Kattabomman
Kattabomman also established contact
to see him at Palayamkottai. As Kattabomman
with the Sivagiri palayakkarar. While
dodged Bannerman decided on military action.
Panchalamkurichi was situated in an open plain
The Company army reached Panchalamkurichi
and appeared vulnerable, the strategic location
on 5 September.
of the fort of Sivagiri at the foot of the Western
Ghats and the formidable barriers around it Kattabomman’s fort, 500 feet long and 300
rendered it eminently suited both for offensive feet broad, was constructed entirely of mud. The
and defensive operations. Company forces cut off the communications of
the fort. Kattabomman’s forces fought gallantly
Thus in a bold attempt to strengthen
and successive attacks were repulsed. Colonel
his position an armed column consisting of
Welsh recorded in his memoirs the gallantry of
the followers of Veera Pandiyan, the son of
Kattabomman's soldiers. The English ordered
the Palayakkarar of Sivagiri and other allied
for the arrival of more troops. On 16 September
chiefs, led by Dalawai Kumaraswami Nayak,
reinforcements arrived from Palayamkottai.
moved towards the west. As the Palayakkarar
As the broken walls appeared vulnerable, the
of Sivagiri was a tributary to the Company, the
garrison evacuated and reached Kadalgudi. In
Madras Governor’s Council considered this as a
a clash at Kalarpatti, Kattabomman’s minister
challenge to its own authority and ordered the
Sivasubramonia Pillai was taken prisoner.
march of the army.
The British forces followed up their victory
In May 1799 Lord Wellesley issued orders with the reduction of Nagalapuram and other
from for the advance of forces from Trichirapalli, strongholds of the defiant chiefs to submission.
Thanjavur and Madurai to Tirunelveli. The On the appearance of the army the western
Travancore troops joined the British. Major Palayakkarars too surrendered.
Bannerman, armed with extensive powers,
Vijaya Ragunatha Tondaiman, Raja of
effectively commanded the expedition.
Pudukottai, captured Kattabomman from the
On 1 June 1799 Kattabomman, attended by jungles of Kalapore and handed him over to the
500 men, proceeded to Sivaganga. At Palayanur enemy. Upon the fall of the Palayakkarar into
Kattabomman held deliberations with the hands of the enemy, his followers fled to
Marudu. Subsequently, joined by 500 armed Sivaganga and from there to the hills of Dindigul
men of Sivaganga, Kattabomman returned to for taking service with Marudu Pandiyan and
Panjalamkurichi. Gopala Nayak.

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Bannerman brought the prisoners to an as their ruler. They occupied the southern
assembly of the Palayakkarars and after a mockery and northern regions of the kingdom. The
of trial sentenced them to death. On 16 October soldiers made their entry into Madurai too. In
Veera Pandiya Kattabomman was tried before July Umathurai led his followers to Palayanad
an assembly of Palayakkarars at Kayatar. in Madurai and captured it. In 1801 both the
Unmindful of impending death Kattabomman Sivagangai and Ramanathapuram forces joined
admitted all the charges levelled against him. together under the command of Shevatha
He declared that he did send his armed men Thambi, the son of Chinna Marudu, and
against Sivagiri and that he did fight the British marched along the coast towards Thanjavur.
troops in the battle at Panchalamkurichi. On 16 Thereupon the distressed peasants in Thanjavur
October Kattabomman was hanged to death at also joined the force of Shevatha Thambi.
a conspicuous spot near the old fort of Kayatar. Captain William Blackburne, the resident
Kattabomman’s heroic exploits were the subject of Thanjaur collected a force and defeated
of many folk ballads which kept his memory Shevatha Thambi near Mangudi. Serfoji, the
alive among the people. raja of Thanjavur stood firmly by the British.
Yet the fighters could elude the pursuit of the
Marudu Brothers and the South
British troops by rapid movements, while laying
Indian Rebellion of 1801 the entire region waste.
By the treaty of
18.3 South Indian
1772 the Arcot Nawab
had authorized the Rebellion, 1801
Company to collect The victory over Tipu
the Stalam Kaval and and Kattabomman had
Desakaval. This affected released British forces
the Kaval chiefs in from several fronts to
both the Palayakkarar Marudu Brothers
target the fighting forces
and non-palaykkarar in Ramanathapuram and
territories. The aggrieved kavalkarars and their Sivagangai. Thondaiman of
chiefs had joined the palayakkarars in their Pudukottai had already joined the side of the
fight against the Nawab and the Company. In Company. The Company had also succeeded
Sivagangai, Vella Marudu and Chinna Marudu, in winning the support of the descendent
who had taken over the administration from of the former ruler of Sivagangai named
Periya Udaya Tevar, who died in battle against the Padmattur Woya Thevar. Woya Thevar was
Nawab’s forces, expelled the forces of the Nawab recognised by the Company as the legitimate
and proclaimed Vellachi, daughter of Periya ruler of Sivagangai. This divisive strategy split
Udaya Tevar and Velu Nachiyar, as the queen of the royalist group, eventually demoralizing
Sivagangai. The Marudus assumed the charge of the fighting forces against the British.
the ministers. The temple of Kalayarkoil in the In May 1801 a strong detachment under
heart of the then Sivagangai forest became the the command of P.A. Agnew commenced its
rallying point of the rebels. When Umathurai operations. Marching through Manamadurai
reached Kamudhi after the execution of his and Partibanur the Company forces occupied
brother Veera Pandiya Kattabomman, Chinna the rebel strongholds of Paramakudi. In the
Marudu took him to Siruvayal, his capital. clashes that followed both sides suffered heavy
Now, Nawab Mohammad Ali released losses. But the fighters’ stubborn resistance
Muthuramalinga Thevar from jail and enthroned and the Marudu brothers’ heroic battles made
him as the Setupati of Ramanathapuram. But the task of the British formidable. In the end
the rebels proclaimed Muthu Karuppa Thevar the superior military strength and the able

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commanders of the British army won the day. to fight against the Company. Three of his battles
Following Umathurai’s arrest Marudu brothers are important: the 1801 battle on Cauvery banks,
were captured from the Singampunary hills, and the 1802 battle in Odanilai and the 1804 battle in
Shevathiah from Batlagundu and Doraiswamy, Arachalur. The last and the final one was in 1805.
the son of Vellai Marudu from a village near During the final battle, Chinnamalai was betrayed
Madurai. Chinna Marudu and his brother by his cook Chinnamalai and was hanged in
Vellai Marudu were executed at the fort of Sangagiri fort.
Tiruppatthur on 24 October 1801. Umathurai
and Shevathiah, with several of their followers, Vellore Revolt (1806)
were taken to Panchalamkurichi and beheaded Vellore Revolt 1806 was the culmination
on 16 November 1801. Seventy three rebels were of the attempts of the descendents of the
banished to Penang in Malaya in April 1802. dethroned kings and chieftains in south India
to throw of the yoke of the British rule. After
Theeran Chinnamalai
the suppression of revolt of Marudu brothers,
The Kongu country they made Vellore the centre of their activity.
comprising Salem, The organizers of an Anti-British Confederacy
Coimbatore, Karur and continued their secret moves, as a result of
Dindigul formed part of which no fewer than 3,000 loyalists of Mysore
the Nayak kingdom of sultans had settled either in the town of Vellore
Madurai but had been or in its vicinity. The garrison of Vellore itself
annexed by the Wodayars consisted of many aggrieved persons, who
of Mysore. After the fall had been reduced to dire straits as a sequel to
of the Wodayars, these loss of positions or whose properties had been
territories together with Theeran Chinnamalai confiscated or whose relatives were slain by
Mysore were controlled the English. Thus the Vellore Fort became the
by the Mysore Sultans. As a result of the Third meeting ground of the rebel forces of south
and Fourth Mysore wars the entire Kongu region India. The sepoys and the migrants to Vellore
passed into the hands of the English. held frequent deliberations, attended by the
Theeran Chinnamalai was a palayakkarar representatives of the sons of Tipu.
of Kongu country who fought the British
Immediate Cause
East India Company. He was trained by the
French and Tipu. In his bid to launch an In the meantime, the English enforced
attack on the Company’s fort in Coimbatore certain innovations in the administration of
(1800), Chinnamalai tried taking the help of the sepoy establishments. They prohibited all
the Marudu brothers from Sivagangai. He markings on the forehead which were intended
also forged alliances with Gopal Nayak of to denote caste and religious, and directed the
Virupatchi; Appachi Gounder of Paramathi sepoys to cut their moustaches to a set pattern.
Velur; Joni Jon Kahan of Attur Salem; Kumaral Added to these, Adjutant General Agnew
Vellai of Perundurai and Varanavasi of Erode in designed and introduced under his direct
fighting the Company. supervision a new model turban for the sepoys.
Chinnamalai’s plans did not succeed as the The most obnoxious innovation in the new
Company stopped the reinforcements from the turban, from the Indian point of view, was the
Marudu brothers. Also, Chinnamalai changed his leather cockade. The cockade was made of animal
plan and attacked the fort a day earlier. This led to skin. Pig skin was anathema to Muslims, while
the Company army executing 49 people. However, upper caste Hindus shunned anything to do with
Chinnamalai escaped. Between 1800 and July 31, the cow’s hide. To make matters worse the front
1805 when he was hanged, Chinnamalai continued part of the uniform had been converted into a cross.

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The order regarding whiskers, caste marks key role in the revolt, kept telling them in secret
and earrings, which infringed the religious parleys that the prince only required them to
customs of both Hindu and Muslim soldiers, keep the fort for eight days before which time
was justified on the grounds that, although ten thousand would arrive to their support. He
they had not been prohibited previously by any disclosed to them that letters had been written
formal order, it had never been the practice in to dispossessed palayakkarars seeking their
any well-regulated corps for the men to appear assistance. He also informed that there were several
with them on parade. officers in the service of Purniah (Tipu’s erstwhile
The first incident occurred in May 1806. minister) who were formerly in the Sultan’s service
The men in the 2nd battalion of the 4th and would undoubtedly join the standard.
regiment at Vellore refused to wear the new Outbreak of Revolt
turban. When the matter was reported to the
Governor by Col. Fancourt, commandant of the
garrison, he ordered a band of the 19th Dragoons
(Cavalry) to escort the rebels, against whom
charges had been framed, to the Presidency for
a trial. The 2nd battalion of the 4th regiment
was replaced by the 2nd battalion of the 23rd
regiment of Wallajahbad. The Court Martial
tried 21 privates (a soldier of lower military Vellore Fort
rank)–10 Muslims and 11 Hindus–, for At 2:00 a.m. on 10 July, the sentry at the main
defiance. In pursuance of the Court Martial guard informed Corporal Piercy saying that a
order two soldiers (a Muslim and a Hindu) shot or two had been fired somewhere near the
were sentenced to receive 900 lashes each English barracks. Before Piercy could respond,
and to be discharged from service. the sepoys made a near simultaneous attack on
Despite signals of protest the Government the British guards, the British barracks and the
decided to go ahead with the change, dismissing officers’ quarters in the Fort. In the European
the grievance of Indian soldiers. Governor quarters the shutters were kept open, as they
William Bentinck also believed that the were the only means of ventilation from the
‘disinclination to wear the turban was becoming summer heat. The rebels could easily fire the gun
more feeble.’ ‘through the barred windows on the Europeans,
lying unprotected in their beds.’ Fire was set
Though it was initially claimed that the
to the European quarters. Detachments were
officers on duty observed nothing unusual
posted to watch the dwellings of the European
during the night of July 9, it was later known
officers, ready to shoot anyone who came out.
that the English officer on duty did not go on
A part of the 1st regiment took possession of the
his rounds and asked one of the Indian officers
magazines (place where gun powder and ball
to do the duty and Jameder Sheik Kasim, later
cartridges stored). A select band of 1st Regiment
one of the principal accused, had done it. The
was making their rounds to massacre the
leaders of the regiment who were scheduled
European officers in their quarters.
to have a field day on the morning of 10 July,
used it as a pretext to sleep in the Fort on the Thirteen officers were killed, in addition to
night of 9 July. The Muslim native adjutant several European conductors of ordnance. In the
contrived to post as many of his followers as barracks, 82 privates died, and 91 were wounded.
possible as guards within the Fort. Major Armstrong of the 16th native infantry
Jamal-ud-din, one of the twelve princes of was passing outside the Fort when he heard the
Tipu family, who was suspected to have played a firing. He advanced to the glacis and asked what

