Economic Geology

Vol. 96, 2001, pp. 1799–1826

The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre Iron Oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) Deposits, Chile

ROBERT MARSCHIK†,*
Lehrstuhl für Lagerstättenlehre, Institut für Mineralogie, TU Bergakademie Freiberg,
Brennhausgasse 14, 09596 Freiberg/Sachsen, Germany

AND LLUÍS FONTBOTÉ

Section des Sciences de la Terre, Université de Genève, Rue des Maraîchers 13, 1211 Genève 4, Switzerland

Abstract
Several iron oxide-rich Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) deposits define an approximately 5-km-wide and at least 20-km-long
belt along the eastern margin of the coastal batholith near Copiapó, Chile. This belt includes the large Cande-
laria mine and a group of middle- and small-sized mines in the Punta del Cobre district, which is located about
3 km northeast of the Candelaria deposit. Estimated geologic resources of the belt are on the order of 700 to
800 million metric tons (Mt) at 1.0 percent Cu. The ore occurs in veins, breccia, and stringer bodies, and in re-
placement bodies that are roughly concordant to bedding. The orebodies are hosted mainly by volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks of the Punta del Cobre Formation and, in places, also occur in volcaniclastic intercalations
in the lower part of the overlying Early Cretaceous Chañarcillo Group. Most of the larger orebodies in the belt
are located where northwest-trending brittle faults intersect the contact between massive volcanic and vol-
caniclastic rocks. These northwest faults and a major northeast-trending ductile shear zone control portions of
the ore of the Candelaria deposit.
Chalcopyrite is the only hypogene Cu mineral. The Cu-Au ore is characterized by abundant magnetite
and/or hematite and by locally elevated concentrations of Ag, Zn, Mo, and light rare earth elements. The ore
is hosted mainly in zones with biotite-potassium feldspar ± calcic amphibole ± epidote alteration at Candelaria.
In the Punta del Cobre district, ore in the deeper parts of the deposits is similarly associated, whereas at shal-
low levels it occurs in zones of biotite-potassium feldspar, or albite-chlorite ± calcite alteration.
Mineralization at Candelaria-Punta del Cobre took place under relatively oxidized conditions manifested by
the formation of specular hematite. In parts of the district, the pseudomorphic replacement of early specular
hematite by magnetite during the main iron oxide formation marks a shift toward more reduced conditions or
higher temperatures. The bulk of the magnetite probably formed at temperatures of about 500° to 600°C. The
main sulfide stage followed with formation of pyrite and chalcopyrite at temperatures of >470° to 328°C. Sub-
sequent martitization of the magnetite points to a temperature decrease. Cooling of the hydrothermal system
is also indicated by the homogenization temperatures of ≤236°C of saline fluid inclusions in late-stage calcite.
Oxygen isotope combined with microthermometric data suggest that magmatic fluids or nonmagmatic fluids
equilibrated with magmatic silicates were dominant during the main copper mineralization. Relatively light oxy-
gen isotope signatures of fluids in equilibrium with late calcite suggest mixing with a nonmagmatic fluid (e.g.,
basinal brines or meteoric waters) during the late stages of hydrothermal activity. Sulfur isotope ratios of chal-
copyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and sphalerite from the Bronce, Candelaria, Las Pintadas, Santos, and Socavón
Rampa deposits range from δ34SCDT values of –0.7 to +3.1 per mil. This narrow range of sulfur isotope ratios
near 0 per mil is consistent with sulfur of magmatic origin. Anhydrite from the Candelaria mine paragenetically
overlaps with chalcopyrite. Fluid inclusions in this anhydrite homogenize between 340° and 470°C and it has
δ34SCDT values between 14.5 and 17.5 per mil. A ∆ sulfate-sulfide value of 13.4 per mil for a sample with coexisting
anhydrite and chalcopyrite is consistent with sulfide-sulfate fractionation at temperatures on the order of 400ºC.
Ore lead isotope signatures are homogeneous and similar to those of least altered volcanic host rocks and nearby
intrusive rocks. Radiometric ages, including new 40Ar/39Ar ages for hydrothermal alteration at Candelaria, point
to a main Cu-Au mineralization event at Candelaria-Punta del Cobre at around 115 Ma. The ages indicate that
ore formation was broadly coeval with batholithic granitoid intrusions and with regional uplift. They further
imply that the Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) deposits formed at shallow crustal levels (<3 km).
The stable isotope data, the presence of previously reported hypersaline CO2-rich fluid inclusions in the
main Cu ore stage and saline fluid inclusions in late-stage calcite, the oxidized character of the first ore-fluid
pulses, and the mineralization age coeval with nearby intrusive activity are consistent with, but not unequivo-
cally evidence of, magmatic fluid contribution into the hydrothermal system.

Introduction batholith, southeast of Copiapó, Chile (Fig. 1, Table 1). This

A GROUP of iron oxide-rich Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) deposits defines a
belt along the eastern margin of the composite coastal
†
Corresponding author: e-mail, robert.marschik@iaag.geo.uni-muenchen.de
*Present address: Institut für Allgemeine und Angewandte Geologie
(IAAG), Ludwig-Maximilians Universität, Luisenstrasse 37, D-80333 München,
Germany.
belt, referred to as the Punta del Cobre belt, includes the
Candelaria deposit with mineable reserves of 470 Mt at 0.95
percent Cu, 0.22 g/t Au, and 3.1 g/t Ag (Marschik et al., 2000),
the Punta del Cobre district, and several middle- and small-
sized mines with estimated combined reserves plus produc-
tion of >120 Mt at 1.5 percent Cu, 0.2 to 0.6 g/t Au, and 2 to

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1800 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

71° 70° 69° 70˚15' W

25° a) b)
Teresita
Copiapó
Taltal N Providencia
Atacama Fault Zone

26° Mine in operation

Closed mine

na
Carmen

ca
Chañeral Q. Paipote

eri
Prospect

am
Paipote smelter

an
Manto Verde Road (paved)

5-P
ta
Ru
27° Road (unpaved)
Cerro Negro Norte
Marta-Venus
Cerro Imán Copiapó Copiapó river
Manto Monstruo
Candelaria Mantos de Cobre
Bandurrias
Alcaparrosa
28° Boqerón Chañar Copiapó Batholith Santos

L. Colorados Tierra Amarilla

Q. Meléndez
Vallenar Trinidad
27˚30' S
Algarrobo City Candelaria Socavón Rampa
Resguardo
29° Iron deposit El Bronce Carola
Cristales Atacama-Kozan
Iron oxide Cu-Au deposit
El Tofo
Nantoco
El Romeral Pliocene to Recent
La Serena Upper Cretaceous to Miocene
30°
Lower Cretaceous Q. Nantoco

Pre-Cretaceous
Ovalle Q. Cerrillos

0 100
Las Pintadas 0 5
31° km Q. Los Toros km

FIG. 1. (a). Geologic map of the Atacama region. Locations of major magnetite-apatite and iron oxide Cu-Au deposits are
indicated (modified from Espinoza, 1990). (b). Location map of the Copiapó area, showing selected iron oxide Cu-Au de-
posits of the Punta del Cobre belt.

8 g/t Ag. These deposits represent variations of essentially the Historically, the mines of the Punta del Cobre belt have
same hydrothermal system but differ in size, intensity, and been grouped into several mining districts (Segerstrom and
types of alteration, host rock, and position with respect to the Ruiz, 1962). The mines Carola, Santos, and Socavón Rampa
contact metamorphic aureole of the Copiapó batholith. form part the Punta del Cobre district, which is located about

TABLE 1. Locations of Selected Mineral Deposits of the Punta del Cobre Belt

Characteristic hypogene
Mine UTM East UTM North ore mineralogy Main alteration Estimated reserves plus production

Alcaparrosa 374000 6962000 Mt-cpy-py Kspar, bio, act, qtz 10 Mt @ 1.4% Cu

Bronce 372300 6955500 Mt-cpy-py Scap, gt
Candelaria 372600 6956500 Mt-cpy-py (sl, po, mo) Bio, kspar, act, qtz 470 Mt @ 0.95 % Cu, 0.22 g/t Au, 3.1 g/t Ag
Carola 377000 6956500 Mt-hm-cpy-py (sl) Kspar, bio, chl, cte (act) 20 Mt @ 1.4% Cu
Lar 372900 6956300 Mt-cpy-py Calc-silicate1
Las Pintadas 366400 6947400 Mt-cpy-py Gt, act, kspar 4.0 Mt @ 1.0-1.5% Cu
Manto Monstruo 373750 6962250 Mt-cpy-py Calc-silicate1
Manto Verde 377000 6957000 Hm-cpy-py Kspar, chl, cte 1.5 Mt @ 1.5% Cu
Mantos de Cobre 375900 6962700 Mt-cpy-py Kspar/ab-chl(-act) 1.5 Mt @ 1.45% Cu
Providencia 376700 6972600 Hm-cpy-py Ab, chl, cte, (kspar)
Resguardo 376900 6957900 Cpy-py-hm-mt Ab, chl, cte, (kspar) 6 Mt @ 1.8-2.0% Cu, 0.4-0.5 g/t Au, 7.0 g/t Ag
Santos 375600 6961100 Mt-cpy-py-hm Kspar, bio, chl, (ab) 20 Mt @ 1.5% Cu, 0.4-0.5 g/t Au, 7.0 g/t Ag
Socavón Rampa 377000 6958000 Cpy-hm-py Ab, chl, cte, (kspar) 25 Mt @ 1.2-2% Cu, 0.2-0.3 g/t Au, 7.0 g/t Ag
Trinidad 376700 6959200 Mt-hm-cpy-py Kspar, bio, chl, (ab) 15 Mt @ 1.5% Cu, 0.2-0.3 g/t Au, 7.0 g/t Ag
Venus-Marta 373500 6963750 Mt-cpy-py-hm Gt, act

1No data; calc-silicate alteration in host sequence

Abbreviations: ab = albite, act = actinolite, bio = biotite, chl = chlorite, cpy = chalcopyrite, cte = calcite, gt = garnet, hm = hematite, kspar = K feldspar,
mo = molybdenum, mt = magnetite, po = pyrrhotite, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, scap = scapolite, sl = sphalerite

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 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE 1801