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the firing meant. He was answered by a volley All the buildings in the Fort were searched, and
from the ramparts, killing him instantly. Major mutineers found in them pitilessly slaughtered.
Coates, an officer of the English regiment who Gillespie’s men wanted to enter the building and
was on duty outside the Fort, on hearing of the take revenge on the princes, the instigators of
revolt tried to enter the Fort. As he was unable to the plot; but Lt. Colonel Marriott resisted the
make it, he sent off an officer, Captain Stevenson attempt of the dragoons to kill Tipu’s sons.
of 23rd, to Arcot with a letter addressed to
Colonel Gillespie, who commanded the cavalry Colonel Gillespie is said to have brought
cantonment there. The letter reached Arcot, the Fort under the possession of the English in
some 25 km away, at 6 a.m. Colonel Gillespie set about 15 minutes. Col. Harcourt (Commanding
out immediately, taking with him a squadron Officer at Wallajahbad) was appointed to the
of the 19th dragoons under Captain Young, temporary command of Vellore on July 11.
supported by a strong troop of the 7th cavalry Harcourt assumed command of the garrison
under Lieutenant Woodhouse. He instructed on 13 July, 1806 and clamped martial law. It
Colonel Kennedy to follow him with the rest of was believed that the prompt and decisive
the cavalry, leaving a detachment to protect the action of Gillespie put an end to ‘the dangerous
cantonment and to keep up the communication. confederacy, and had the fort remained in the
When Colonel Gillespie arrived at the possession of the insurgents but a few days, they
Vellore Fort at 9 a.m., he thought it prudent were certain of being joined by fifty thousand
to await the arrival of the guns, since there men from Mysore.’
was continuous firing. Soon the cavalry under But the obnoxious regulations to which the
Kennedy came from Arcot. It was about 10 soldiers objected were withdrawn. The Mysore
o’Clock. The gate was blown open with the princes were ordered to be sent to Calcutta,
galloper guns of the 19th dragoons under the as according the Commission of Inquiry,
direction of Lieutenant Blakiston. The troops
their complicity could not be established. The
entered the place, headed by a squadron of the
higher tribunals of the Home Government held
cavalry under Captain Skelton.
the chief authorities of Madras, namely the
The Gillespie’s men were met by a severe Governor, the Commander-in-Chief, and the
crossfire. In the ensuing battle, Colonel Gillespie Deputy Adjutant General, responsible for the
himself suffered bruises. The sepoys retreated. bungling and ordered their recall.
Hundreds escaped over the walls of the Fort, or
threw down their arms and pleaded for mercy. Vellore had its echoes in Hyderabad,
Then the cavalry regiment assembled on the Wallajahbad, Bangalore, Nandydurg,
parade ground and resolved to pursue the fleeing Palayamkottai, Bellary and Sankaridurg. Vellore
soldiers, who were exiting towards the narrow Revolt had all the forebodings of Great Rebellion
passage of escape afforded by the sally port. A of 1857, if the word cartridge is substituted by
troop of dragoons and some native horsemen cockade and Bahadur Shah and Nana Sahib
were sent round to intercept the fleeing soldiers. could be read for Mysore Princes.
According to J. Blakistan, an eyewitness to Gillespie's atrocity, more than 800 bodies were carried
out of the fort. In W.J. Wilson's estimate 378 were jailed for involvement in the revolt; 516 were
considered implicated but not imprisoned. Based on depositions before the Court of Enquiry, the
Court Martial awarded death punishment and banishment to select individuals, which were carried
out by the commanding officer of Vellore on 23 September 1806.
(Source: W.J. Wilson, History of the Madras Army, vol. III, 1888-89).

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18.4 Peasant and Tribal to suppress the revolt. The repressive measures
Revolts restored peace for about twenty years, but then
the Mappillas rose again in 1870 and the events
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth followed a similar course.
centuries the land tenures and revenue settlements
Some of the rebellions in pre-1857 India
of the Company’s government had fundamentally
were of the tribals whose autonomy and control
disrupted the Indian rural society and affected
over local resources were threatened by the
the peasantry in an unprecedented manner.
establishment of British rule and the advent of
In the early days of revenue farming system,
its non-tribal agents. The tribal people, spread
the peasantry was oppressed by the revenue
over a large part of India, rose up in hundreds
contractors and company officials who imposed of insurrections during the 19th century. These
high revenue demands and collected them uprisings were marked by immense courage on
forcibly. Initially the peasants sent a petition to their part and brutal suppression on the part of
the Company’s government asking for redress. the rulers.
But when their appeal for justice went unheeded,
they organized themselves and resorted to direct The Kol Uprising (1831-32)
action. They attacked the local cutchery (revenue Kols as tribals inhabited in Chotanagpur
collector’ office), looted gain stores and refused to and Singbhum region of Bihar and Orissa. The
pay revenue. immediate cause of their uprising was the action of
A peasant movement of the 1840s and the Raja of Chotanagpur in leasing several villages
1850s was the Malabar rebellion in present day to the non-tribals. The Kols of Sonepur and Tamar
Kerala. The Mappillas were the descendents of took the initiative in organizing a revolt against the
Arab traders who had settled in this region and thikadars (tax collectors). The forms of rebellion
had married the Malabar women. Gradually the consisted of attacks on the properties of the
Mappillais became dependent on agriculture and outsiders, but not their lives. Plunder and arson,
turned into a community of cultivating tenants, were the chief modes of peasant protest. Sonepur
landless labourers, petty traders and fishermen. pargana of Chotanagpur was raided, plundered
When the British took over Malabar in 1792, they and burnt down by a body of seven hundred
sought to revamp the land relations by creating insurgents on 20 December 1831. By 26 January
individual ownership in land. The traditional 1832 the Kols had taken complete possession of
system provided for an equal sharing of the the whole of Chotanagpur. The revolt against the
net produce of the land by the janmi (holder of British had ended up in a war against the Company
janmam tenure), the kanamdar (holder of kanam government. Buddha Bhagat, the leader of Kol
tenure), and the cultivator. The British system insurrection was killed in a pitched battle. A sum
upset this arrangement by recognising the janmi of one thousand rupees was distributed among
as absolute owners of land, with right to evict officers and soldiers as their reward for delivering
tenants, which did not exist earlier. Apart from Bhagat’s severed head to the authorities. Bhindrai
that, over-assessment, a huge burden of illegal Manki who inspired the revolt surrendered on 19
cesses and a pro-landlord attitude of the judiciary March 1832 and with his surrender the revolt of
and the police led the peasants to live in conditions Kols came to a tragic end.
of extreme poverty. Santhal Hool (rebellion) (1855-56)
A series of incidents therefore occurred Santhal, also called Manji, lived scattered
in Malabar throughout the nineteenth century. in various forest regions of Bengal, Bihar, and
Three serious incidents occurred in Manjeri in Orissa. Driven from their homeland, they
August 1849, in Kulathur in August 1851 – both in cleared the area around the Rajmahal Hills
south Malabar – and in Mattannur in the north in and called it Damin-i-koh (land of Santhals).
January 1852. British armed forces were deployed They were gradually driven to a desperate

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Santhal rebellion Munda Rebellion

situation as tribal lands were leased out to Jagirdars, thikadars (revenue farmers) and
non-Santhal zamindars and moneylenders. moneylenders grabbed the land owned by them.
To this was added the oppression of the local Birsa, born in a poor share-cropper household
police and the European officials engaged in in 1874, declared himself a divine messenger to
railroad construction. This penetration of dikus drive away the British and establish Munda rule
(outsiders) completely destroyed their familiar in the region. Under his influence the Mundas
world, and forced them into action to take strongly opposed non-tribals occupying tribal
possession of their lost territory. lands. He urged the Munda cultivators not to
In July 1855, when their ultimatum to the pay rent to the zamindars.
zamindars and the government went unheeded, Birsa Munda led a revolt in the Chotta
several thousand Santhals, armed with bows and Nagpur region. The indiscriminate slaughter of
arrows, started an open insurrection “against Munda women at Sail Rakab did not deter the
the unholy trinity of their oppressors-the followers of Birsa. The British authorities issued
zamindars, the mahajans and the government.” a warrant for Mirsa’s arrest and put up a reward
At the battle of Maheshpur, many of the Manjis for his capture. Birsa became a martyr in Ranchi
were dressed in red clothes. Later this garment jail (9 June 1900). His name continues to inspire
became an assertion of authority. In the first the tribals of the region.
week of the rising a party of ten men attacked
and burnt down the village of Monkaparrah. 18.5 Great Rebellion, 1857
The rebels included a number of women. Introduction
Initially their leader was Sido. After his arrest 1857 has been a subject of much debate
the revolt was led by Kanoo. At the later stage among historians, both British and Indian.
of the revolt, the peasants also joined. Several British imperialist historians dismissed it a
thousand peasants raided on Charles Maseyk’s mutiny, an outbreak among soldiers. Indian
indigo factory and pillaged. This invited brutal historians who explored the role of the people in
counter-insurgency measures; the army was converting a military outbreak into a rebellion
mobilized and Santhal villages were burnt one raised two questions to which the imperial
after another with vengeance. According to one historians have had no answer. If it was only a
calculation, out of thirty to fifty thousand rebels, military outbreak how to explain the revolt of the
fifteen to twenty thousand were killed before the people even before the sepoys at those stations
insurrection was finally suppressed.
mutinied? Why was it necessary to punish the
Munda Rebellion people with fine and hanging for complicity in
The rebellion (ulgulan) of the Munda acts of rebellion? Col. Mallesan, the Adjutant
tribesmen led by Birsa Munda, occurred during General of the Bengal army in a pamphlet titled
1899-1900. Mundas were a prominent tribe in The Making of the Bengal Army remarked, ‘a
the Bihar region. During the British rule their military mutiny...speedily changed its character
system of common land holdings was destroyed. and became a national insurrection’.

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The historian Keene attributed the and expensive jewellery lost their livelihood.
outbreak due to operation of variety of factors: Thus Dalhousie through his expansionist policy
to the grievances of princes, soldiers and the created hardship to a number of people.
people, produced largely by the annexation
Oppressive Land Revenue System
and reforming zeal of Dalhousie. The greased
cartridge affair merely ignited the combustible The rate of land revenue was heavy when
matter which had already accumulated. Edward compared with former settlements. Prior to the
John Thompson described the event ‘as largely British, Indian rulers collected revenue only
a real war of independence’. V.D. Savarkar, in when land was cultivated. The British treated
his The War of Indian Independence, published land revenue as a rent and not a tax. This meant
in 1909, argued that what the British had till that revenue was extracted whether the land
then described as merely mutiny was, in fact, a was cultivated or not, and at the same rate. The
war of independence, much like the American prices of agricultural commodities continued
War of Independence. Despite the fact that the to crash throughout the first half of nineteenth
English-educated middle class played no role in century and in the absence of any remission
the rebellion, nationalist historians championed or relief from the colonial state, small and
this argument as the First War of Indian marginal farmers as well as cultivating tenants
Independence. were subject to untold misery.
Causes of the Rebellion Alienation of Muslim Aristocracy

and Intelligentsia
Muslims depended largely on public
service. Before the Company’s rule, they had
filled the most honourable posts in former
governments. As commandants of cavalry
some of them received high incomes. But
under the Company’s administration, they
suffered. English language and western
1857 Great Rebellion education pushed the Muslim intelligentsia
into insignificance. The abolition of Persian
Territorial Aggrandisement
language in the law courts and admission
The annexation of Oudh and Jhansi by into public service by examination decreased
Dalhousie employing the Doctrine of Lapse the Muslim’s chances of official employment.
and the humiliating treatment meted out to
Nana Sahib, the last Peshwa’s adopted son Religious Sentiments
produced much dissatisfaction. In the wake The Act of 1856 providing for enrolment
of the Inam Commission (1852) appointed of high caste men as sepoys in the Bengal army
by Bombay government to enquire into the stipulated that future recruits give up martial
cases of land held rent-free without authority, careers or their caste scruples. This apart,
more than 21,000 estates were confiscated. acts such as the abolition of sati, legalization
The land settlement in the annexed territories, of remarriage of Hindu widows, prohibition
particularly in Oudh, adversely affected the of infanticide were viewed as interference in
interests of the talukdars, who turned against religious beliefs. In 1850, to the repugnance of
the British. Moreover, in Oudh, thousands orthodox Hindus, the Lex Loci Act was passed
of inhabitants who depended on the royal permitting converts to Christianity to retain
patronage and traders who were dealing in their patrimony (right to inherit property from
rich dresses and highly ornamented footwear parents or ancestors).

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Further the religious sentiments of the this incident angered the British and General
sepoys – Hindus and Muslims – were outraged Henry Havelock, who was sent to deal with
when information spread that the fat of cows the situation, defeated Nana Sahib the day after
and pigs was used in the greased cartridges. the massacre. Neill, who was left there, took
The Indian sepoys were to bite them before terrible vengeance and those whom he regarded
loading the new Enfield rifle. This was viewed as guilty were executed. Towards the close of
as a measure to convert people to Christianity. November Tantia Topi seized Kanpur but it was
In every sense, therefore, 1857 was a soon recovered by Campbell.
climatic year. The cartridge affair turned
out to be a trigger factor for the rebellion.
The dispossessed, discontented rajas, ranis,
zamindars and tenants, artisans and workers,
the Muslim intelligentsia, priests, and the Hindu
pandits saw the eruption as an opportunity to
redress their grievances.
Course of the Revolt

The rebellion first began as a mutiny in
Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai Nana Sahib
Barrackpore (near Calcutta). Mangal Pandey
murdered his officer in January 1857 and a The Lucknow residency, defended by Henry
mutiny broke out there. In the following month, Lawrence fell into the hands of rebels. Havelock
at Meerut, of the 90 sepoys who were to receive marched towards Lucknow after defeating
their cartridges only five obeyed orders. On Nana Sahib, but he had to retire. By the close of
10 May three sepoy regiments revolted, killed July John Nicholson sent by John Lawrence to
their officers, and released those who had been capture Delhi succeeded in capturing Delhi. The
imprisoned. The next day they reached Delhi, Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II now became
murdered Europeans, and seized that city. The a prisoner and his two sons and grandson were
rebels proclaimed Bahadur Shah II as emperor. shot dead after their surrender.
Resistance in Awadh was prolonged because
of the involvement of talukdars as well as peasants
in the revolt. Many of these taluqdars were loyal
to the Nawab of Awadh, and they joined Begum
Hazrat Mahal (the wife of the NawabWajid Ali
Shah) in Lucknow to fight the British. Since a
vast majority of the sepoys were from peasant
Mangal Pandey Bahadur Shah II families in the villages of Oudh, the grievances
By June the revolt had spread to of the peasants had affected them. Oudh was
Rohilkhand, where the whole countryside was the nursery of the Bengal Army for a long time.
in rebellion. Khan Bahadur Khan proclaimed The sepoys from Oudh complained of low levels
himself the viceroy of the Emperor of India. of pay and the difficulty of getting leave. They
Nearly all of Bundelkhand and the entire Doab all rallied behind Begum Hazrat Mahal. Led by
region were up in arms against the British. At Raja Jailal Singh, they fought against the British
Jhansi, Europeans were massacred and Laxmi forces and seized control of Lucknow and she
Bai, aged 22, was enthroned. In Kanpur Nana declared her son, Birjis Qadra, as the ruler (Wali)
Sahib led the rebels. About 125 English women of Oudh. Neill who wreaked terrible vengeance
and their children along with English officers in Kanpur was shot dead in the street fighting
were killed and their bodies were thrown at Lucknow. Lucknow could be finally captured
into a well. Termed as the Kanpur massacre, only in March 1858.

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Hugh Rose besieged Jhansi and defeated Proclamation endorsed the treaties made by
Tantia Topi early in April. Yet Lakshmi Bai the Company with Indian princes, promised
audaciously captured Gwalior forcing pro- to respect their rights, dignity and honour,
British Scindia to flee. Rose with his army and disavowed any ambition to extend the
directly confronted Lakshmi Bai. In this battle existing British possessions in India.
Lakshmi Bai died fighting admirably. Rose The new council of 1861 was to have Indian
described Lakshmi Bai as the “best and bravest nomination, since the Parliament thought the
military leader of the rebels”. Legislative Council of 1853 consisted of only
Europeans who had never bothered to consult
Neill’s statue on the Mount Road, Madras Indian opinion and that led to the crisis.
angered the Indian nationalists. The Congress The Doctrine of Lapse and the policy
Ministry of Rajaji (1937-39) removed it and of annexation to be given up. A general
lodged it in the Madras Museum. amnesty (pardon) to be granted to the
Gwalior was recaptured soon. In July 1858 rebels except those who directly involved
Canning announced the suppression of the in killing the British subjects.
“Mutiny” and restoration of peace. Tantia Tope The educational and public works
was captured and executed in April 1859. programmes (roads, railways, telegraphs,
and irrigation) were stimulated by the
Bahadur Shah II, captured in September
realization of their value for the movement
1857, was tried and declared guilty. He was
of troops in times of emergency.
exiled to Rangoon (Myanmar), where he died in
Hopes of a revival of the past diminished
November 1862 at the age of 87. With his death
and the traditional structure of Indian
the Mughal dynasty came to an end.
society began to break down. A Westernized
Effects of the Great Rebellion English-educated middle class soon emerged
with a heightened sense of nationalism.
Queen’s
Proclamation 1858 SUMMARY
The resistance of Haider and Tipu against
A Royal Durbar was
the Company government, leading to four
held at Allahabad on
Anglo-Mysore Wars is dealt with.
November 1, 1858. The
proclamation issued by The rebellions of Puli Thevar, Veera Pandiya
Queen Victoria was read Kattabomman, Velu Nachiyar, Marudu
at the Durbar by Lord Brothers, all southern palayakkarars, and
Canning, who was the last Queen Victoria Theeran Chinnamalai in the Kongu region
Governor General and the first Viceroy of India. are explained
The last ditch battle of southern
Hereafter India would be governed by and
palayakkarars in association with the
in the name of the British Monarch through
dethroned kings and rulers in south India
a Secretary of State. The Secretary of State
under the aegis of Tipu’s surviving sons
was to be assisted by a Council of India
interned in Vellore fort is highlighted.
consisting of fifteen members. As a result,
the Court of Directors and the Board of The 1857 rebellion of kings of displaced
Control of the East India Company were Jagirdars and Zamindars, and peasants that
abolished and the Crown and Parliament shook the foundation of the British empire
became constitutionally responsible for are discussed in detail.
the governance of India. The separate army The transfer of India to the British crown
of the East India Company was abolished with the Queen’s proclamation of 1858 and
and merged with that of Crown. its salient features are examined.

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9. _____ was the Governor-General of India

EXERCISE when the great Rebellian of 1857 broke out.
Q.R.Code (a) Dalhonsie (b) Canning

I. C
hoose the (c) Minto (d) James Andrew Ramsay
Correct Answer 10.
_________ defeated Nana Sahib’s forus
during the 1857 Rebelliion.
1. _________ became the de facto ruler of
Mysore against the Wodeyar kings after (a) Henry Lawrence
successfully handling the Marathas. (b) Major General Havelock
(a) Haider Ali (b) Nanjaraja (c) Sir Hugh Wheeler
(c) Nagama Nayak (d) Tipu Sultan (d) General Neill
2. Tipu Sultan’s capture of _______ led to the 11. F
ind out the correct statement
third Anglo-Mysore War. (a) Warren Hastings wanted to deal with Tipu
(a) Calicut (b) Coorg Sultan in a revengeful manner
(c) Cranganore (d) Dindigul (b) The elimination of Tipu and restoration
of the old Wodeyar dynasty to the Mysore
3.
The Palayakkarar system was originally
Kingdom marked the real beginning of
practised in _____ Kingdom.
company’s rule in the south
(a) Vijayanagar (b) Bahmani
(c) The Nawab of Arcot gave support to Velu
(c) Kakatiya (d) Hoysala Nachiyar
4. ______ brought Puli Thevar’s three major (d) The temple of Kalayarkoil is in the heart of
forts, Nerkattumseval, Vasudevanallur amd Tirunelveli forests.
Panayur under his control.
12. A
ssertion (A): The fort of Sivagiri was
(a) Mafus Khan (b) Yusuf Khan eminently suited both for offensive and
(c) Colonel Heron (d) Nabikhan Kattak defensive operations.
5. Velu Nachiyar was the daughter of Raja of _____. Reason (R): It is at the foot of Western Ghats

(a) Sivagangai (b) Pudhukkotai with formidable barriers around it.
(c) Ramanathapuram (d) Palavanatham (a) A is correct; R is not the correct explanation
of A.
6. _______ was the collector who was dismissed
from service for mishandling the affairs of (b) Both A and R are wrong.
Veera Pandiya Kattabomman. (c) A is correct; R is the correct explanation
(a) W.C. Jackson (b) A. Bannerman of A.
(c) S.R. Lushington (d) P.A. Agnew (d) A is wrong; R is correct.
7. The immediate cause for the Vellore Revolt 13. Match the following:
was the introduction of ______. (A) Gillespie - 1. Srirangapatnam
(a) Enfield Rifle (b) Dress code (B) Manji - 2. Barrackpore
(c) New turban (d) Greased Cartridges (C) Jacobin Club - 3. Vellore Revolt
8. ________ inspired Kol uprising of Santhals. (D) Mangal Pandey - 4. Santhals
(a) Bhindrai Manki (b) Sido (a) 1, 2, 3, 4 (b) 3, 4, 1, 2
(c) Buddha Bagat (d) Kanoo (c) 3, 2, 1, 4 (d) 2, 3, 4, 1