3 km northeast of Candelaria (Figs. 1 and 2). These mines to- paragenetic sequence, and the distribution of the principal al-
gether with Candelaria display mineralization and associated teration assemblages at the district scale and present a com-
alteration features that are similar to those found in deposits pilation of available data regarding the timing of ore forma-
of the “iron oxide (Cu-U-Au-REE) class” as defined by Hitz- tion and mineralization processes.
man et al. (1992) based on Proterozoic examples. Genetic hy-
potheses proposed to explain the formation of the deposits of Geologic Context
this class include hydrothermal models invoking magmatic The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre iron oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag)
fluid-dominated (e.g., Gow et al., 1994; Rotherham et al., deposits occur in the Chilean coastal cordillera (Fig. 1). The
1998; Williams, 1998; Williams et al., 1999; Pollard, 2000) or deposits are located to the east of the nearby main branches
saline nonmagmatic fluids (e.g., Battles and Barton, 1995; of the Atacama fault zone, which stretches over 1,000 km
Haynes et al. 1995; Barton and Johnson, 1996, 2000; Barton along the Chilean coast. The Atacama fault zone is a subduc-
et al., 1998). Metallogenic aspects and models for the ore for- tion-linked arc-parallel strike-slip fault system that has been
mation at Candelaria and/or Punta del Cobre have been dis- active at least since Jurassic times (e.g., Scheuber and An-
cussed, e.g., by Camus (1980), Hopf (1990), Ryan et al. (1995), driessen, 1990; Brown et al., 1993; Scheuber et al., 1995;
Marschik and Fontboté (1996), Ullrich and Clark (1999), Dallmeyer et al., 1996). This fault system controlled mineral-
Marschik et al. (2000), and Mathur et al. (2002). We present a ization of many of the iron deposits of the Chilean iron belt
summary of field and analytical data on the Candelaria deposit that also occur in the Chilean coastal cordillera (e.g., Book-
and the Punta del Cobre district. We discuss the mineralogy, strom, 1977; Thiele and Pincheira, 1987; Espinoza, 1990;

70°15' W Legend
Tailing impoundments Co
pia
pó
river
Mine area Paipote smelter Alluvium (Recent)
Punta Negra
Open pit Atacama Gravels (Miocene)
Marta-Venus Ladrillos district
Viñita Azul
Mine in operation Copiapó Batholith (Early Cretaceous)
Q. Florida
Mine closed Tonalite (Kt)
Manto Monstruo Mantos de Cobre

Project Kmd
FSZ
Alcaparrosa
Monzodiorite (Kmd)
40Ar/39Ar
Q. Meléndez
111.5 ±0.4 Ma Quartz monzonite (Kqm)
Santos
Punta del Cobre district

Tierra Amarilla
Diorite (Khd)
Kqm Trinidad
San Gregorio (Cu-Au) Intrusive rocks
(undifferentiated)
Sacovón Rampa
27°30' S
La Candelaria A' Bandurrias Group
San Francisco (Cu-Au) (late Valanginian to Aptian-Albian)
Resguardo
Khd Carola
A Chañarcillo Group
(late Valanginian to late Aptian)
La Tigresa (Cu-Au) Transito (Au)
OSZ Bronce
Atacama-Kozan Punta del Cobre Formation
(Tithonian(?)-pre-late Valanginian)
CSZ
Ojancos Nuevo district
Nantoco
Shear zone
CSZ Candelaria shear zone
40Ar/39Ar FSZ Florida shear zone
109.9 ±0.4 Ma OSZ Ojancos shear zone
109.9 ±1.7 Ma

Khd High-angle fault

Las Pintadas district Q. Nantoco
Low or medium angle fault
Kt Q. Las Pintadas
Q. Los Algarrobos
Q. Los Toros

Axis of the Tierra Amarilla Anticline

N
K-Ar
111 ±3 Ma

0 2
Las Pintadas km

FIG. 2. Geologic map of the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre area. The Lar mine mentioned in the text was located where the
Candelaria pit is shown. The position of the schematic cross section of Figure 6 is indicated.

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1802 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ
Ménard 1995). In the Copiapó area, the Chilean iron belt is
represented, e.g., by the Cerro Imán (Espinoza et al., 1994)
and Cerro Negro Norte deposits (Vivallo et al., 1995; Fig. 1).
The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre iron oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag)
deposits and most of the deposits of the Chilean iron belt are
hosted in Early Cretaceous arc-derived volcanic and volcani-
clastic rocks adjacent to intermediate plutons of the Chilean
coastal batholith.
Stratified rocks exposed in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre
area represent a facies transition of a continental volcanic arc
to the west and northwest (Bandurrias Group) and a shallow
marine back-arc basin to the east and southeast (Chañarcillo
Group). Sedimentation in the back-arc basin commenced in
Berriasian time (Early Cretaceous) with the deposition of the
upper part of the volcanic-volcaniclastic Punta del Cobre
Formation, which underlies the late Valanginian to Aptian
(Early Cretaceous) carbonate rocks of the Chañarcillo Group
(Abundancia-Nantoco, Totoralillo, and Pabellón formations;
accumulated thickness 1,700–2,000 m). Basin inversion,
which started in late Aptian times (possibly at around 115
Ma), eventually resulted in the partial erosion of the back-arc
sequence (Segerstrom and Parker, 1959; Zentilli 1974; Jur-
gan, 1977). Granitoid plutons of the Copiapó batholith in-
truded the back-arc deposits in the western portion of the
area, causing an extensive contact metamorphic aureole (Till-
ing, 1962, 1963, 1976). The Copiapó batholith consists of sev-
eral calc-alkaline intrusions ranging from diorite to quartz
monzonite (SiO2 50–68 wt %). These plutons are intruded, in
places, by altered aplitic dikes (SiO2 72–76 wt %). Dikes are
abundant at the eastern margin of the batholith, near Cande-
laria. Hydrothermally altered dacite porphyry dikes and sills
that locally contain minor sulfide mineralization and postore
lamprophyric dikes occur at Candelaria and in the Punta del
Cobre district. Portions of the Copiapó batholith west of Can-
delaria are marginally affected mainly by intense sodic(-cal-
cic) alteration that presumably is related to the ore formation
(see below). Potassium-argon ages of batholith intrusions
range between 119 to 97 Ma (Arévalo, 1994, 1995). The
40
Ar/39Ar ages of 111.5 Ma for a monzodiorite and 109.9 Ma
for a granodiorite-tonalite near Candelaria have been deter-
mined (Fig. 2; Arévalo, 1999).
District Stratigraphy
The oldest rocks in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre area
belong to the Tithonian(?)-pre-late Valanginian Punta del
Cobre Formation (Marschik and Fontboté, 2001), which
hosts most of the iron oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) orebodies. The
Punta del Cobre Formation (Fig. 3) is divided into the vol-
canic Geraldo-Negro Member (>500 m) and the overlying
predominantly volcaniclastic Algarrobos Member (>800 m in
drill cores; Marschik and Fontboté, 2001). The Geraldo-
Negro Member is further subdivided into the Lower An-
desites (>300 m) that consist of altered massive andesitic vol-
canic rocks, and the Meléndez Dacites (up to 200 m)
comprising intensely alkali-metasomatized lava domes and
flows of originally dacitic composition that overlie the Lower
Andesites east of the Copiapó River, in the Punta del Cobre
district, sensu stricto (Fig. 4). The Algarrobos Member is
formed by a succession of coarse, poorly bedded volcaniclas-
tic conglomerates and breccias with centimetric to decimetric
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1802
clasts that contain several intercalations of fine-grained sedi-
ments such as siltstones, arenites, coarse sandstones, and
microconglomerates, commonly on the order of 10 to about
40 m thick, and also lenses of massive volcanic andesitic to
basaltic rocks. The Algarrobos Member is characterized by
marked lateral changes in thickness and facies. It passes ver-
tically and laterally into the overlying calcareous Chañarcillo
Group (Abundancia or Nantoco Formations) with a contact
defined by the first continuous bed of massive limestone or its
metamorphosed equivalent. The Algarrobos Member con-
tains several horizons of economic or petrologic importance
that were defined in the Punta del Cobre district and, to a
certain extent, can be correlated within the Candelaria-Punta
del Cobre area. These horizons include: the Basal Breccia,
the Trinidad Siltstone, and the Upper Lavas. The Basal Brec-
cia (up to 25 m) is a red sedimentary breccia, in places con-
glomeratic, that contains interdigitations of sandstone and
grades into red sandstone toward the south. It is exposed in
the Punta del Cobre district, where it overlies the Meléndez
Dacites. A similar horizon was identified in a drill core from
Quebrada Los Algarrobos, where a hematite-bearing red
sandstone rests on the Lower Andesites. The Basal Breccia
hosts stratiform orebodies and the top of the Basal Breccia
commonly marks the upper limit of the mineralization in the
Punta del Cobre district. The Trinidad Siltstone (up to 60 m)
that overlies the Basal Breccia is mainly composed of silt- and
sandstone, chert, and tuffaceous sedimentary rocks, which lo-
cally contain elongate, decimetric to metric clasts of brec-
ciated limestone. The Trinidad Siltstone is characterized by
strong lateral changes in facies and thickness. In the Socavón
Rampa mine, it covers a local erosional surface above the
Basal Breccia. The Trinidad Siltstone can be correlated with
biotitized originally fine-grained tuffaceous rocks at Cande-
laria. Whereas this unit is commonly barren in the Punta del
Cobre district, it hosts high-grade ore at Candelaria. The
Upper Lavas (up to 45 m) form a discontinuous horizon of
lenses of basaltic to basalt-andesitic lavas and volcanic brec-
cias with a primitive geochemical signature of less differenti-
ated magmas. This magmatic event is interpreted to reflect
the incipient opening of the Early Cretaceous marine back-
arc basin south of Copiapó (Marschik and Fontboté, 2001).
Structural Framework
The dominating structural elements in the Candelaria-
Punta del Cobre area are a large northeast-trending antiform
(Tierra Amarilla anticlinorium), a southeast-verging fold-
thrust system (El Bronce fold-thrust system; Arévalo and
Grocott, 1997), and a dense set of north-northwest– to north-
west-trending high-angle sinistral transcurrent faults. The lat-
ter control parts of the mineralization (e.g., Camus, 1980;
Marschik and Fontboté, 1996). Additionally, northeast- and
east-northeast–trending high-angle and moderately (30º–50º)
west dipping faults and sinistral east-northeast–trending high-
angle faults are present. Mylonitic shear zones and cataclastic
rocks locally form the contact between intrusive and Early
Cretaceous country rocks (e.g., Ojancos shear zone). Ductile
deformation is also recorded in the Candelaria-Florida shear
zones, affecting volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks close to the
batholith contact (Fig. 2). Such deformation is manifested in
north-northeast–trending, 30° to 70° west-dipping zones of
 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE
Regional stratigraphy
CHAÑARCILLO GROUP
Dacite dike/sill
Upper Lavas
up to 40 m
Algarrobos Member
Trinidad Siltstone
PUNTA DEL COBRE FORMATION
40-100 m
Dacite dike
Geraldo-Negro
Member
Lower Andesites
>350 m
FIG. 3. Schematic lithostratigraphic column of the Punta del Cobre Formation and the vertical distribution of the main
alteration mineral assemblages at the Candelaria mine. The fracture-controlled calcic amphibole alteration is indicated.
However, there are several other veining events (see paragenetic sequence, Fig. 9). The metasediment unit at Candelaria is
roughly equivalent to the Abundancia Formation (Chañarcillo Group).
intensely foliated K-metasomatized (biotite) rocks (Fig. 5a).
The Candelaria and Florida shear zones are possibly seg-
ments of a major shear-fault zone that may find its continua-
tion in the Inca de Oro area (Sylvester and Palacios, 1992;
Sylvester and Linke, 1993). The Candelaria shear zone pre-
dated the copper mineralization and is the oldest deformation
recognized in the Candelaria mine to date. The Candelaria-
Florida shear zones are cut and displaced by sinistral north-
northwest– to northwest-trending high-angle faults, the east-
northeast–trending high-angle faults, and by the broadly
northeast trending moderately west dipping faults. Shearing
must have occurred between Berriasian (the age of the de-
formed rocks) and Aptian (age of mineralization) times, i.e.,
at a depth equivalent to or less than the maximum thickness
of the late Valanginian to late Aptian Chañarcillo Group
(2,000 m plus eroded material) that overlies the sheared
rocks. Therefore, ductile deformation took place far above
normal ductile-brittle transition and the Candelaria and
Florida shear zones are interpreted to represent thermally
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
1803
Lithology Main alteration assemblages
Scapolite ±pyroxene ±amphibole ± garnet skarn
"Metasediments"
with garnetite horizons or quartz hornfels
Quartz and pyroxene hornfels or
pyroxene-scapolite-garnet skarn over
"Upper Andesites" biotite hornfels; amphibole veinlets
up to 200 m
(include biotite hornfelses) Biotite hornfels or altered (K-feldspar or albite,
biotite, amphibole) massive volcanic rocks;
scapolite, and amphibole veinlets
Intense biotitization (brown and/or green
biotite) plus quartz and magnetite
"Tuffs (and volcaniclastic ±amphibole ±pink garnet, locally minor
sediments)" cordierite; overprinted by pervasive and
40-100 m fracture-controlled amphibole alteration
"Magnetite Manto" Stratiform magnetite body plus amphibole alteration
"K-feldspar Breccia" Volcaniclastic breccia with clasts intensely altered
to K-feldspar in matrix of mainly magnetite commonly
plus amphibole
Albite and/or K-feldspar
"Lower Andesites" (A)
200-300 m Biotite-quartz-magnetite-albite/K-feldspar
alteration, in places, overprinted by fracture-
controlled or pervasive amphibole
Biotite-quartz-magnetite-Na plagioclase
alteration, locally minor K-feldspar
"Lower Andesites" (B) and/or minor amphibole
>350 m
Candelaria terminology
(e.g., Ryan et al. 1995;
Ullrich and Clark, 1999)
moderated ductile deformation related to batholith emplace-
ment, as suggested for other ductile shear zones associated
with high-level intrusions now exposed in the Early Creta-
ceous magmatic arc of northern Chile (e.g., Grocott et al.,
1993; Wilson et al., 2000).
Mineralization and Alteration
Ore occurrences
In the Punta del Cobre belt, copper ore occurs as massive
veins (Fig. 5b), in the matrix of hydrothermal breccias, as dis-
continuous veinlets or stringers in the altered host rocks (Fig.
5c) or superposed on massive magnetite replacement bodies
(Fig. 5d), and as replacements and pore infilling of bodies
roughly concordant with stratification (mantos, Fig. 5e). Larger
orebodies are commonly located where northwest- to north-
northwest–trending faults intersect the contact between the
massive volcanic rocks of the Geraldo-Negro Member and the
overlying volcaniclastic Algarrobos Member (Figs. 3, 4, 6, and 7).
1803
1804 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