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II. Write Brief Answers Activity

1. Write a note on the humiliating terms of the 1. Attempt a life sketch of Yusuf Khan.
Treaty of Srirangapatnam (1792) imposed on 2. Highlight the role played by Nana Fadnavis in
Tipu Sultan. the Great Rebellion of 1857.
2. What do you know of “Pagoda”? Assignment with Teacher's Guidance
3. What is the revolt of Theeran Chinnamalai of 1.
Enact a drama on Veera Pandiya
Kongu region? Kattabomman.
4. Explain Sail Rakab. 2. Visit the Vellore Fort and collect information
on its structure.
5. Kanpur Massacre.
III. Write Short Answers REFERENCE BOOKS

1.
Narrate the circumstances that led to the 1. Bipan Chandra, India’s Struggle for
signing of the Treaty of Madras between the Independence 1857-1947, New Delhi:
English and Haider Ali. Penguin Books, 1989.
2. Rebellion of 1801.
2. S. Kadhirvel, History of Maravas, Madurai, 1977
3. Vellore Revolt of 1806.
3. Manikumar, K.A., Vellore Revolt, 1806,
4. Discuss the uprising of Kols. Allied Publishers, 2007
5. The effects of the Great Rebellion of 1857.
4. Gopalakrishnan,S., Dr., ed., The South
IV. Answer the following in detail Indian Rebellions – Before and After 1800,
Chennai: Palaniappa Brothers, 2007.
1.
Explain the organization of Palayakkarar
system in South Tamilnadu. 5. Sekhar Bandyopadhyay, From Plassey to
2. Describe the causes and the course of the Partition and After – A History of Modern
Vellore Revolt of 1806. India, Orient BlackSwan, 2004.
3.
Discuss the causes and results of Great 6. Framod K. Nayar, The Great Uprising – India
Rebellion of 1857. 1857, New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2007.
GLOSSARY
Protracted lasting for a long time நெடிய
Pre-empt take action in order to prevent நடப்பதற்குமுன் தடுத்து நிறுத்துவது
evasiveness avoidable தட்டிக் கழிக்கின்ற
Irked irritated த�ொல்லைக்கு ஆளான
Scuffle Fight சண்டை
Elude Escape தப்பிச்செல்
Obnoxious Offensive க�ோபமூட்டும்
Cockade a small ribbon on a hat த�ொப்பியின் மீது பதவியைக் குறிக்கும்
ரிப்பன் அல்லது துணிக் குஞ்சம்
Anathema Detestable வெறுக்கத்தகுந்ததாக
Volley the discharge of a number fire – arms together பீரங்கிகளின் ஒரே நேரத்தில் குண்டு வீச்சு
Shun avoid தவிர்
Parleys holding discussion பேச்சு வார்த்தை நடத்துதல்

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UNIT
Towards Modernity
19
Learning Objectives
Socio-Religious reforms initiated by Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj
and Arya Samaj
Ramakrishna Mission and the teachings of Swami Vivekananda
Theosophical Society, Satya Shodhak Samaj, Sri Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam.
Islamic Reform Movements and Reform Movements in Tamilnadu
Contributions of Christian Missionaries
vicious circle of superstitions and obscurantism.

Introduction
In their view idolatry and polytheism reinforced
By the first quarter of the nineteenth orthodoxy impelling the people to follow them
century, India had produced a small English- blindly. The social conditions were equally
educated intelligentsia, closely associated with depressing. And the condition of women was
British administration or British trade. The ideas deplorable. The practice of sati came in for
and the work of the Christian missionaries had particular condemnation. The division of society
already begun to have its impact. Bengal was according to birth resulting in the caste system
the first province to be affected by the British was also criticized. Most importantly, the British
influence and so it was here that several ideas argued that without their intervention there
of reform originated. British administration, was no possibility of deliverance from these
English education, and European literature evils for Indians. Needless to say, this was a self-
brought to India a new wave of thoughts serving argument, articulated by missionaries
that challenged traditional knowledge. and Utilitarians to justify British rule.
Rationalism as the basis for ethical thinking,
the idea of human progress and evolution, the Utilitarians: believers in the doctrine of
concept of natural rights associated with the greatest happiness of the greatest number
Enlightenment, were the new ideas which led
to what has been termed as Indian Renaissance. India was a much bigger, more complex
The spread of printing technology played a and diverse country in the early nineteenth
crucial role in the diffusion of ideas. century. Conditions varied vastly across it.
The social and cultural evils had been fought
19.1 Emergence of Reform by Indian reformers through the ages. But the
advent of the British with their Enlightenment
Movements
ideas undoubtedly posed a new challenge. This
The British characterized Indian society chapter looks at how social reform movements
in the nineteenth century as being caught in a emerged in various parts of the country.
298

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The development of the Western culture and religion. Initially, the social reform movement
ideology forced the traditional institutions to had a narrow social base – they were limited to
revitalize themselves. During the second half of the upper and middle strata of the society that
the nineteenth century, the expression of protest tried to adjust their modernized views to the
and desire for change were articulated through existing social reality. From then on, the social
various reform movements. These movements reform movements began to percolate to the
aimed at reforming and democratizing the lower strata of society to reconstruct the social
social institutions and religious outlook of fabric. Heated debates among the intellectuals
the Indian people. The emergence of new expressed in the form of public arguments,
economic forces, spread of education, growth tracts and journals played a big role in taking
of nationalist sentiment, influence of modern new ideas to large sections of the people, as well
Western thoughts, ideas and culture, and as to reformulate older ideas in a new form.
awareness of the changes taking place in Europe At the start, organizations such as the Social
strengthened the resolve to reform. Conference, Servants of India and the Christian
What gave these reform movements an missionaries were instrumental in giving an
ideological unity were rationalism, religious impetus to the social reform movements along
universalism and humanism. This perspective with many enlightened individuals about whom
enabled them to adopt a rational approach we dwell on in the following pages. In later
to tradition and evaluate the contemporary years, especially by the twentieth century, the
socio-religious practices from the standpoint national movement provided the leadership
of social utility. For example, Raja Rammohan and organization for social reform.
Roy repudiated the infallibility of the Vedas and Brahmo Samaj (1828)
during the Aligarh Movement, Syed Ahmed
Raja Rammohan
Khan emphasized that religious tenets were
Roy, was a man of
not immutable. As Keshab Chandra Sen said,
versatile genius.
‘Our position is not that truths are to be in all
He established the
religions, but that all established religions of the
Brahmo Samaj in
World are true.’
August, 1828. The
These movements enveloping the entire Brahmo Samaj
cultural stream of Indian society brought about was committed to
significant practices in the realms of language, “the worship and
religion, art and philosophy. These reform adoration of the Raja Rammohan Roy
movements can be broadly classified into two eternal, unsearchable,
categories: immutable Being who is the Author and
1. Reformist Movements Preserver of the Universe”. His long term
agenda was to purify Hinduism and to preach
2. Revivalist Movements monotheism for which he drew authority from
Both the movements depended in varying the Vedas. He emphasized human dignity,
degrees on an appeal to the lost purity of religion. opposed idolatry and social evils such as sati. A
The primary difference between them lay in retired servant of the East India Company, he
the degree to which they relied on tradition or was conversant in many languages including
on reason and conscience. The social reform Persian and Sanskrit. His ideas and activities
movements formed an integral part of the were aimed at the political uplift of society
religious reforms primarily because all the through social reform. He was a determined
efforts towards social ills like caste- and gender– crusader against the inhuman practice of Sati.
based inequality derived legitimacy from His tract written in 1818, A Conference Between
Towards Modernity 299

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an Advocate for and an Opponent of the Practice intellectuals. In the early stages, many young
of Burning Widows, cited sacred texts to prove men seized of the radical ideas avidly propagated
that no religion sanctioned the burning alive of them. Tagore’s family was a Brahmo family and
widows. His efforts fructified and the Company its influence can be seen in his writings and ideas.
through an enactment of law (1829) declared
The Prarthana Samaj (1867)
the practice of sati a crime.
An off-shoot of the Brahmo Samaj, the
The overall contribution of Brahmo Samaj
Prarthana Samaj, was founded in 1867 in
can be summed up as follows
Bombay by Atmaram Pandurang (1823–98).
1. It denounced polytheism, idol worship, and The Prarthana Samaj as an organization never
the faith in divine avatars (incarnations) had any great influence but its members, like
2. It condemned the caste system, dogmas and M. G. Ranade (1852-1901), R. G. Bhandarkar,
superstitions. and K.T. Telang, were among the great leaders
3. It wanted the abolition of child marriage, of nineteenth-century Maharashtra and they
purdah system and the practice of sati became the founders of the social reform
4. It supported widow remarriage movement in later years.
Inspired by the ideals of the French Prarthana Samaj was similar to Brahmo
Revolution, Rammohan Roy left for Europe and Samaj, but it was consciously linked with the
died in Bristol. After his death there was a steady bhakti tradition of the Maharashtrian saints. The
decline but for the new lease life given to it by Prarathana Samaj continued its work mainly
Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath through educational work directed at women
Tagore). After him the organization was taken and workers at the lower level. It concentrated
forward by Keshab Chandra Sen from 1857. on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-
The strength of the organization is known marriage, remarriage of widows, and uplift of
from the number of branches it had in 1865, women and depressed classes.
54 Samajas (fifty in Bengal, two in North West
The National Social Conference organized
Province, one each in Punjab and Madras). In
at the initiative of M.G. Ranade met each year
course of time, the Brahmo Samaj broke into
immediately after the Indian National Congress
two namely Devendranath Tagore’s, ‘Brahmo
(1885) annual sessions. Justice Ranade was an
Samaj of India’ and Keshub Chandra Sen’s
erudite scholar with a keen intellect and under
‘Sadharan Brahmo Samaj’.
his able guidance the Prarthana Samaj became
In Tamilnadu, Kasi Viswanatha Mudaliar the active centre of a new social reformation
was an adherent of the Samaj and he wrote a in western India. He was one of the founders
play titled Brahmo Samaja Natakam to expound of the Widow Marriage Association and was
the ideas of the Samaj. He also wrote a tract in an ardent promoter of the famous Deccan
support of widow remarriage. In 1864, a Tamil Education Society. Its object was to impart such
journal titled Tathuva Bodhini was started for education to the young as would fit them for the
the cause of the Brahmo Samaja. unselfish service of the country. When Ranade
died in 1901, his leadership was taken over by
The Brahmo Samaj met with great opposition
Chandavarkar.
from orthodox elements in Bengal society such
as the Hindu Dharma Sabha. However, there Arya Samaj (1875)
were also reformers such as Ishwarchandra
The founder of the Arya Samaj was
Vidyasagar, who advocated the same ideas but
Dayananda Saraswati (1824–83). Dayananda,
drew on Hindu scriptures as authority.
a Gujarati, left home in his youth to become
Even though the Brahmo Samaj did not an ascetic. For seventeen years he wandered
win many adherents, it had a big impact on the around India. In 1863 he became a wandering
300 Towards Modernity

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preacher, and five its belief by performing religious service in

years later he added accordance with the practices of different
the establishment religions. According to him ‘all the religious
of schools to his views are but different ways to lead to the
activities. In 1872 he same goal.’ In a backlash, the later generation
met the Brahmos in of Western educated intellectuals were drawn
Calcutta. In 1875 he to Ramakrishna’s broad view, mysticism and
founded the Arya spiritual fervour. He expounded his views in
Samaj and published short stories and admirable parables which
his major work the Dayananda Saraswati were compiled by an admirer as Ramakrishna
Satyarth Prakash. In his view, contemporary Kathamrita (The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna).
Hinduism had become degenerate. Therefore he
rejected puranas, polytheism, idolatry, the role
of Brahmin priests, pilgrimages, many rituals
and the prohibition on widow marriage. As a
good Sanskrit scholar, he made a call to“Back to
the Vedas”. He wanted to shape society on the
basis of the Vedas. He disregarded the puranas.
Like the other social reformers, he encouraged
female education and remarriage of widows.
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa Swami Vivekananda
Swami Dayananda’s sphere of influence
was largely in the Punjab region where the The most famous among his disciples was a
trading community of Khatris experienced young graduate of the Calcutta University named
great mobility in colonial times. However, in Narendranath Dutta, afterwards famously called
the Punjab region, there was much communal Swami Vivekananda(1863–1902). Emphasising
conflict among Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. practical work over philosophizing he established
Dayananda’s Shuddi (purification) movement the modern institution of the Ramakrishna
i.e., conversion of non-Hindus to Hindus was Mission. He carried Ramakrishna’s message
controversial and provoked controversies all over India and the world. His learning,
especially with the Ahmadiya movement. eloquence, spiritual fervour and personality
Arya Samaj is considered to be a revivalist gathered round him a band of followers across
movement. Dayananda’s influence continued the country, many of whom also joined the
into the twentieth century through the national movement. He attended in 1893 the
establishment of Dayananad Anglo Vedic famous, ‘Parliament of Religions’ at Chicago,
(DAV) schools and colleges. and made a deep impact on those congregated
there. The Mission opened schools, dispensaries
Ramakrishna Mission (1897) and orphanages and helped people during their
As we saw above, the early reform time of distress caused by calamities.
movements in Bengal were radical, questioning Swami Vivekananda was a personification
and criticising tradition very strongly. In of youth and boldness and referred to as the
response to this emerged the Ramakrishna Morning Star of the Modern India. In the
Mission as an important religious movement. words of Valentine Chirol, ‘the first Hindu
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886), a whose personality won demonstrative
poor priest in a temple at Dakshineswar near recognition abroad for India’s ancient
Kolkata, had no formal education but led an civilization and for her newborn claim to
intense spiritual life. He had a deep faith in nationhood.’
the inherent truth of all religions and tested

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Theosophical Society (1875) life-long struggle against upper caste tyranny. In

Even as Indian intellectuals felt challenged his quest for the truth, Phule read the Vedas, the
by western Enlightenment and rationalistic Manu Samhita, the Puranas, and the thought
movements, there was a strain of thinking of Buddha, Mahavira and the medieval Bhakti
in the West which looked to the East for saints extensively. He also acquainted himself
spiritual salvation. From this idea emerged the with Western thought, and Christian and Islamic
Theosophical Society, founded by Madam H.P. religions. Phule judged the whole culture and
Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott in the United tradition through the spirit of rationality and
States of America in 1875. They came to India equality. While the principle of equality called
in 1879 and established their headquarters for a total rejection of caste system, authoritarian
at Adyar in 1882. Under the leadership of family structure and subordination of women,
Annie Besant, who came to India in 1893, the the principle of rationality demanded the
Theosophical Society gathered strength and removal of superstitions and ritualism.
won many adherents. The Theosophical Society Phule held radical views on social, religious,
started associations across south India. Though political and economic issues. He considered the
involved in many controversies, the Society caste system as an antithesis of the principle of
played an important role in the revival of human equality. He sought to raise the morale
Buddhism in India. Iyotheethoss Pandithar, the of the non-Brahmins and united them to revolt
radical Dalit thinker, was introduced to modern against the centuries old inequality and social
Buddhism through his interaction with Colonel degradation. Towards this end Phule founded
Olcott who took him to Sri Lanka. There he met the Satya Shodak Samaj (Society for Seeking
many Buddhist monks including the renowned Truth) in 1873. His most important book is
revivalist Anagarika Dharmapala and Acharya Gulamgiri (Slavery).
Sumangala.
Phule looked upon education of the masses
19.2 Satya Shodhak Samaj as a liberating and revolutionary factor.
(1873) Since women and deprived and
downtrodden were the worst sufferers in the
society, Phule argued that women’s liberation
was linked with the liberation of other classes in
society. Equality between classes as also between
men and women was stressed by Phule. During
marriages he asked the bridegroom to promise
the right of education to his bride.
Phule also tried to translate his ideas
into actual struggles. He urged the British
Jyotiba Phule Savitri Phule Government to impart compulsory primary
education to the masses through teachers drawn
While the movements discussed above
from the cultivating classes. He started a school
were largely focussed on upper castes there were
for girls in Poona in 1851 and one for depressed
some exceptional movements which mobilized
classes with the assistance of his wife Savitri. He
lower castes and articulated their perspective.
also started schools for the "untouchables" and
The most important among them was Jyotiba
founded a home for widow’s children.
Phule, who belonged to the Mali (gardener)
community. Born in 1827, he received initial In his work we find the beginnings of
education in a mission school but had to the later day non-Brahman movement of
discontinue it in 1833. Jyotiba Phule waged a Maharashtra.

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Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922) Narayana Guru established the Sri Narayana

Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Yogam in
Pandita Ramabai
1902. The SNDP Yogam took up several issues
was foremost among
such as (i) right of admission to public schools.
the Indian leaders
(ii) recruitment to government services.
who worked for the
(iii) access to roads and entry to temples; and
emancipation of
(iv) political representation. The movement
women. She came
as a whole brought transformative structural
from a learned family
changes such as upward social mobility,
and was a great
shift in traditional distribution of power
scholar of Sanskrit
Pandita Ramabai and a federation of ‘backward classes’ into
and addressed
a large conglomeration. As a response to
many learned groups in different parts of the
the prohibition on Ezhavas into temples, Sri
country. She was given the title of “Pandita”
Narayana Guru established new temples, and
and “Saraswati” for her deep knowledge of
empowered the community to modernize itself.
Sanskrit. After the death of her parents she and
Great personalities such as the poet Kumaran
her brother travelled to different parts of the
Asan Dr. Palpu and Sahodaran Ayyappan
country. They went to Calcutta in 1878. Two
emerged from the movement, and made a
years later her brother also died. A little later
lasting impact in the democratization of Kerala
in 1880 she married a Bengali belonging to a
Society. Even though the Guru himself was not
family of lower social status. Thus, even at that
directly involved in the movement, the Vaikom
time she was bold enough to marry a man of
Satyagraha, organized to protest against the ban
a different caste and different language. After
on the entry of Ezhavas on the temple streets
the death of her husband two years later she
of Vaikom made a deep impact on subsequent
returned to Poona and started the Arya Mahila
temple entry movements.
Samaj with the help of leaders like Ranade and
Bhandarkar. 300 women were educated in the
Samaj in 1882.
19.3 Islamic Reform
Movements
Ramabai started the Sharada Sadan (shelter
for homeless) for the destitute widows with the The Revolt of 1857 and its brutal
help of Ranade and Bhandarkar. But soon she suppression by the British had an adverse
was accused of converting Hindu women to impact on the Muslims of South Asia. While
Christianity and hence had to shift her activities they were viewed with suspicion by the British
to Khedgoan near Poona. She established a Mukti for the 1857 insurgency, the Muslims themselves
Sadan (freedom house) there. Soon there were withdrew into a shell and did not use the
2000 children and women in the house. Vocational opportunities opened up by colonial modernity.
training was given make them self-reliant. Consequently, they lagged behind in education
and attendant employment opportunities. In
Sri Narayana Guru this context, a few decades later some reform
This movement emerged in Kerala and movements emerged among the Muslims.
was born out of conflict between the depressed
Aligarh Movement (1875)
classes and the upper castes. It was started by
Sri Narayana Guru (1854-1928) spearheading Aligarh Movement was started by Syed
a social movement of the Ezhavas of Kerala, Ahmad Khan in 1875. He wanted to reconcile
a community of toddy tappers. The Ezhavas Western scientific education with the teachings
were the single largest group in Kerala of the Quran. The Aligarh movement aimed at
constituting 26% of population. A great spreading (i) Modern education among Indian
scholar in Malayalam, Tamil and Sanskrit, Sri Muslims without weakening their allegiance to

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Islam, and (ii) Social reforms among Muslims established a different trend. While emphasizing
relating to purdah, polygamy, and divorce. the return to the original principles enunciated
in the Quran, Ghulam Ahmed became
Syed’s progressive
controversial when he claimed to be a Messiah,
social ideas were
which was considered heretical by mainstream
propagated through his
Islam. But he won many converts. His primary
magazine Tahdhib-ul-
work was to defend Islam against the polemics of
Akhluq (Improvement
the Arya Samaj and the Christian missionaries.
of Manners and
In social morals the Ahmadiya movement was
Morals). Syed Ahmad
conservative, adhering to polygamy, veiling of
Khan’s educational
women, and the classical rules of divorce.
p r o g r a m m e
emphasized from the Syed Ahmad Khan
The Deoband Movement (1866)
outset the advantages of the use of English as the
The Deoband movement was organised by
medium of instruction. In 1864 he founded a
the orthodox section among the Muslim ulemas
Scientific Society of Aligarh for the introduction of
as a revivalist movement with the twin objective
Western sciences through translations into Urdu
of propagating the pure teachings of the Quran
of works on physical sciences. The same year he
and Hadis among Muslims. The movement was
founded a modern school at Ghazipur. In 1868 he
established in Deoband in Saranpur district (by
promoted the formation of education committees
Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi (1833-1877) and
in several districts, to initiate modern education
Rashid Ahmed Gangohi (1828–1905) to train
among the Muslims.
religious leaders for the Muslim community.
During his visit to Europe in 1869–70 he In contrast to the Aligarh Movement, which
developed the plans of his life-work, a major aimed at the welfare of Muslims through
educational institution for Indian Muslims. In Western education and support of the
order to promote English education among British Government, the aim of the Deoband
the Muslims, he founded in 1875 a modern Movement was religious regeneration of the
school at Aligarh, which soon developed into Muslim community. The instruction imparted at
the Muhammdan Anglo–Oriental College Deoband adhered to classical Islamic tradition.
(1877). This college was to become the Muslim
The seminary at Deoband was founded
University after his death. It became the nursery
in 1867 by theologians of the School of Wali-
of Muslim political and intellectual leaders.
Allah. Muhammad Qasim Nanotavi took a
In 1886 Syed Ahmad Khan founded the prominent part in counter-polemics against the
Muhammedan Anglo Oriental Educational Christian missionaries and the Arya Samajists.
Conference as a general forum for spreading The principal objectives of the seminary at
liberal ideas among the Indian Muslims. He Deoband were to re-establish contact between
rejected blind adherence to religious law and the theologians and the educated Muslim
asked for a reinterpretation of the Quran in the middle classes, and to revive the study of Muslim
light of reason to suit the new trends of the time. religious and scholastic sciences. As a religious
He attempted to liberalize Indian Islam and made university Deoband soon became an honoured
it amenable to new ideas and new interpretations. institution, not only in Muslim India but also in
In this mission he had to face the brunt of the world of Islam at large.
vehement attacks of orthodox theologians.
Nadwat al-‘ulama
Ahmadiya Movement (1889) A school less conservative than Deoband
The Ahmadiya movement founded by and more responsive to the demands of the
Mirza Ghulam Ahmed (1835–1908) in 1889 modern age was the Nadwat al-‘ulama,’ founded