Regional stratigraphy Lithology Main alteration assemblages

Limestone and volcani-

CHAÑARCILLO GROUP clastic rocks

Volcaniclastic breccia and Locally horizons of red chert

conglomerate, siltstone,
and chert ±magnetite
Algarrobos Member

Upper Lavas Altered massive volcanic

up to 45 m rocks and volcanic breccia
in volcaniclastic sediments

Trinidad Siltstone
up to 60 m
PUNTA DEL COBRE FORMATION
Chlorite-carbonate ±sericite
±hematite alteration
Predominantly red and
green chert, siltstone and
tuffaceous rocks

Basal Breccia Red sedimentary breccia, Chlorite and carbonate alteration,

in places conglomeratic,
up to 25 m with sandy interdigitations plus hematite and/or magnetite

Albite-chlorite ±calcite ±quartz

Altered massive volcanic

Meléndez Dacites rocks of originally dacitic
Geraldo-Negro Member

up to >200 m composition K-feldspar-chlorite/biotite

±calcite ±quartz

Albite-quartz-biotite/chlorite

Biotite-quartz-K-feldspar/albite ±chlorite
Lower Andesites Altered massive volcanic
>300 m rocks of originally andesitic
composition
Fracture-controlled amphibole

FIG. 4. Schematic lithostratigraphic column of the Punta del Cobre Formation and vertical distribution of the main al-
teration mineral assemblages in the Punta del Cobre district.

In the Punta del Cobre district, sensu stricto, concordant
stratiform bodies are hosted mainly by the Basal Breccia that
overlies the Meléndez Dacites. Subordinately, they occur also
replacing small lenses of clastic sediments within or brec-
ciated tops of volcanic flows. The mantos are commonly
underlain by veins or elongated breccia bodies. The latter
may split up into veins at depth. The subvertical orebodies,
which constitute the main portion of the mineralization, are
emplaced along the northwest- to north-northwest–trending
faults and are mainly confined to the volcanic Geraldo-Negro

FIG. 5. (a). Outcrop of the Candelaria shear zone, which is a north-northeast–trending, on average 50° west-dipping zone
of intense foliated and K-metasomatized rocks. (b). North-northwest–trending vein of massive chalcopyrite plus minor pyrite
in the Candelaria south pit. (c). Stringers of chalcopyrite-pyrite in intensely iron-metasomatized volcanic or volcaniclastic
rocks, Candelaria north pit. (d). Massive magnetite with superposed amphibole and chalcopyrite-pyrite, Candelaria south pit.
(e). Manto ore hosted in the lower part of the Basal Breccia at the Carola mine. (f). Chalcopyrite-pyrite veinlet cuts mag-
netite replacements, illustrating that the iron oxide formation preceded sulfide mineralization, Candelaria orebody. (g). Chal-
copyrite-pyrite associated with amphibole cut and use postmagnetite albite veinlets, Candelaria orebody. (h) Amphibole con-
taining interstitial chalcopyrite and small crosscutting chalcopyrite veinlets in previously K-metasomatized (K feldspar) rock.
(i) Pyrite-chalcopyrite and K feldspar cut magnetite and the superposed pervasive amphibole alteration, Candelaria orebody.
(j). Magnetite with superposed amphibole alteration both cut by a quartz plus K feldspar veinlet that was later used by chal-
copyrite-pyrite; K feldspar commonly also uses the earlier quartz veinlets. (k) Epidote-pyrite cutting potassium-metasoma-
tized (K feldspar) rock; the epidote-pyrite veinlet was later used by amphibole plus minor chalcopyrite; note the small am-
phibole veinlet that cuts the epidote-pyrite alteration. (l) Chalcopyrite-pyrite cutting an anhydrite veinlet. (m) Green
biotite-quartz-magnetite alteration at Candelaria; chalcopyrite occurs similarly associated with green biotite. (n). Early spec-
ular hematite (hmI) from the Carola mine. (o) Pseudomorphic replacement of early specularite (hmI) by magnetite
(“mushketovite”), relics of the original hematite are locally preserved. (p). Magnetite replacing and overgrowing hematite
(hmI) during the main iron oxide mineralization. (q). Pyrrhotite as infilling between pyrite, chalcopyrite occurs in fractures
of pyrite. (r). Late hematite (hmII) and martitized magnetite.

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 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE 1805

a) b) c)

dike

shear zone

d) e) f)

cpy-py

mt
mt
1 cm

1 cm
mt plus cpy-py

g) h) i)
ab
amph

kspar amph
amph-cpy-py kspar
cpy
py-cpy

mt

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

j) k) l)
amph cuts epi-py anh
anh py
epi-py
kspar
mt
kspar mt cut by anh
qtz +cpy-py amph

amph cpy-py
cpy 1 cm
1 cm 1 cm

m) n) o)
py hm I

hm I
qtz mt cpy mt
mushketovite
bio

1 µm 1 mm 1 µm

cpy
p) q) r)
py

mt po mt
hm I
hm II
mt cpy

FIG. 6. Schematic west-southwest–east-northeast

1 µm section through the Candelaria-Punta
1 mm
del Cobre area. Orebodies at 1 µm
Punta del Cobre are projected and are not to scale. The location of the cross section is shown in Figure 2.