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in 1894 at Lucknow by the historian Shibli progressive ideas of the nineteenth century. The
Nu‘mani and other scholars. The school aimed Singh Sabha Movement was formed in 1873,
to offer an enlightened interpretation of religion with a two-fold objective (i) to make available
in order to fight the trends of agnosticism and modern western education to the Silkhs (ii) to
atheism which had followed the advent of counter the proselytizing activities of Christian
modern Western education. missionaries as well as Hindu revivalists. A
network of Khalsa Schools was established
Farangi Mahal
throughout Punjab. The Akali movement was
The third famous traditional school is the an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement.
much older one at Farangi Mahal in Lucknow. The Akali movement aimed at liberating the
Farangi Mahal accepted Sufism as a valid Sikh Gurudwara from the corrupt control of
experience and a valid field of study. Another the Udasi Mahants (priests). The Government
traditionalist movement was the ahl-i-hadith or passed the Sikh Gurudwara Act in 1922
of the followers of the dicta of the Prophet. (amended in 1925), which gave control to
19.4 Parsi Reform Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee
(SGPC) as the main body.
Movements
Zoroastrians, persecuted in their Persian 19.6 Reform Movements in
homeland, migrated in large numbers to the Tamilnadu
west coast of India in the tenth century. As a
As we saw earlier, the reform movements
trading community they flourished over the
of the north India had its own impact on
centuries. A close-knit community it too was
Tamilnadu. Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj had
not left untouched by the reform movements of
their branches. Keshab Chandra Sen visited
the nineteenth century.
Madras and lectured here. But Tamilnadu also
The Rahnumai Madayasnan Sabha saw its own reform movements.
(Religious Reform Association) was founded
in 1851 by a group of English educated Parsis Ramalinga Swamigal (Vallalar)
for the “regeneration of the social conditions of (1823–1874)
the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian Ramalinga
religion to its pristine purity”. The movement Swamigal was born in
had Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, a modest family near
K. R. Cama and S.S. Bengalee as its leaders. Chidambaram and
The message of reform was spread by the spent his early life
newspaper Rast-Goftar (Truth Teller). Parsi in Madras. He never
religious rituals and practices were reformed had formal schooling,
and the Parsi creed redefined. In the social but exhibited great
sphere, attempts were made to uplift the status scholarship. Inspired
of Parsi women through education, removal of by the Saiva Thevaram Ramalinga Adigal
the purdah, raising the age of marriage and the and Thiruvasagam
like. Gradually, the Parsis emerged as the most hymns, he began to compose moving poems
westernised section of the Indian society. They on his own. In his time, Saiva religion was in
played a key role in the nationalist movement the grip of Saiva monasteries such as those
and in the industrialization of India. at Thiruvaduthurai, Dharumapuram and
Thiruppanandal. Ramalinga Swamigal’s poems
19.5 Sikh Reform Movement
expressed radical ideas and condemned
The Sikh community could not remain bigotry and irrationality. He underwent certain
untouched by the rising tide of rationalist and mystical experiences which he expressed in

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his poems. This was resented due to their opposition to Vedic Brahminism.
by the orthodox elements in He re-read classical Tamil and other texts
Saiva religion. He established to make his case. He also encouraged the
the Sathya Dharma Salai at conversion to Buddhism. He found the greatest
Vadalur where he began to following in north Tamilnadu and among the
feed poor people, especially in working classes of the Kolar Gold Fields. In this
the context of the 1860s famine movement, M. Singavelu and Prof P. Lakshmi
and pestilence, irrespective of caste and creed. Narasu also played an important role. Pandithar
He founded the Sathya Gnana Sabhai to organize ran a weekly journal called Oru Paisa Tamilan
his followers. This brought him into conflict (later Tamilan) from 1908 until his death.
with established Saivite orders, and matters
came to a head when his followers published his
poems under the title of Thiruvarutpa (Songs 19.7 Christian Missionaries
of Grace) in 1867. Orthodox Saivites under
the Sri Lankan reformer Arumuga Navalar The official religious policy of the East
criticized this as blasphemous and launched a India Company was one of neutrality towards
tract war. But ultimately, Ramalinga Swamigal’s the native religions. Their reason for continuing
contribution was recognized and his writings this policy was the belief that the earlier
inspired universal ideas, and undermined Portuguese rule had come to an end because
sectarianism in Saiva religion. of their attempts to forcibly convert people to
Christianity. As a result of this concern, the
Buddhist Revivalism and Company government prohibited the entry of
Iyotheethoss Pandithar missionaries into the territories under their
(1845-1914) control.
As we saw in In 1793 two English missionaries, William
an earlier lesson, Carey and John Thomas, both Baptists, set
Buddhism had been out to India with the intention of starting a
practically wiped out mission. In view of the ban on missionary
in the Tamil country activity they settled down in the Danish Colony
by the beginning of Serampore, north of Calcutta. Carey, along
of the second with two other missionaries, Joshua Marshman
millennium. Towards and William Ward established the Serampore
the end of the Mission in 1799.
nineteenth century, Iyotheethoss Pandithar The Serampore missionaries were the
there was a revival
first evangelical Baptist missionaries in India.
of Buddhism. The publication of the complete
They were followed later by other missionary
edition of Jeevaka Chintamani (1887) and
groups belonging to different Protestant
Manimekalai (1898) were landmarks in the
denominations. Before the arrival of the
recovery of heterodox traditions.
Serampore missionaries, several centuries
But the most important figure was earlier, there were Christian missions in the
Iyotheethoss Pandithar (1845–1914). A native Portuguese territory of Goa, and also on the
doctor by profession, he was an erudite scholar. Malabar Coast and the Coromandel Coast.
He also came under the influence of Colonel The work of the earlier missionaries was
Olcott of the Theosophical Society. In the 1890s limited both geographically and in terms of
he began a movement among the Adi Dravidars the number of conversions to Christianity.
arguing that they were the original Buddhists Thus major attempts at proselytization began
who had been consigned to ‘untouchability’ during the nineteenth century.

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The missionaries organised schools for to interpret the scriptures, and simplification
the socially and economically deprived and of rituals made worship a more personal
pleaded for their economic improvement experience. The movements emphasised the
through employment in the state service. human intellect’s capacity to reason and think.
They also fought for their ‘civil rights’ By weeding out corrupt elements in religious
that included access to public roads, and practices, the reformers enabled their followers
permission for the women of these groups to counter the official taunt that their religions
to wear upper garments. and society were decadent and inferior. It gave
the rising middle classes the much needed
The missionaries gave shelter to orphaned
cultural roots to cling to.
children and other destitute widows in their
missions and provided education for them in their SUMMARY
boarding schools. Particularly after the famines
which were quite common during the nineteenth The role played by Rammohan Roy, and
century, about which we discussed in the previous Keshab Chandra Sen in Brahmo Samaj are
lesson, the missionaries organized relief. Providing discussed.
shelter and succour gave these an opportunity Arya Samaj established by Dayananda
to convert people to Christianity. In Tirunelveli Saraswati, and the Ramakrishna Mission
district many villages took to Christianity during founded by Swami Vivekananda are dealt with.
famines, especially in the last quarter of nineteenth Aligarh, Ahmadiya, and Deoband movements
century. The same phenomenon was witnessed for reforming Islamic community are
in Andhra where Malas and Madigas embraced explained.
Christianity in a big way. Parsi, Sikh reform movements as well as the
work of Theosophical society are described.
The Company government did little to
Services rendered by Christian missionaries
provide modern education for the native
are analysed.
population. For a long time, the provision
The social reform movements represented
of elementary school facilities to the native
by Jyotiba Phule, Pandita Ramabai
population, especially in the interiors for
and Narayana Guru and by Ramalinga
the disprivileged and the poor people, was
Adigaland Iyotheethoss Pandithar in
a responsibility willingly accepted by the
Tamilnadu are highlighted.
Christian missionaries. It must be noted that
the Christian Missionaries took the intiative of
establishing Hospitals and Dispensaries. EXERCISE
19.8 Significance of the Q.R.Code

Reform Movements I. C
hoose the correct
The orthodox sections of the society answer
could not accept the scientific and ideological 1. ____________ was the first province, where
onslaught of the socio-religious reformers. As a several ideas of reforms originated.
result of this, the reformers were subjected to
(a) Punjab (b) Bengal (c) Bombay (d) Madras
abuse, persecution, issuing of fatwas and even
assassination attempts by the reactionaries. 2. “The Father of Indian Renaissance” was ____.
However, in spite of opposition, these (a) Swami Vivekananda
movements contributed towards liberation of the (b) Dayananda Saraswathi
individual from the conformity born out of fear.
The translation of religious texts into vernacular (c) Raja Rammohan Roy
languages, emphasis on an individual’s right (d) Atmaram Pandurang

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3. The National Social Conference was organized 10.

The aim of the ____________ was the
at the initiative of ____________. religious regeneration of the Muslim
(a) M. G. Ranade community.
(b) Devendranath Tagore (a) Deoband Movement
(c) Keshab Chandra Sen (b) Ahmadiya Movement
(d) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (c) Aligarh Movement
4. “Back to the Vedas” was the motto of _______. (d) Wahhabi Movement
(a) Raja Rammohan Roy 11. Find out the correct statement
(b) Dayananda Saraswathi
(a) Dr. Atmaram Pandurang founded the
(c) Vivekananda Shuddi Movement.
(d) Ramakrishina Paramahamsa (b) Sathya Dharma Salai was established by
5. ____________ expounded his views in short Ramalinga Adigal.
stories and admirable parables.
(c) The founder of Ramakrishna Mission
(a) Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
(b) Devendranath Tagore
(d) The Ahmadiyas have common mosque
(c) Vivekananda for prayer.
(d) Jyotiba Phule 12. A
ssertion (A): Syed Ahmad Khan founded a
6. The Weekly Journal "Oru Paisa" Tamilan was modern school at Aligarh, which developed
run by ____________. into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental
(a) Swami Vivekananda College.
(b) Dayananda Saraswathi Reason (R): He wanted to promote English
(c) Ramalinga Adigal education among the Muslims.
(d) Iyotheethoss Pandithar (a) A is correct ; R is the correct explanation
7. The Theosophical Society was founded in of A
____. (b) A is wrong ; R is correct
(a) India (b) United States of America (c) Both A and R are wrong
(c) France (d) England
(d)
A is correct; R is not the correct
8. ____________ was the adherent of Brahmo explanation of A
Samaj in Tamilnadu.
(a) Ramalinga Adigal
(A) English
(b) Kasi Viswanatha Mudaliar
Missionaries - 1. Morning Star
(c) Iyotheethoss Pandithar
(B) Parsi Newspaper - 2. William Carvey
(d) Pandita Ramabai
& John Thomas
9. Syed Ahmad Khan founded a ____________
(C) Deoband movement - 3. Rast-Goftar
for the introduction of Western Sciences.
(a) Satya Shodak Samaj (D) Vivekananda - 4. Mohammad
Qasim Nanotavi
(b) Singh Sabha Movement
(c) Scientific Society (a) 3, 2, 1, 4 (b) 1, 2, 3, 4
(d) Theosophical Society (c) 2, 3, 4, 1 (d) 2, 1, 4, 3

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II. Write brief answers 2. Prepare an account of the essence of

Swami Vivekananda’s Chicago lecture.
1.
What are the contributions of Raja
Rammohan Roy to social reform? Assignments
2. What role did Jyotiba Phule play for social 1. Make a visit to the institutions established
justice ? by the Ramakrishna Mission and write a
3. Why was the Shuddi Movement considered report on its services
a revivalist movement ? 2. Prepare an album by collecting pictures of
4. Describe the contribution of SNDP Yogam. various social reformers and identify the
5.
What do you know about Ramalinga institutions they founded.
Adigal?
III. Write short answers REFERENCES BOOKS
1. M.G Ranade
1. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of
2. Swami Vivekananda
Modernity, Stanford University Press, 1990
3. Ahmadiya Movement
2. D.P. Chattopadhyaya, History of Science,
4. Singh Sabha Movement Philosophy and Culture in Indian
Civilization, Vol.III, Pearson Longman,
2008.
1.
Discuss the role played by Christian
3. A.L. Basham, A Cultural History of India,
missionaries in India.
OUP, 1975.
2. Highlight the Social Reform Movement in
4. C.B. Firth, Church History in India, 1960.
Tamilnadu.
5. Meghnad Desai, The Rediscovery of India,
Activity Allen Lane (Penguin), 2009.
1.
Collect information on the current 6. Sumit Sarkar and Tanika Sarkar, Women
activities of the Theosophical Society at and Social Reform in Modern India: A
Adyar. Reader, Indiana University Press, 2008.
GLOSSARY
vicious circle continuing unpleasant situation த�ொடர் சிக்கல்

erudite scholarly புலமைமிக்க
decry denounce openly கண்டனக்குரல் எழுப்பு
iconoclast a critic of image worship உருவ வழிபாட்டை எதிர்ப்பவர்
skepticism disbelief ஐயம்; அவநம்பிக்கை
one who is indifferent to religion or
agnosticism existence of god கடவுள் பற்றி அக்கறையற்றவர்
a strong verbal or written attack on
polemics someone or something எதிர்வாதம்
a ruling by a recognized authority இஸ்லாமிய சட்டத்தின்
fatwa according to Islamic law அடிப்படையிலான தீர்ப்பு

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TIME LINE 1 unit = 10 years
Important Events of Indian History (1500-1900)

1500
1505 - Foundation of Thuluva dynasty
1509 - Coronation of Krishna Devaraya

1510
1518 - Rise of Deccan Sultanates (split of Bahmani Kingdom)

1520
1526 - Battle of Panipat I

1527 - Battle of Khanwa
1528 - Battle of Chanderi

1530
1529 - Battle of Ghagra / Death of Krishna Devaraya
1530 - Death of Babur
1539 - Battle of Chausa
1540 1540 - Battle of Kanauj
1545 - Death of Sher Shah
1550
1556 - Battle of Panipat II
1560
1565 - Battle of Talikota
1570
1573 - Conquest of Gujarat by Akbar
1576 - Battle of Haldighati
1580
1582 - Din Ilahi
1590
1600
Timeline.indd 310 01-03-2020 18:45:26

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1600
1605 - Death of Akbar
1608 - Birth of Tukaram

1610
1616 - Danish East India Company Created
1620
1623 - Amboyna Massacre
1627 - Birth of Shivaji
1630
1640
1646 - Shivaji captured the fortress of Torna
1650
1660
1664 - Attack of Shivaji on Surat
1665 - Treaty of Purandar
1669 - Jat Rebellion
1670 1670 - Attack of Shivaji on Surat
1674 - Coronation of Shivaji
1680 1680 - Death of Shivaji
1684 - Madras became a Presidency

1686 - Bijapur annexed by Aurangzeb
1687 - Golkonda annexed by Aurangzeb
1690
1700
Timeline.indd 311 01-03-2020 18:45:26

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1700
1707 - Death of Aurangzeb
1710
1720
1730
1731 - Treaty of Warna
1740
1746 - First Carnatic War begins
1749 - Second Carnatic War begins / Battle of Ambur

1750
1756 - Third Carnatic War begins

1757 - Battle of Plassey
1760 - Battle of Wandiwash / Battle of Udgir
1760
1761 - Battle of Panipat III
1764 - Battle of Buxar
1769 - Treaty of Madras

1770
1773 - Regulating Act

1775 - First Anglo-Maratha War begins
1780 - Second Mysore War begins
1780 1782 - Death of Haider Ali / Treaty of Salbai
1783 - Treaty of Paris
1784 - Treaty of Mangalore / Pitt India Act
1790
1793 - Permanent Settlement
1799 - Serampore Mission

1800
Timeline.indd 312 01-03-2020 18:45:26

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1800
1801 - South Indian Rebellion
1803 - Second Anglo-Maratha War begins
1806 - Vellore Revolt
1810
1817 - Treaty of Poona / Third Anglo-Maratha War begins
1820 1822 - Ryotwari System

1823 - Birth of Ramalinga Swamigal
1828 - Brahmo Samaj

1829 - Sati Abolition Act
1830
1832 - Death of Serfoji II
1840
1845 - Birth of Iyotheethoss Pandithar
1850
1853 - First Railway Line (India)

1857 - Great Rebellion / University of Madras
1858 - Queen Victoria Proclamation
1860
1867 - Prarthana Samaj
1870
1873 - Satya Shodhak Samaj

1875 - Arya Samaj / Aligarh Movement / Theosophical Society
1876-78 - Madras Famine
1880
1890
1897 - Ramakrishna Mission

1900
Timeline.indd 313 01-03-2020 18:45:26

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embellished அழகு படுத்து

GLOSSARY empathetic மற்றவர் உணர்வினை மதித்தல்
endorsement ஒப்புதல்
accountable ப�ொறுப்புள்ள ensued பின்பு ஏற்பட்ட
acculturation பிற பண்பாடு ஏற்றல் epithet அடைம�ொழி
accumulated சேர்த்த eponymous பெயருக்குரிய
acrimonious கசப்பான esoteric மெய்யறிவு உள்ளவர்களுக்காக
adduced சான்றாகக் காண்பித்தல் espousing ஆதரித்தல்
adversary விர�ோதி evasiveness தட்டிக் கழிக்கின்ற
adzes மரக் கைப்பிடி க�ொண்ட உளி ப�ோன்ற exalted உயர்ந்த
கருவி exorbitant மிகவும் அதிகமான
agate உயர் வகை கல் extoll புகழ்கின்ற
agnosticism கடவுள் பற்றி அக்கறையற்றவர்
exuberance உயிர்ப்புமிக்க
allegiance விசுவாசம் erudite புலமைமிக்க
amalgamate இணை facade முகப்பு
anathema வெறுக்கத்தகுந்ததாக குதிரைக்கு லாடமடிப்பவர்
farrier
anointment உயர்பதவியில் அமர்த்தும் ப�ோது இஸ்லாமிய சட்டத்தின் அடிப்படையிலான
செய்யப்படும் சமயச்சடங்கு fatwa தீர்ப்பு
antithetical முரண்பட்ட நிலப்பிரபுத்துவ முறைப்படி
feudatories உருவாக்கப்பட்ட சிற்றரசர்கள்
ascribed சார்ந்தது
bard பாணர் flintlock கற்பொறி மூலம் இயங்கும் துப்பாக்கி
belittle சிறுமைப்படுத்துதல் forsaking கைவிடப்பட்டதற்காக
belligerent policy தீவிரமாகப் ப�ோரிடும் க�ொள்கை frugality சிக்கனமான
bhikshu ப�ௌத்தத் துறவி garrison க�ோட்டைக் காவற்படை
booty ப�ோரின் மூலம் gazelle ஒரு வகை அழகிய மான்
க�ொள்ளையடிக்கப்பட்டவை genealogy வம்சாவளி / குடிவழி
breach மீறு goblet க�ோப்பை
bustling பரபரப்பான திருத்தொண்டர் வாழ்க்கை பற்றிய
hagiographical புராணங்கள்
carnelian அணிகலன்களில் பதிக்கும் சிவப்பு நிறக்
கல்வகை hegemony மேலாதிக்கம்
ceded விட்டுக் க�ொடுத்தல் heretics வைதீகத்திற்கு எதிரான
chauvinism குறுகிய ந�ோக்குடைய தேசியவாதம் heterodox அவைதீக
circa ஏறத்தாழ hewn செதுக்கப்பட்ட
த�ொப்பியின் மீது பதவியைக் குறிக்கும்
cockade homogeneity ஓரினத்தன்மை
ரிப்பன் அல்லது துணிக் குஞ்சம் உருவ வழிபாட்டை எதிர்ப்பவர்
iconoclast
coercion கட்டாயப்படுத்துதல் immolate தீப் பாய்தல்
coffer கருவூலம் impregnable தகர்க்க முடியாத
collision ம�ோதல் incessant இடையறாத
commemoration க�ொண்டாட்டம் inciting தூண்டும்
conciliatory இணக்கத்தை ஏற்கும் incursion ஊடுருவல்
conglomerated கூழாங்கற்கள் மற்றும் சரளைக் ingenuity புத்திகூர்மை
கற்களாலான பாறை ingots உல�ோக வார்ப்பிரும்புக் கட்டி
connotation அர்த்தம்/ப�ொருள் inpursuance செயல்படுத்தும் விதமாக
consensus கருத்தொருமித்த
கூட்டுச் சதி insignia சிறப்புரிமைச் சின்னம்
conspiracy கிளர்ச்சி
insurrection
contemplating சிந்தனை செய்தல் interregnum இடைப்படு காலம்
contemptible வெறுக்கத்தக்க intrigue சூழ்ச்சி, சதி
contingent இராணுவப் பிரிவு
intuitive உள்ளுணர்வு
corroborate உறுதிபடுத்து
க�ோபுர வடிவக் குவிமாடம் investiture சடங்குகள் செய்து பதவியில் அமர்த்துதல்
cupolas வெல்லமுடியாத
invincibility
daunting ஊக்கம் இழக்கத்தக்க irked த�ொல்லைக்கு ஆளான
decry கண்டனக்குரல் எழுப்பு
அழிந்துேபாதல் Jasper மஞ்சள், சிவப்பு, பழுப்பு நிறம் க�ொண்ட
devastated
கல் வகை
devoured விழுங்குதல் மர ஆபரணப் ப�ொருள்
lacqueware
dissension கருத்து வேற்றுமை legume தாவர குடும்ப வகை (அவரை வகை)
doab இரு நதிகளுக்கிடையில் காணப்படும் lentil துவரை வகை
செழுமையான நிலப்பகுதி
க�ொடுமையான levant கிழக்கு மத்தியத் தரைக்கடல் பகுதி
draconian
ecclesiastical
lexicographer அகராதி தயாரிப்பவர்
திருச்சபை தலைவர்
head lineage பரம்பரை
ecstatic பேரானந்த / அநுபூதி நிலை metamorphosis உருமாற்றம்
edifice கட்டடம்/மாளிகை magnum opus தலைசிறந்த கலை படைப்பு
elude தப்பிச்செல் manoeuvring சூழ்ச்சி
emanating வெளிவருகின்ற mercantile வணிகம் சார்ந்த
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moat அகழி ransack சூறையாடு