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 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE
%) and biotite-quartz-magnetite plus sodic plagioclase and/or
K feldspar in the Lower Andesites show a strong spatial rela-
tionship with ore. Potassic assemblages pass at shallower lev-
els into sodic assemblages of albite-chlorite ± calcite ± quartz
(with Na2O up to 10 wt %). Sodium metasomatized rocks are
considered to represent a peripheral part of the hydrothermal
system. However, there is also ore in albitized rocks without
evidence of related potassic alteration, e.g., in parts of the So-
cavón Rampa, Resguardo, and Mantos de Cobre mines (Fig.
7). Sodic alteration is best developed in the Meléndez Dacites
and particularly in the upper part of the lava dome south of
Quebrada Meléndez and north of the Manto Verde mine. In-
tensity of carbonatization and chloritization tends to increase
higher in the stratigraphic section, i.e., toward the volcanic-
sedimentary rock contact and beyond, whereas the generally
weak to moderate developed silicification diminishes. Chlo-
rite-calcite ± hematite assemblages are typically found in the
sedimentary rocks of the Basal Breccia and the Trinidad Silt-
stone and the overlying barren lavas and volcanic breccia of
the Upper Lavas (Figs. 4 and 7).
Dacite porphyry dikes are affected by various types of hy-
drothermal alteration. At Candelaria, these dikes commonly
show sodic (albite) or potassic (K feldspar) alteration deeper
in the section, and a sodium or potassium metasomatized core
in an envelope of scapolite-garnet-pyroxene ± magnetite en-
doskarn with or without minor chalcopyrite-pyrite in the
upper part. Dacite dikes in the Chañarcillo Group above the
Candelaria orebody and in a similar level at Quebrada El
Buitre are affected by sodic-calcic alteration. In the Punta del
Cobre district, the dacite porphyries are intensely sodium or
potassium metasomatized (e.g., the Trinidad and Carola
mines) and, locally, host a sulfide-bearing stockwork (Marschik
and Fontboté, 1996). Postore lamprophyric dikes that used
similar tectonic structures as the Cu mineralization in the
Punta del Cobre district are commonly affected by carbonati-
zation and chloritization.
Extensive areas of sodic or sodic-calcic alteration occur in
plutonic, subvolcanic or volcanic, and sedimentary rocks along
the eastern margin of the Copiapó batholith (Fig. 8). Sodic al-
teration of igneous rocks commonly results in strong albitiza-
tion, which leaves a bleached white- or light gray-colored
rock. It is particularly well developed south and southwest of
the Candelaria tailings pond. Locally observed albite-amphi-
bole ± minor epidote assemblages may be caused by super-
position of calcic amphibole on previous albitization or alter-
natively by a different sodic-calcic alteration event similar to
that described by Dilles and Einaudi (1992) in the Ann Mason
porphyry system. An early pervasive albitization that pre-
ceded potassic alteration is recognized in the Punta del Cobre
district (Marschik and Fontboté, 1996). Andesitic host rocks
at Candelaria were also affected by pervasive sodic prior to
pervasive potassic alteration and mineralization (spilitization
of Ullrich and Clark, 1999). We correlate this early albitiza-
tion with the albitization found in igneous and sedimentary
rocks west and southwest of the Candelaria deposit.
Voluminous sodic scapolite-rich assemblages developed in
rocks of the Abundancia Formation around Candelaria. Sodic
scapolite commonly is associated with calcic amphibole
and/or pyroxene, ± minor epidote ± andraditic garnet but
may occur without significant amounts of these calc-silicates.
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1807
1807
These scapolite-rich beds may represent metamorphosed
evaporitic horizons that are described to occur in the Lower
Cretaceous rocks in the area (Segerstrom, 1962; Hopper and
Correa, 2000).
Albitization west and southwest of Candelaria is locally as-
sociated with minor disseminations of pyrite ± trace chal-
copyrite and/or veinlets and disseminations of hematite,
whereas rocks affected by scapolite ± amphibole and/or py-
roxene alteration may locally host small magnetite ± chal-
copyrite-pyrite mantos (e.g., the El Bronce mine; Díaz, 1990)
or contain traces of pyrite ± chalcopyrite, commonly in vein-
lets. Albitization occurs as discordant alteration within the
district (e.g., Quebrada, Meléndez; southwest of Candelaria;
at the junction of Quebrada Nantoco and Quebrada Los
Toros). In contrast, scapolite is largely confined to the layered
rocks of the Chañarcillo Group and the uppermost part of the
Punta del Cobre Formation near the batholith contact. It is
found also in veinlets, commonly together with amphibole, in
the altered margins of the batholith.
Thermal contact metamorphism caused mineralogical
changes without significant modification of the original geo-
chemical composition in the affected andesitic volcanic rocks
adjacent to the batholith contact. Calcic amphibole-rich as-
semblages developed in volcanic rocks close to the batholith
contact grading into epidote-chlorite-rich assemblages far-
ther outboard to the east (Marschik and Fontboté, 1996).
These contact metamorphic assemblages locally grade into
hydrothermal assemblages of the alkali metasomatized rocks
that in places host the ore deposits.
Ore mineralogy
The ore consists essentially of magnetite and/or hematite,
chalcopyrite, and pyrite, with local pyrrhotite, sphalerite,
trace quantities of molybdenite, and arsenopyrite (see below
and Fig. 9). Native gold occurs mainly as micron-sized inclu-
sions in chalcopyrite. Ryan et al. (1995) described gold-filling
microfractures in pyrite and Hopf (1990) an Hg-Au-Ag alloy.
Minerals in the poorly developed supergene oxidation and
enrichment zones include malachite, chrysocolla, massive and
sooty chalcocite, and covellite (Sillitoe and Clark, 1969).
Gangue mineralogy consists predominantly of quartz and an-
hydrite at Candelaria and calcite and/or quartz at Punta del
Cobre. Tourmaline and traces of fluorite occur locally (Hopf,
1990). The Candelaria, Carola, and Trinidad deposits locally
contain several hundreds parts per million of light rare earth
elements (Fig. 10, Table 3; Marschik et al., 2000). Allanite is
the only rare earth element-bearing mineral identified under
the microscope so far. A detailed description of the hypogene
ore minerals and their distribution is given in Hopf (1990)
and Ryan et al. (1995).
Paragenetic sequence
The paragenetic sequences in the Candelaria deposit and in
the Punta del Cobre district are similar (Fig. 11). Differences
between the deposits arise from their relative position within
the hydrothermal system, as detailed below.
Intense iron metasomatism accompanied by early potassic
alteration and silicification postdates large-scale early perva-
sive albitization. Both Ti-rich brown (TiO2 >2.0 wt %) and
green hydrothermal biotite (TiO2 <1.8 wt %) are associated
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 TABLE 2. Main Alteration Types and Their Occurrences

1808
Spatially Typical
Alteration Mineral Relative associated Relative time whole-rock
type assemblages1 Style Host rocks Location position2 mineralization relationship analysis3 Comments

Na Ab or Na plag Commonly Volcanic, Upper parts at P. del Peripheral None to strong Earliest Na2O up to 10 wt %; Discordant; there are
(±chl±cte±qtz) pervasive volcaniclastic, Cobre (e.g., Socavón hydrothermal K and Ca low (<1-2 two sodic alteration
and intrusive Rampa), Trinidad alteration wt %); elevated CaO events at and near
rocks area, Q. Meléndez, recognized and L.O.I. values Candelaria
Ladrillos district, at indicate carbonatiza-
the batholith margin tion; high MgO, low
W and SW of CaO values indicate
Candelaria chloritization

Na plag-qtz-bio Pervasive Volcanic rocks Beneath Candelaria; Peripheral None to trace Na2O (up to 7 wt %)
±amph (±kspar) deeper parts of P. > K2O (2-3 wt %);
del Cobre CaO and MgO values
about the same (2.5-4
wt %); L.O.I. low
(<1 wt %)

K Bio ± kspar- Commonly Volcaniclastic Candelaria; lower to Internal, Strong Post-Na pre-Ca K2O up to 11 wt %; Discordant; more

MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

qtz-mt pervasive; and volcanic intermediate parts at intermediate associated with Na2O and CaO low than one event
locally rocks P. del Cobre (e.g., levels main Fe oxide (<1-2 wt %)
veinlets (e.g., Santos, Carola) formation;
Candelaria) syn-Ca(?)
1808

Kspar-bio/chl Pervasive Volcanic rocks Intermediate parts at Internal, Strong Post early Na; K2O high (4-6 wt %)
±qtz ±cte P. del Cobre intermediate pre-Ca; syn-Ca and low Na2O (<1
(e.g., Carola) levels wt %); MgO high
(2-4 wt %; chlorite);
CaO and L.O.I. low
(<1-2 wt %); in case of
carbonatization higher
CaO and L.O.I.

Ca Amphibole Veins, veinlets, Volcanic, Candelaria; lower parts Internal Commonly Late In igneous rocks: CaO Not always associated
and pervasive volcaniclastic, at Punta del Cobre strong and MgO high and with mineralization;
carbonate, and (e.g., Santos, Carola) about the same (5-9 wt typically present as
intrusive rocks %); Na2O and K2O veinlets in the P. del
low (<1-3 wt %) Cobre district

Ca-K Amph-bio ±qtz Veinlets, Volcaniclastic Candelaria orebody; Internal Strong CaO and K2O high In general Ca
±kspar ±epi pervasive and volcanic deeper levels at P. (4-5 wt %); Na2O low assemblages typically
rocks del Cobre (e.g., (<2 wt %) overprint potassic
Santos) assemblages

Na-Ca Sodic scap Pervasive, (Volcani)clastic, Above Candelaria, Peripheral None to weak Pre- or syn-peak Concordant implying
± px ± amph subordinate intrusive and regional scale to distal contact stratigraphic control;
± epi veinlets marly rocks alteration in Ka Fm. metamorphism; restricted to the
between Q. this event conatct aureole
Alcaparrosa and Q. postdates main
Nantoco Fe metasomatism
at Candelaria
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
TABLE 2. (Cont.)

Spatially Typical
Alteration Mineral Relative associated Relative time whole-rock
type assemblages1 Style Host rocks Location position2 mineralization relationship analysis3 Comments

ab-amph ± epi Pervasive Igneous rocks At the batholith Peripheral None to trace Na2O (6-9 wt %) > Discordant,
(± sodic scap albitization; margin W of to distal CaO (1.5-2.5 wt %); transitional to the
± chl ± sericite) fracture Candelaria K2O > 1 wt % almost pure
controlled and albitization SW of
disseminated Candelaria; possibly a
amphibole result of superposition

CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE

of early albitization
and late amph
alteration or caused
by a sodic-calcic
event coeval with the
scap-px ±amph
formation above
Candelaria

Upper Amph ±bio Pervasive Volcaniclastic Near the batholith Distal None Na2O (5-8 wt %) ≥ Variable proportions
greenschist ±chl ±epi and volcanic contact; Punta Negra; CaO (3-5 wt %) MgO of amph and bio;
facies ±sericite rocks in places at Q. La high (up to 7 wt %); commonly without
Pepita; near Atacama- K2O variable (up to significant
Kozan prospect; 3 wt %) metasomatic changes
Upper Lavas at in host-rock
Candelaria composition
1809

Lower Epi-chl-cte Pervasive Volcanic and Q. Nantoco, Q. Los Distal None CaO 8-10 wt %; Without metasomatic
greenschist ±qtz ± amph volcaniclastic Toros, Q Rivera Na2O 3-4 wt %; changes in rock
facies rocks and W of it K2O 1-3 wt % composition
(propylitic
alteration)

1 Abbreviations: ab = albite, amph = amphibole, bio = biotite, chl = chlorite, cte = calcite, epi = epidote, kspar = K feldspar, plag = plagioclase, px = pyroxene, qtz = quartz, scap = scapolite
Ka Fm. = Abundancia Formation, L.O.I. = loss of ignition Q. = Quebrada (valley or gorge)
2 Position relative to a postulated center of the ore system
3 Typical values of whole-rock analysis strongly depend on Fe contents

Combined Ca-K or Na-Ca alteration mineral assemblages, in places, may be the result of superposition of Ca on preexisting K or Na alteration
Data based on Marschik and Fontboté (1996)

1809
1810 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

W E
El Bronce deposit

750 m

700 m
scap ±gt

650 m
to scale 0 50
m

Candelaria deposit

600 m

scap ±gt ±px ±Ca amph kspar or Na plag-bio-Ca amph

500 m
bio-qtz-alm gt ±cord
400 m commonly plus Ca amph

300 m
bio-qtz-mt±kspar plus abundant Ca amph
200 m Na plag-qtz-bio-mt
±kspar ± minor Ca amph

100 m

sea level
to scale 0 100
Orebody, 0.4 % Cu contour
m

Punta del Cobre district

Resguardo mine Carola mine

Socavón Rampa mine
800 m
Hematite associated with ore

ab-chl-cte ±qtz chl-cte-hm Magnetite-rich ore

600 m
kspar-chl/bio ±cte ±qtz
Massive magnetite
400 m
Santos mine

200 m
bio-qtz + Na plag or kspar
mt hm
sea level
not to scale Magnetite-hematite predominance
Ca-amph overprint
FIG. 7. Distribution of iron oxide minerals and main alteration types in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre iron oxide Cu-
Au(-Zn-Ag) deposits. Sections through the El Bronce deposit (after Díaz, 1990), the Candelaria deposit (after Martin et al.,
1997), and the Punta del Cobre district (modified from Flores, 1997) are shown. The El Bronce deposit was located above
the Candelaria deposit to the west of the Bronce fault (Fig. 2). Abbreviations are given in Table 2.

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 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE 1811

CSZ Candelaria shear zone 70°15' W Alteration type (at the surface)
Co
pia
FSZ Florida shear zone pó
rive
Na or Na-Ca alteration
r
Paipote smelter
OSZ Ojancos shear zone Pervasive albitization
Punta Negra
(±chlorite ±calcite ±quartz)
Albite or Na-plagioclase ±amphibole
Viñita Azul ±epidote ±minor scapolite
Q. Florida Na-scapolite ±pyroxene ±amphibole skarn
(±garnetite horizons)
K or Ca-K alteration
FSZ
Biotite and/or K-feldspar
Q. Meléndez
(±chlorite ±calcite ±quartz)
Calcic-potassic
(mainly Ca-amphibole ±epidote, biotite, K-feldspar)

Punta del Cobre district

Tierra Amarilla Biotite ±Ca-amphibole
(foliated rocks)
Thermal contact metamorphic alteration

27°30' S Garnet ±pyroxene ±scapolite skarn

La Candelaria

Ca-amphibole ±biotite

OSZ Epidote-chlorite ±calcite

CSZ

Nantoco

Q. Nantoco

Q. Las Pintadas
Q. Los Algarrobos
Q. Los Toros

0 2
N
Las Pintadas km

FIG. 8. Surface distribution of main alteration mineral assemblages in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre area. See geologic
map in Figure 2 for stratigraphic units.

with widespread pervasive magnetite alteration. Green-col-
ored biotite is commonly the biotite variety that occurs in fo-
liated (sheared) domains of the Candelaria deposit (Fig 5 a
and m). In places, sheared massive green biotite cuts dis-
placed fragments of massive magnetite replacements.
Iron metasomatism resulted in the formation of specular
hematite (hm I, Fig. 9), mainly in dilatational fractures and
open spaces (Fig. 5n), and coevally, of massive magnetite re-
placement bodies during an early mineralization stage. Sub-
sequent pseudomorphic replacement of fracture-controlled
specularite (hm I) by magnetite (“mushketovite;” Ramdohr,
1980) and new formation of magnetite (mt I) records a shift
toward more reduced conditions and/or higher temperatures
(Figs. 5o and p, and 9). The main copper mineralization oc-
curred after the early main iron oxide mineralization. Chal-
copyrite ± pyrite crosscutting magnetite or early specularite
with interstitial chalcopyrite ± pyrite are typically observed in
the deposits of the Punta del Cobre belt (Fig. 5f). The exis-
tence of two temporally distinct major hydrothermal stages is
demonstrated by the occurrence of physically separated veins
of massive magnetite ± hematite without sulfides and massive
chalcopyrite-pyrite without iron oxides, which in places occur
in contact with each other (e.g., in the Carola mine).
Chalcopyrite-pyrite texturally postdate a widespread albite,
a calcic-amphibole, and a quartz ± K feldspar veining event at
Candelaria. In the northern part of the Candelaria orebody,
albite veinlets, occasionally plus minor scapolite, cut the early
biotite-quartz-magnetite alteration. These albite veinlets in
turn are cut and used by main copper mineralization. Albite
veining in the Candelaria orebody is interpreted to occur co-
eval with sodic scapolite alteration in the overlying Abundan-
cia Formation. Calcic-amphibole may largely overlap with the
main-stage chalcopyrite-pyrite. Calcic amphibole associated
with chalcopyrite-pyrite cutting or using previously formed
albite veinlets is common (Fig. 5g). Similarly, pervasive K
feldspar ± albite alteration is cut by calcic amphibole ± epi-
dote. The association of calcic amphibole with interstitial
chalcopyrite-pyrite and pre- or post-amphibole K feldspar re-
placements or veinlets is common (Fig. 5h and i). Crosscut-
ting relationships in a few places indicate that there are at

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1812 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

Iron Oxide Stage Sulfide Stage Late

Stage
CANDELARIA
Loc
Chalcopyrite
Gold V V
Hematite I P+V II
Magnetite I II
P Loc
Sphalerite
V Loc
Pyrite I II
Loc
Pyrrhotite
TEN
Molybdenite P
V
Albite P V+P V V
K-feldspar V+P

Widespread scapolite followed

by andraditic garnet formation
above the Candelaria orebody
Ca-amphibole Pervasive biotitization
Biotite V V
V V V
Quartz
Pervasive silicification
Grunerite-cummingtonite
Cordierite
Almandine-rich garnet
Epidote
Chlorite ?
Tourmaline V
Anhydrite V
Calcite

Punta del Cobre

Loc
Chalcopyrite
Gold V
Hematite I V+P II
Magnetite Upper part I TEN
Sphalerite
Loc
Pyrite P I II
Albite
P TEN
K-feldspar
Lower part
Ca-amphibole
Lower part TEN
Biotite
V
Quartz P
Chlorite Upper part
Tourmaline ?
P+V
Calcite

Ductile/brittle Time
Uplift Brittle
at Candelaria
FIG. 9. Paragenetic sequences of main ore, alteration, and gangue minerals in the Candelaria orebody and the Punta del
Cobre district. Peak contact metamorphic calc-silicate minerals, occurring outside the orebody, are not represented in this
Figure (see text). The thickness of the lines roughly represents the relative abundance of the particular mineral but has no
quantitative implications regarding other mineral species. The most relevant distinguishable veining events at Candelaria are
shown. Peak contact metamorphism at Candelaria, indicated by the gray shaded field, is represented by the widespread sodic
scapolite-pyroxene-andraditic garnet alteration above the orebody (see also Fig. 8). Peak contact metamorphism occurred at
the end of the early potassic alteration, i.e., after the biotite-quartz-magnetite alteration. It was about the time at which de-
formation style changed from ductile-brittle to brittle at Candelaria and the available ages and the geologic context suggest
that this was broadly coeval with regional uplift. The various hematite, magnetite, and pyrite generations mentioned in the
text are indicated (see also Fig. 3). Abbreviations: P = pervasive alteration, TEN = tentatively, V = veinlets, ? = uncertain.

least two generations of calcic amphibole. Chalcopyrite of one
and the same event may have various types of associated alter-
ation minerals, depending on the position within the hydro-
thermal system. Veinlets of quartz-mushketovite with inter-
stitial pyrite-chalcopyrite, veinlets of quartz ± K feldspar ±
chalcopyrite-pyrite locally plus trace molybdenite cutting cal-
cic amphibole (Fig. 5i), veinlets of chalcopyrite-pyrite with
quartz-chlorite plus biotite cutting biotitized rocks, veinlets of
anhydrite-chalcopyrite, veinlets of calcic amphibole ± chal-
copyrite cutting and using epidote ± pyrite veinlets (Fig. 5j),
veinlets of chalcopyrite ± pyrite ± sphalerite cutting anhydrite
(Fig. 5k; see below), among others, are observed at Candelaria.
Pyrite accompanies chalcopyrite but chalcopyrite as infill-
ing in skeletal and cataclastic pyrite and other textural obser-
vations suggest that pyrite (py I) began to form earlier than
chalcopyrite. A later minor phase of pyrite (py II) veinlets cut
massive chalcopyrite veins. The fact that pyrrhotite com-
monly but not exclusively predates chalcopyrite, crosscutting
relationships and other textural evidence suggest that pyrrhotite
is roughly contemporaneous with the first stage of main chal-
copyrite formation (Fig. 5q; see also Hopf, 1990; Ryan et al.,
1995; Ullrich and Clark, 1999). Anhydrite cuts and is cut by
chalcopyrite and/or pyrite and, in some instances, occurs inter-
grown with chalcopyrite (Fig. 5k). Post-anhydrite chalcopyrite

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 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE
1000
Candelaria mine
100
10
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
1000
Carola mine
100
10
1 part of the Chañarcillo Group is correlated with the barren
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
1000
Socavón Rampa-Trinidad mines
100
10
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
FIG. 10. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element pattern of rocks from
the Candelaria, Carola, and Socavón Rampa-Trinidad mines, illustrating local
enrichments in light rare earth elements that occur with these deposits. Ref-
erence chondrite of Nakamura (1974).
locally contains sphalerite inclusions. There is a spatial associ-
ation of sphalerite with epidote-allanite-chalcopyrite-pyrite-
anhydrite at Candelaria.
Gold is present native as inclusions mainly in chalcopyrite
and pyrite (Hopf, 1990; Ryan et al., 1995). The exact parage-
netic position of molybdenite is poorly constrained due to its
scarcity. Ullrich and Clark (1999) place the formation of
molybdenite at the beginning of the main copper mineraliza-
tion. In the few molybdenite-bearing samples available for
this study, molybdenite appears to postdate calcic-amphibole
and possibly occurs at the end of the main chalcopyrite
formation. A textural relationship between anhydrite and
molybdenite has not been observed. Apatite occurs as
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1813
rosettes of prismatic needles of about 2 mm intergrown with
PC 1316
PC 1317
quartz at the Carola mine (Hopf, 1990) and is also common at
PC 1336 Candelaria (Ryan et al., 1995). According to Hopf (1990), ap-
PC 1345 atite formed after tourmaline.
PC 1347
PC 1421
Hypogene metallic mineralization at a district scale ended
PC 1464 with the deposition of hematite (hm II) and the martitization
PC 1479 of the previously formed magnetite (mt I; Fig. 5r). The late
PC 1516
hematite (hm II) event may correlate with specularite ± calcite
veins recognized at a regional scale, which locally contain traces
of magnetite, pyrite, and rarely chalcopyrite. Late calcite
veins and veinlets cut the alteration and veinlet types previ-
ously mentioned. However, there are a few examples in which
chalcopyrite and pyrite postdate calcite veining (e.g., in the
upper part of the Carola mine). Minor chabazite and phillip-
site have been microscopically identified in late veinlets. Peak
PC 148
PC 165
of the contact metamorphic calc-silicate alteration occurs
PC 188 after the iron oxide formation and before the main Cu min-
PC 198 eralization, because contact metamorphic andraditic garnet
PC 207 postdates sodic scapolite, which cuts biotite hornfelses and bi-
PC 208
PC 217 otitized volcanic rocks of the Upper Lavas on top of the Can-
PC 219 delaria orebody. Andraditic garnet in turn is cut by calcic-am-
PC 221 phibole and by pyrite ± chalcopyrite veinlets that are
correlated with the main mineralization stage (see above in
the alteration section). The formation of biotite hornfels in
the upper part of the Punta del Cobre Formation and lower
brown biotite-almandine ± cordierite alteration in the
Trinidad Siltstone and brown biotite-quartz-magnetite in the
volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks at Candelaria.
PC 620
PC 704 Metal and gangue mineral zonation
PC 834
PC 1356 A marked zonation is observed in the magnetite-hematite
distribution at a district scale and within the ore deposits. De-
posits lying closer to the batholith contact tend to have mag-
netite rather than hematite, even in relatively high strati-
graphic positions (e.g., El Bronce or Las Pintadas, both
hosted in rocks assigned to the Abundancia Formation). Vir-
tually all of the early specularite (hm I) at Candelaria is now
transformed into mushketovite (mt I). Early specular hematite
(hm I) is preserved in the upper parts of the Carola and So-
cavón Rampa mines, i.e., in the marginal parts of the hydro-
thermal system. Second-generation hematite (hm II) and the
martitization of the previously formed magnetite (mt I) can
be best observed in the Punta del Cobre district (Fig. 5r). At
Candelaria, veinlets of late specular hematite (hm II), with as-
sociated ± minor pyrite-chalcopyrite, are rare and martitiza-
tion of magnetite is uncommon. Pyrrhotite is restricted to the
upper central part of the northern Candelaria orebody (Ryan
et al., 1995) and occurs locally in the Carola mine (Hopf,
1990).
A redox boundary is observed at the upper limit of the ore
system in the Punta del Cobre district, represented by ore
mantos hosted in the Basal Breccia. The lower and internal
parts of the mantos show the same greenish color as the un-
derlying alkali metasomatized and chloritized volcanic rocks,
but toward the top and margins, i.e., approaching the oxidized
continental rocks of the Basal Breccia, the color changes to
red due to an increase of hypogene hematite.
In general, magnetite tends to be associated with potas-
sic assemblages, whereas hematite is common in sodium
1813
1814 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