mundane issue அன்றாட வாழ்க்கைப் பிரச்சனை ravage சேதப்படுத்து
munificence க�ொடை; வள்ளன்மை reckon கணக்கிடு
negate செயல்படாததாக்கு refrain தவிர்
reeler சிட்டத்தில் நூல் நூற்பவர்
Nilgai சிறு க�ொம்புடைய மான் வகை
relentless விட்டுக்கொடுக்காத
nomenclature ப�ொருள்களின் பெயரிடும் முறை
revamped திருத்தியமைக்கப்பட்ட
numismatic நாணயங்கள் பற்றி படிப்பது
scalpel அறுவைக் கத்தி
oblation காணிக்கை ; ஆகுதி
obnoxious க�ோபமூட்டும் scepticism அவநம்பிக்கை
paramount ஒப்புயர்வற்ற schism பிளவு
parleys பேச்சு வார்த்தை நடத்துதல் scuffle சண்டை
patronise ஆதரி shipwright கப்பல் கட்டுபவர்
pedagogy கற்பிக்கும் கலை shun தவிர்
skepticism ஐயம்; அவநம்பிக்கை
perpetual எப்போதும் நிலைத்திருக்கும்
pervade பரவு slain க�ொல்
pervasiveness எங்கும் நிறைந்ததாக; நீக்கமற நிறைந்த smother நசுக்கு அல்லது அடக்கு
pillage சூறையாடுதல் solidarity ஒற்றுமை
polemics எதிர்வாதம் spouted vessel நீண்ட மூக்குடைய பாத்திரம்
political turmoil அரசியல் அமைதியின்ைம squabble சச்சரவு
stranded கைவிடப்பட்ட
preceptor ஆசிரியர் /ஆசான் / குரு
preeminent புகழ்வாய்ந்த stratified வர்க்க அடிப்படையில் அமைக்கப்பட்ட
pre-empt நடப்பதற்குமுன் தடுத்து நிறுத்துவது sublimate புனிதமாக்கு; விழுமியதாக்கு
syncretism கலாச்சாரப் பரிமாற்றம்
primogeniture மூத்த மகனுக்கு மட்டுமே வாரிசுரிமை
என்ற க�ோட்பாடு துர�ோகத்தனமான, நம்பிக்கை ம�ோசம்
traitorous செய்கிற
proliferated பல்கிப் பெருகி
proselytizing மதமாற்ற முயற்சி treacherous துர�ோக
truncated எண்ணிக்கை குறைந்த
protagonist முன்னெடுப்பவர்
protracted நெடிய vanquished வெல்லப்பட்ட
punitive தண்டிக்கிற venerated வணங்குதற்குரிய
vicious circle த�ொடர் சிக்கல்
quartz பல்நிறம் க�ொண்ட விலை குறைந்த
மணிக்கல் பீரங்கிகளின் ஒரே நேரத்தில் குண்டு
volley வீச்சு
quinquennial ஐந்தாண்டிற்கு ஒருமுறை நிகழும்
ravage சூறையாடு vouch உறுதிப்படுத்து
Illustration Credits
State Department of Archaeology, www.paleophilatelie.eu/description/ https://wikitech.wikimedia.org
Tamilnadu stamps/nepal_2015.html Google Art Project
Chennai Museum https://www.thehistoryhub.com/ metmuseum
Archaeology Survey of India mehrgarh-facts-pictures.htm Prince_of_Wales_museum
Tamil Virtual Academy pinterest.com www. himalayanacademy.com
Tamil University, Thanjavur www.tes.com www.historydiscussion.net
Kerala Council for Historical http: heidicon.ub.uni-heidelberg.de Rod Hudson UK
Research http://paadunar.blogspot.in Prof. y.subbarayalu
British Museum padmad.org Prof. R.G. Bednarik
British Library www.talkativeman.com V.N. Misra
Ulaga Tamil Sangam, Conference www.cngcoins.com Dorian Fuller
Magazines www.thefamouspeople.com Dr.K.Rajan, Prof & head Department
http://www.tamilnadutourism.org www.quora.com of Archaelogy, Pondichery University
en.wikipedia.org www.numisbids.com K.T.Gandhirajan
commons.wikimedia.org Coinindia.com K.Sasikala
www.wikiwand.com www.numismall.com R.K Lakshimi
harappa.com http.historicalleys.blogspot.in Dr.P.J.Cherian and Kerala
whc.unesco.org immersedimmersed.blogspot.in Council for Historical Research
www.frontline.in Department of State Archaeology, M. Kenoyer et al. (1983), ‹An
https://colnect.com/en Tamilnadu Upper Palaeolithic Shrine in India›,
breedingback.blogspot.in www.wikipedia.org Antiquity
https://www.flickr.com https://commons.wikimedia.org
Glossary 315
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Higher Secondary – Class XI – History

List of Authors and Reviewers
Chairperson Academic & Subject Co-ordinators
Dr. A.R.Venkatachalapathy Tmt. B. Eswari
Professor Deputy Director
Madras Institute of Development Studies SCERT, Chennai
Chennai. P. Suresh
P.G. Asst. in History
Co-chairperson GGHSS, Attur
Dr. K.A. Manikumar Salem District.
Professor (Rtd), Dept. of History Dr. K. Suresh
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University B.T. Asst.,
Tirunelveli. Kumara Rajah Muthiah HSS
Chennai.
Reviewers Dr. S. Ananthakrishnan Tmt. Meera M QR Code Team

Prof. Y.S. Subbarayalu Associate Professor PGT, DRBCCC Hindu HSS
Dept. of History Tiruvallur R. Jaganathan
Professor (Rtd.) S. Albert Valavan Babu
Department of Epigraphy A.M.Jain College, Chennai
Dr. K. Suresh M. Murugesan
Tamil University, Thanjavur Dr. Venkataramanujam R B.T.Asst., Kumara Rajah
Dr. Surendar Rao Associate Professor Muthiah HSS, Chennai Layout
Former Head, Dept of History Department of History
S. Rajeswari Arockiam Felix
Mangalore University Madras Christian College
B.T. Asst. (History) Kamatchi Balan Arumugam
Mangala Gangothri Tambaram
GHSS, Nellikkuppam S. Ashok Kumar
Dr. K. R. Sankaran Kanchipuram Pechimuthu
Dr. Kesavan Veluthat
Associate Professor Jerald wilson
Professor (Retired) Cynthia Jude
Dept. of History, AVC College Adaikalam Stephen
Dept. of History Asst. Professor, Dept. of History
Mayiladuthurai, Nagapattinam Prasanth
University of Delhi Stella Mary’s College, Chennai
Dr. Kanakalatha Mukund Dr. D. Abul Fazal
G. Satheeshkumar
Artist
Professor (Retired) Asst. Professor, Dept. of History
P.G. Asst. (History) K.T. Gandhi Rajan
Centre for Economic and Social Islamiah College
GBHSS, Musiri, Trichy S.V.Gokula Krishnan
Studies, Hyderabad Vaniyambadi, Vellore
Deepak Raj
P. Vedapureesan
Dr. S. Ravichandran Dr. Murugan J
P.G. Asst. (History), GHSS Wrapper Design
Associate Professor of History Asst. Professor, Dept. of History
Azhiyur, Nagapattinam
(Retd.) Rajapalayam Rajus’ Arignar Anna Govt Arts College Kathir Arumugam
College. Rajapalayam Attur, Salem D. Muthu
P.G. Asst. (History), GHSS In-House QC
Prof. Y.S. Subbarayalu
Lesson Writers Professor (Rtd.)
Ladavaram, Thiruvannamalai
Rajesh Thangappan
Dr. K.A. Manikumar Department of Epigraphy A. Sahaya Sini Jerald Wilson
Professor (Retired), Tamil University Thanjavur B.T. Asst. (History) Arun Kamaraj Palanisamy
Dept. of History GHSS, Nemmeli
Dr. Bernard D Samy
Manonmaniam Sundaranar Kancheepuram Typist
Research Centre,
University, Tirunelveli D. Alphonsa Mary
Loyola College, Chennai. ICT
Dr. Kanakalatha Mukund St. Anne’s TTI, Chennai
Dr. Thangam Thiru. D. Nagaraj
Professor (Retired) Parimala
Associate Professor of History B.T.Asst., History,
Centre for Economic and Social DIET, Perundurai, Erode
STC, Palayamkottai. Govt. Hr. Sec. School
Studies, Hyderabad
Rappusal, Pudukottai
Dr. T.S. Rajeswari Content Providers / Readers Co-ordinator
Former Head, Dept. of History R.Kamesh
Thiru. M. Appannasamy Ramesh Munisamy
APC Mahalakshmi College SGT Govt.Primary School
Advisor, TNTB & ESC, Chennai
Thoothukudi Pinjanur, Cuddalore
Tmt. Geetha J
Dr. V. Selva Kumar A.Saranya
PGT, Prince Mat. HSS
Associate Professor SGT, PUP School
Madipakkam, Chennai
Dept. of Maritime History and Sellathapalayam, Erode
Marine Archaeology Tmt. Jeyasree R
Tamil University, Thanjavur PGT, Prince Mat. HSS This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Madipakkam, Chennai Elegant Maplitho paper.
Printed by offset at:
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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

History_FM.indd 1 05-03-2020 16:57:21

Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2018

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and

History_FM.indd 2 05-03-2020 16:57:21

The scope of the lesson is presented

Introduction The subject to be discussed in the lesson is introduced

Leads the students to animated audio, video aids for

Provides additional information related to the subject in

Infographs Visual representations intended to make the complex simple

Activities Activities for ‘learning by doing’ individually or in groups

Exercise For self-study and self evaluation

Glossary Key words and technical terms explained at the end of

References List of books and net sources for further reading

Using technology for learning activities, which enables the

History_FM.indd 3 05-03-2020 16:57:21

E-book Assessment DIGI-Links

History_FM.indd 4 05-03-2020 16:57:21

UNIT Early India: From the

Introduction environment. Floral evidence found in the form

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 1 29-02-2020 10:58:23

the pre-history of India was considered to have

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 2 29-02-2020 10:58:23

Acheulian and Sohanian

Hathnora archaic Homo sapiens

Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 3

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 3 29-02-2020 10:58:25

Middle Palaeolithic Culture The tools became smaller.

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 4 29-02-2020 10:58:25

An Upper Palaeolithic Shrine

Teri: A coastal landscape caused by sand

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 5 29-02-2020 10:58:25

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 6 29-02-2020 10:58:25

They buried the dead.

Early Dentistry in the Neolithic Mehrgarh

Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 7

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 7 29-02-2020 10:58:26

Karachi Chirand Sarutaru

Map not to scale

Neolithic sites of India

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 8 29-02-2020 10:58:26

Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation 9

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 9 29-02-2020 10:58:26

Some early Neolithic sites have ash Early Harappan

Nomenclature, Phases and Geographical Area and the

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 10 29-02-2020 10:58:26

The Early Beginnings are identified as granary. The bricks were

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 11 29-02-2020 10:58:27

Craft Production intersecting circles, zigzag lines, horizontal

12 Early India: From the Beginnings to the Indus Civilisation

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 12 29-02-2020 10:58:27

XI History - Lesson 1.indd 13 29-02-2020 10:58:28

Indus Civilisation and Tamil Civilisation

Indus cities and towns

4. Baghor I and Baghor III of Son Valley in 4. Define Mesolithic culture.

3.1 Developments in the

Agriculture improved during this phase 3.2 Janapadas to