TABLE 3. Whole-Rock Analysis of Ore Samples from Selected Ore Deposits of the Punta del Cobre Belt

PC 1336 PC 1345 PC 188 PC 198 PC 219 PC 704 PC 834 PC 1356

Sample Candelaria Candelaria Carola Carola Carola Socavón Rampa Socavón Rampa Trinidad
Location Trinidad Algarrobos Meléndez Meléndez Meléndez Meléndez Meléndez Meléndez
Unit Siltstone Member Dacites Dacites Dacites Dacites Dacites Dacites
Alteration Ca-K K K K-Na K Carbonate K K

SiO2 41.69 45.02 54.05 56.41 46.05 51.21 46.71 53.33

TiO2 0.62 0.52 0.53 0.51 0.46 0.51 0.72 0.46
Al2O3 12.00 11.62 12.68 13.73 11.01 8.59 15.02 12.48
Fe2O3* 21.98 30.10 15.19 11.36 19.40 21.14 15.81 17.61
MnO 0.16 0.07 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.09
MgO 6.36 2.14 2.29 2.58 6.21 4.09 2.76 4.41
CaO 4.39 1.01 0.29 1.13 1.34 2.91 1.28 1.05
Na2O 0.17 0.09 0.06 3.10 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00
K2O 4.51 7.64 8.54 4.42 4.98 0.08 7.68 6.09
P2O5 0.47 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.15 0.23 0.15 0.14
L.O.I. 0.91 0.25 2.52 3.29 6.06 7.84 4.74 3.29
Total 93.25 98.56 96.31 96.77 95.76 96.72 95.01 98.95

Au (ppb) 474 78 199 152 686 480 499 15

ppm
Ag 10.9 <0.4 1 0.9 2.6 1.9 1.4 <0.4
As 11 5.8 18 10 35.2 46.1 3105 12.4
Ba 400 1800 930 1200 980 110 1200 1900
Br <0.5 <0.5 4.6 3.6 4 2 1.6 <0.5
Cd 0.9 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.8
Co 55 62 37 45 114 54 50 70
Cr 37 143 <5 <5 29 155 149 11
Cs 5 1 2 2 6 <1 2 2
Cu 26614 3787 13104 5059 16249 17845 17518 2316
Hf 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 4
Hg <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Mn 1268 606 406 539 763 950 802 644
Mo <1 <1 3 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Ni 63 49 14 14 63 47 17 71
Pb 6 17 6 <5 12 <5 5 7
Rb 136 175 163 88 111 <15 175 91
Sb 3 0.9 2 1.5 2.9 3.9 2.4 1.6
Sc 13 11.4 8 8 12.6 9.1 14.7 6
Se <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3 <3
Sr 105 162 42 85 71 17 42 264
Ta <0.5 0.9 0.8 1.1 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Tb <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.7
Th 2.5 3.2 4.4 4.9 6.8 3.8 4.2 5.2
U 3 <0.5 4.3 3.6 2.4 2.7 1 2.4
V 137 123 78 51 94 113 105 91
Y 20 8 10 12 11 12 7 13
Zn 61 31 36 28 101 39 34 47

La 19.7 78.1 3.9 2.1 69.8 6.6 11 115.1

Ce 35.7 160.1 9.1 5.3 134 12.9 25.2 196.7
Pr 3.2 13.8 1.2 <1 10.6 1.4 2.4 14.8
Nd 13.9 46.8 5 3.8 33.4 6.6 10.1 57.1
Sm 2.8 5.8 1.3 1.2 4.8 1.9 2.1 6.4
Eu 0.57 1.02 0.35 0.28 0.69 0.56 0.42 1.15
Gd 1.6 3 1.2 1.4 2.2 1.6 1.3 2.9
Dy 2.1 2.8 1.5 1.7 1.8 2 1.4 1.9
Ho 0.46 0.61 0.41 0.46 0.4 0.36 0.38 0.41
Er 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.6 1.1 1.1 1.1 <0.1
Tm 0.24 0.25 0.24 0.27 0.18 0.17 0.18 0.17
Yb 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.9 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.1
Lu 0.26 0.24 0.31 0.34 0.17 0.17 0.21 0.17

*Total iron as Fe2O3

Elements were analyzed by a combination of XRF, INAA, and ICP-AES methods
Low totals are due to losses of sulfur and/or CO2

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1814

 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE
chalcopyrite
Las Pintadas chalcopyrite-pyrite
pyrite
pyrrhotite
El Bronce
sphalerite
anhydrite
Socavón Rampa
Santos
Candelaria
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
δ34 S (permil)
FIG. 11. Sulfur isotope variations within selected deposits of the Punta del
Cobre belt. Sulfides from Candelaria show a δ34S range from 0.3 to 3.1 per
mil. Anhydrites have values between 14.5 and 17.5 per mil. Sulfides from all
other mines studied are similar to those from Candelaria. However, a ten-
dency toward lower δ34S values from the internal (Candelaria mine) via in-
termediate (Santos mine) to the external portions of the system (Socavón
Rampa mine) can be observed.
metasomatized rocks. These relationsips can be interpreted
in terms of more internal and high-temperature vs. external
and low-temperature portions of the ore-forming hydrother-
mal system. For example, the Socavón Rampa mine, which is
characterized by sodic rather than potassic assemblages, is es-
sentially devoid of magnetite, whereas hematite is widespread.
In contrast, the Trinidad mine, which constitutes the northern
continuation of the Socavón Rampa mine, has magnetite-rich
ore, including massive magnetite bodies (J. Ponce, pers. com-
mun., 1996), associated with potassic assemblages suggesting
that the deposit represents another mineralization center be-
tween the Santos mine to the north and the Carola mine to the
south. Within the Carola mine, massive magnetite bodies
occur only below mining level 10 (362 m a.s.l) in the western
part of the mine. In its eastern part, magnetite bodies are ab-
sent and the Cu/Fe is higher (Lino, 1984; Hopf, 1987).
The distributions of quartz and calcite are similar to those
of magnetite and hematite. In Candelaria and in deep parts of
the Punta del Cobre district, quartz veinlets are widespread
and silicification is common, whereas calcite occurs essen-
tially in thin veinlets. In contrast, calcite veins and veinlets are
abundant in the upper portions of the Punta del Cobre dis-
trict, where pervasive carbonate alteration is common. Anhy-
drite is confined to the lower part of Candelaria orebody and
locally occurs in the Trinidad and Carola mines.
At Candelaria, highest Cu-Au grades occur in the Trinidad
Siltstone in the uppermost part of the deposit, whereas most
of the ore is hosted in the volcaniclastic and volcanic rocks
below this horizon (Ryan et al., 1995). Gold concentrations
show a good positive correlation with copper contents
(Marschik et al., 2000). Gold grades in the deposits of the
Punta del Cobre district are variable and appear to be slightly
higher than at Candelaria (Table 3) and there may be a Cu/Au
fractionation at a district scale.
Local enrichments of Zn are recognized at the Carola and
Candelaria mines. At deep levels of the Carola mine (below
335 m a.s.l.), Zn grades may exceed 2 wt percent in some
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1815
1815
stopes (N. Pop, pers. commun., 1997). In the upper levels of
the Carola mine, sphalerite is virtually absent and massive ore
usually contains below 100 ppm Zn (Hopf 1987). At Cande-
laria, two horizons have been identified in which Zn contents
locally are about 1 wt percent (W. Martin, pers. commun.,
2000). These horizons occur roughly at the upper contact of
the Lower Andesites and at the lower contact of the Trinidad
Siltstone. Highest concentrations of light rare earth elements
occur locally near these same contacts (Marschik et al., 2000).
Sulfur Isotope Geochemistry
Sulfur isotope analyses on 47 samples from the Bronce (n =
2), Candelaria (n = 34), Las Pintadas (n = 1), Santos (n = 4),
and Socavón Rampa mines (n = 6) were carried out at the Sta-
ble Isotopes Laboratory of the University of Lausanne, using
an online elemental analyzer-continuous flow-isotope ratio
mass spectrometer and in the G.G. Hatch Isotope Laborato-
ries, University of Ottawa. Pyrrhotite, sphalerite, pyrite, an-
hydrite, and chalcopyrite that predates, is intergrown with,
and postdates anhydrite, were analyzed. These samples repre-
sent the most relevant paragenetic positions (see Fig. 9). The
δ34S values of chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and sphalerite
from the deposits lie between –0.7 and +3.1 per mil relative
to Cañon Diablo Troilite (CDT; Table 4, Fig. 11). Sulfides
from the Socavón Rampa mine have δ34SCDT values between
–0.7 and +0.5 per mil, and those from the Santos mine lie be-
tween –0.3 and +1.1 per mil. Sulfides from Candelaria have
δ34SCDT values of 0.3 and 3.1 per mil, whereas anhydrite
yielded values between 14.5 and 17.5 per mil. We could not
confirm relatively heavy values for sulfides reported by Ull-
rich and Clark (1999; up to 5.7‰ for the main-stage and
7.2‰ for the late-stage mineralization). A general shift to-
ward lower δ34SCDT values upsection in the Santos and So-
cavón Rampa mines is interpreted to reflect oxidation of the
ore fluid approaching the Basal Breccia (Marschik et al.,
1997a). This is in agreement with the abundance of magnetite
in the lower parts and the predominance of hematite in the
upper parts of the deposits of the Punta del Cobre district. A
similar trend is also observed on a district scale where there is
a general decrease in δ34SCDT values from Candelaria, via San-
tos toward the Socavón Rampa mine (Fig. 11).
Geochronology
40 39
The Ar/ Ar analyses on biotite and amphibole separates
from the Candelaria deposit were carried out by the
Geochronological Research Laboratory of the New Mexico
Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mex-
ico, United States, using the furnace incremental-heating
technique. These analyses were carried out to complement
previously reported data, which are incorporated in the dis-
cussion below. The analytical results are given in Table 5. An-
alytical methods and parameters are detailed in the Appendix.
Brown biotite (sample PC 99139) from the barren perva-
sive biotite-almandine-rich garnet ± cordierite alteration in
the tuffaceous rocks that correlate with the Trinidad Siltstone
has been analyzed. The age spectrum has two plateaus, one
formed by heating steps D to F with 74.7 percent of the gas re-
leased and another plateau from steps F to H with 61 percent
of the gas released (Fig. 12; Table 5). Each of the plateaus
would conform the definition of a plateau age of at least three
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 TABLE 4. Results of Sulfur Isotope Analysis

1816
Sample Mine Mineral Description Unit δ34S Sample Mine Mineral Description Unit δ34S
(CDT, ‰) (CDT, ‰)

PC 98038 Bronce Pyrite Pyrite-rich chalcopyrite- Abundancia 0.2 PC 1513 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-quartz- Lower 1.9
magnetite ore with Formation amphibole veinlet Andesites
associated with epidote
and scapolite
PC 98039 Bronce Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-rich Abundancia 0.0 PC 98009 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Massive chalcopyrite vein Lower 1.3
magnetite-pyrite ore Formation cut by pyrite veinlets Andesites
associated with epidote
and scapolite
PC 98150 Candelaria Anhydrite Anhydrite cut by Algarrobos 17.5 PC 98014 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-pyrite Lower 1.7
chalcopyrite Member? interstitial to quartz Andesites
PC 98195 Candelaria Anhydrite Barren anhydrite veinlet Algarrobos 14.6 PC 98106 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Massive chalcopyrite vein Algarrobos 2.0
cutting mineralized rock Member Member
PC 98196 Candelaria Anhydrite Anhydrite veinlet with Algarrobos 15.2 PC 98148 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-pyrite Algarrobos 1.6
clasts of chalcopyrite Member interstitial to quartz Member
PC 99044 Candelaria Anhydrite Anhydrite intergrown Lower 15.3 PC 98166 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Massive chalcopyrite vein Algarrobos 1.1
(cogenetic) with Andesites cut by pyrite veinlets Member
chalcopyrite
PC 99152 Candelaria Anhydrite Anhydrite cut by Algarrobos 14.5 PC 98193 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Volcaniclastic micro- Algarrobos 2.9
chalcopyrite Member conglomerate, patchy Member

MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

epidote, amphibole
veinlets, K-feldspar
envelops and replace-
ments, minor
chalcopyrite-pyrite
1816

PC 99158 Candelaria Anhydrite Anhydrite as breccia Lower 16.5 PC 98195 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite from Algarrobos 0.3
infill with minor pyrite Andesites andesitic wallrock Member
inclusions
PC 1318 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite associated Trinidad 2.9 PC 98202 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Massive pyrite- Algarrobos 1.0
amphibole-quartz plus Silstone chalcopyrite in the Member
minor brown-green biotite lowest part of the
Algarrobos Member
PC 1336 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite associated Trinidad 1.5 PC 99044 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite intergrown Lower 1.9
amphibole-epidote-K- Silstone (cogenetic) with Andesites?
feldspar-quartz anhydrite
PC 1466 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-pyrite-quartz Algarrobos 1.5 PC 99152 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-sphalerite Algarrobos 0.3
vein cutting foliated Member veinlet cutting anhydrite Member
biotitized rock
PC 1481 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Magnetite intergrown Lower 1.5 PC 98188 Candelaria Sphalerite Vein of pyrite-sphalerite- Algarrobos 3.1
with and cut by fine- Andesites anhydrite Member?
grained biotite(-quartz)
alteration and cut by
chalcopyrite, minor pyrite
PC 1513 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-quartz- Lower 1.9 PC 1331 Las Pintadas Chalcopyrite Magnetite-chalcopyrite Nantoco -0.3
amphibole veinlet Andesites associated with Formation
amphibole-epidote
PC 98009 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Massive chalcopyrite vein Lower 1.3 PC 635 Santos Chalcopyrite- Massive magnetite Lower 0.6
cut by pyrite veinlets Andesites pyrite replacements with Andesites
disseminated
chalcopyrite-pyrite
PC 98014 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-pyrite Lower 1.7 PC 641 Santos Chalcopyrite Stockwork of Lower 0.3
interstitial to quartz Andesites chalcopyrite-pyrite Andesites
PC 98106 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Massive chalcopyrite vein Algarrobos 2.0 PC 939 Santos Pyrite Pyrite(-chalcopyrite) vein Lower 1.1
Member with secondary Cu oxides Andesites
PC 98148 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-pyrite Algarrobos 1.6 PC 942 Santos Pyrite Layered chalcopyrite- Lower -0.3
interstitial to quartz Member pyrite in sedimentary Andesites
 TABLE 4. (Cont.)

Sample Mine Mineral Description Unit δ34S Sample Mine Mineral Description Unit δ34S
(CDT, ‰) (CDT, ‰)

lense within andesitic rock

PC 98166 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Massive chalcopyrite vein Algarrobos 1.1 PC 677 Socavón Chalcopyrite Patchy replacements of Basal Breccia/ -0.7
cut by pyrite veinlets Member Rampa chalcopyrite and pyrite Meléndez
Dacites contact
PC 98193 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Volcaniclastic micro- Algarrobos 2.9 PC 790 Socavón Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-pyrite vein Lower 0.5
conglomerate, patchy Member Rampa Andesites

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
epidote, amphibole
veinlets, K-feldspar
envelops and replacements,
minor chalcopyrite-pyrite
PC 98195 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite from Algarrobos 0.3 PC 795 Socavón Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-pyrite as Meléndez 0.4
andesitic wallrock Member Rampa breccia infill Dacites
PC 98202 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Massive pyrite- Algarrobos 1.0 PC 834 Socavón Chalcopyrite Pyrite-chalcopyrite- Basal Breccia 0.0
chalcopyrite in the Member Rampa specularite (hm I)
lowest part of the
Algarrobos Member
PC 99044 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite intergrown Lower 1.9 PC 678 Socavón Chalcopyrite Calcite centered pyrite- Basal Breccia/ -0.5
(cogenetic) with anhydrite Andesites? Rampa chalcopyrite veinlet Meléndez
Dacites contact
PC 99152 Candelaria Chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite-sphalerite Algarrobos 0.3 PC 795 Socavón Pyrite Chalcopyrite-pyrite as Meléndez 0.4
veinlet cutting anhydrite Member Rampa breccia infill Dacites
PC 99125 Candelaria Pyrrhotite Pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite Algarrobos 2.0
veinlet Member

1817
Apparent age (Ma) % Radiogenic Apparent age (Ma) % Radiogenic
Apparent age (Ma) % Radiogenic

90
100
110
120
130
140
40
60
80
100

90
100
110
120
130
140
40
80

0
90
100
110
120
130
140
40
60
80
100

20

0
0
B

750

D
750
C

1020
B C
850

850

10

10
10

D
D

920
920

20

20
20

E
1000

1080
E

30

30
30
1000

40

40
40

F
1075

50

50
50
MSWD = 0.9
116.51 ± 0.26
CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE

115.14 ±0.18
MSDW = 1.1

60

60
60
F

F
1075

1120
G
1110

Total fusion age = 118.40 ±1.5

Total fusion age = 114.90 ±0.54
70

70
70
Total fusion age = 115.85 ±0.54

Cumulative percentage 39Ar released

Cumulative percentage 39Ar released

Cumulative percentage 39Ar released

G
80

1200
116.6 ± 1.2

80
80

MSDW = 4.9**

I
1180

(b) Age spectrum of sample PC 99131 biotite

1160 H 1300
(a) Age spectrum of sample PC 99139 biotite

(c) Age spectrum of sample PC 98137 amphibole

90
G

90
90

spectrum of amphibole intergrown with chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite.

J
I

1400
1210J
H
1110 1180

1250

100
1

100
100

10

0.1
10

100
0.1

0.01
1000

K/Ca
1000

K/Ca K/Ca
1817

FIG. 12. The 40Ar/39Ar age spectra of alteration minerals from the Cande-

chalcopyrite ± pyrite veinlets and disseminations (see also Fig. 5m). (c). Age
drothermal biotite from the biotite-quartz-magnetite alteration that hosts
mandine-rich garnet ± cordierite alteration. (b). Age spectrum of green hy-
laria deposit. (a). Age spectrum of brown biotite from the barren biotite-al-
1818 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

TABLE 5. Results of 40Ar/39Ar Analysis

ID Temp 40Ar/39Ar 37Ar/39Ar 36Ar/39Ar 39Ar

K K/Ca 40Ar* 39Ar Age ±1σ
(°C) (×10–3) (×10–18 mol) (%) (%) (Ma) (Ma)

PC 99139, 3.69 mg biotite, J = 0.0039298, NM-131, Lab no. = 51807-01

A 650 12.53 0.0343 20.230 29.2 14.9 52.1 0.6 45.70 1.10
B 750 18.12 0.0089 7.357 71.1 57.2 87.9 2.1 109.48 0.55
C 850 17.66 0.0046 1.501 258.9 110.5 97.4 7.5 117.95 0.30
D 920 17.23 0.0024 0.666 610.6 217.0 98.7 20.2 116.74 0.23
E 1000 17.16 0.0017 0.535 876.8 307.8 98.9 38.4 116.51 0.23
F 1075 17.13 0.0024 0.542 2105.9 216.8 98.9 82.2 116.31 0.22
G 1110 17.04 0.0181 0.639 642.1 28.1 98.8 95.5 115.55 0.22
H 1180 17.38 0.1392 1.669 185.2 3.7 97.1 99.4 115.83 0.31
I 1210 17.78 0.2021 3.263 10.0 2.5 94.5 99.6 115.40 3.00
J 1250 18.08 0.4306 1.962 9.3 1.2 96.9 99.8 120.10 3.40
K 1300 18.48 0.2846 2.852 10.5 1.8 95.4 100.0 120.90 2.90
Total gas age n = 11 4809.5 189.4 115.85 0.541
Plateau MSWD = 0.9 n=3 steps D-F 1746.3 239.0 74.7 116.51 0.261

PC 99131, 4.60 mg biotite, J = 0.0039313, NM-131, Lab no. = 51809-01

A 650 16.63 0.0643 28.850 39.9 7.9 48.6 0.5 56.50 1.30
B 750 19.01 0.0069 6.840 165.2 74.2 89.2 2.5 116.45 0.39
C 850 17.69 0.0045 3.081 536.4 113.6 94.7 9.0 115.07 0.25
D 920 17.04 0.0037 0.661 837.2 137.7 98.7 19.2 115.50 0.26
E 1000 16.94 0.0041 0.393 1055.5 123.3 99.2 32.0 115.41 0.25
F 1075 16.89 0.0019 0.282 1924.0 272.2 99.4 55.4 115.30 0.25
G 1110 16.87 0.0016 0.278 1555.7 311.5 99.4 74.3 115.12 0.23
H 1180 16.85 0.0013 0.378 1550.2 393.6 99.2 93.1 114.82 0.22
I 1210 16.86 0.0014 0.377 442.8 368.6 99.2 98.5 114.90 0.23
J 1250 16.79 0.0091 1.447 66.8 56.2 97.3 99.3 112.31 0.53
K 1300 16.98 0.0071 2.943 36.1 72.0 94.7 99.8 110.62 0.87
L 1650 27.63 0.14 28.690 19.2 3.6 69.3 100.0 130.90 2.10
Total gas age n = 12 8229.1 256.0 114.90 0.541
Plateau MSWD = 1.1 n=7 steps C-I 7901.9 264.2 96.0 115.14 0.181

PC 98137, 14.43 mg hornblende, J = 0.0039261, NM-131, Lab no. = 51805-01

A 800 209 9.573 665.3 6.28 0.053 6.3 0.7 92 21.2
B 850 61.71 12.45 178.700 1.1 0.041 16.1 0.8 69.70 30.50
C 950 49.73 20.07 122.400 2.2 0.025 30.7 1.1 106.40 14.90
D 1020 27.79 16.43 40.530 36.3 0.031 61.9 5.1 119.20 1.60
E 1080 19.31 19.01 11.880 376.2 0.027 89.8 47.0 120.30 0.35
F 1120 17.40 13.68 6.244 265.6 0.037 96.0 76.5 115.70 0.35
G 1160 19.95 13.96 12.550 15.9 0.037 87.3 78.3 120.50 2.30
H 1200 18.56 14.59 9.974 14.3 0.035 90.7 79.9 116.70 2.00
I 1300 17.84 14.15 6.943 98.0 0.036 95.1 90.8 117.61 0.50
J 1400 18.77 13.69 9.532 73.5 0.037 91.1 99.0 118.39 0.73
K 1650 39.74 13.47 66.540 9.1 0.038 53.4 100.0 145.60 4.70
Total gas age n = 11 898.3 0.033 118.4 1.51
Plateau MSWD = 4.92 n=5 steps F-J 467.3 0.037 32.9 116.6 1.21
Isochron MSWD = 6.52 n=5 steps F-J 114.4 2.31

Notes:
Isotopic ratios corrected for blank, radioactive decay, and mass discrimination, not corrected for interferring reactions
Individual analyses show analytical error only; plateau and total gas age errors include error in J and irradiation parameters
n = number of heating steps
K/Ca = molar ratio calculated from reactor produced 39ArK and 37ArCa
1 2σ error
2 MSWD outside 95% confidence interval

consecutive steps that overlap within their errors and which
contain ≥50 percent of the gas released (Fleck et al., 1977).
However, there are marked decreases in the K/Ca from F to
G, and from step G to H, which indicate mineral inclusions.
We consider a 40Ar/39Ar weighted mean plateau age of 116.51
± 0.26 Ma (all errors at ±2σ) calculated from heating steps D
to F as representative. The total fusion age of this biotite sam-
ple is 115.85 ± 0.54 Ma.
Green hydrothermal biotite (sample PC 99131) from the
foliated pervasive biotite-quartz-magnetite alteration with
veinlets of quartz-chlorite ± green biotite, chalcopyrite, and
minor pyrite, and disseminated chalcopyrite intergrown with
the biotite gave a 40Ar/39Ar weighted mean plateau age of
115.14 ± 0.18 Ma, based on heating steps C to I, which con-
tain 96 percent of the gas released (Fig. 12; Table 5). The total
fusion age of this biotite sample is 114.9 ± 0.54 Ma.

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 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE
Euhedral amphibole (sample PC 98137) in a matrix of mas-
sive chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite has a somewhat disturbed age
spectrum (Fig. 12; Table 5). Steps A to C are heterogeneous,
giving ages younger than 110 Ma with large errors. Steps D to
E yield an age of about 120 Ma, whereas steps F to J yield
ages that increase from 115.70 ± 0.70 to 118.39 ± 1.4 Ma. The
abrupt change in ages between steps E and F correlates with
an increase in both K/Ca and radiogenic yield, which indi-
cates the presence of inclusions within the amphibole grains.
Steps F to J do not conform the definition of a plateau age.
However, steps F to H contain 32.9 percent of the gas re-
leased and overlap within their errors. Steps I and J have a
similar K/Ca ratio and comparable radiogenic yield to steps F
to I, which leads us to believe that a pseudoplateau age of
116.6 ± 1.2 Ma calculated from steps F to J is representative
(Fig. 12; Table 5) and relevant. An isochron age of 114.4 ± 2.3
Ma was calculated from these same steps. The total fusion age
of this amphibole sample is 118.4 ± 1.5 Ma.
Discussion
Alteration and mineralization patterns allow the establish-
ment of a descriptive model for an idealized Candelaria-
Punta del Cobre-type iron oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) system. Most
of the larger orebodies in the belt are located at the intersec-
tion of northwest- to north-northwest–trending brittle faults
with the contact of massive volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks.
These northwest- to north-northwest–trending brittle faults
and a major north-northeast–trending ductile structure ap-
pear to be the main fluid conduits.
In the internal parts of this system, represented by Cande-
laria and the deeper parts of the mines in the Punta del Cobre
district, ore is associated with mainly calcic-potassic (calcic
amphibole ± epidote-biotite, K feldspar) alteration (see also
Table 2). Magnetite is abundant and occurs predominantly as
massive replacement bodies that grade laterally into intense
pervasive iron metasomatized (magnetite) volcanic and vol-
caniclastic rocks. Both early and late hematite are locally pre-
sent in minor quantities. Quartz veins and veinlets are com-
mon and silicification is widespread. Calcite veinlets and
carbonatization are minor or absent. Anhydrite locally occurs
in veins and veinlets.
The intermediate parts of the system are represented by
the central upper portion of the Santos and Carola mines and
are characterized by intense potassic (biotite and/or K
feldspar) alteration, in places with subordinate calcic amphi-
bole alteration. Pervasive biotitization of the host rock grades
into intense chloritization toward more shallower levels, i.e.,
external parts. Magnetite occurs in veins and disseminated in
the host rocks. Hematite is common and more abundant than
in the internal parts of the system.
In the external parts of the system, represented by the So-
cavón Rampa mine, mineralization is associated with intense
sodic (albite) alteration and chloritization. Pervasive carbonati-
zation and calcite veins are common and may be intense,
whereas silicification and quartz veins are essentially absent.
Hematite is the predominant iron oxide mineral, whereas mag-
netite is uncommon. However, iron oxides may be minor or vir-
tually absent in some places with significant amounts of sulfides.
The structural control and geometry of the ore, particularly
that of the Punta del Cobre district, suggest that ascending
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1819
fluids were focused by north-northwest– to northwest-trend-
ing faults to form subvertical bodies in volcanic rocks. Where
these fluids reached permeable horizons they spread out lat-
erally to form concordant lens-shaped orebodies, e.g., in
brecciated flow tops and intercalated volcaniclastic horizons,
but mainly in the Basal Breccia, the lowermost part of the
sediments of the Algarrobos Member that overlies the vol-
canic host rocks (Marschik and Fontboté, 1996).
Fluid inclusions in postmagnetite quartz, which contains
interstitial chalcopyrite from the Candelaria deposit homoge-
nize at 370° to >440°C (Marschik et al., 2000). Similar ho-
mogenization temperatures of ≤328°C for hypersaline CO2-
rich fluid inclusions in quartz from Candelaria are reported
by Ullrich and Clark (1999). Liquid-vapor inclusions in anhy-
drite that formed coevally with the main copper mineraliza-
tion at Candelaria homogenize between 340° and 470°C and
liquid-vapor inclusions in calcite at temperatures of ≤180°C
(Marschik et al., 2000). Microthermometric measurements
on fluid inclusions in postore calcite from the Punta del
Cobre deposits indicate that this late-stage fluid was also
saline, containing 12 to 24 wt percent NaCl equiv and 13 to
23 wt percent CaCl2 (Marschik et al., 1997b). Homogeniza-
tion temperatures obtained are between 125° and 175°C.
Rabbia et al. (1996) reported homogenization temperatures
of fluid inclusions in calcite from the Carola mine between
175° and 236°C.
Quartz associated with chalcopyrite from the Candelaria
deposit has δ18OSMOW values between 11.2 to 12.6 per mil
(Marschik et al., 2000). A fluid in isotopic equilibrium with
this quartz at temperatures between 370° and 440°C has
δ18OSMOW values between 5.9 and 8.9 per mil (using isotopic
fractionation factors of Friedman and O’Neil, 1977). This iso-
topic composition is compatible with a fluid of magmatic origin
or a nonmagmatic fluid equilibrated with silicates at high
temperature. Oxygen isotope ratios of calcite from the Carola
mine are between 15.4 and 15.9 per mil (Rabbia et al., 1996).
The δ18OSMOW values of calcite from the Santos and Socavón
Rampa mines range from 14.3 to 15.3 per mil, and those of
calcite from the Candelaria deposit are between 11.7 and 11.9
per mil (Marschik et al., 2000). A fluid in equilibrium with the
calcite from the Carola mine would have δ18OSMOW values ap-
proximately between 4.6 and 7.7 per mil for a temperature
range of 175° to 235°C. Accordingly, a fluid in equilibrium
with the calcite from the Santos and Socavón Rampa mines
would have an oxygen isotope composition between –2.8 and
+4.7 per mil and with the calcite from the Candelaria deposit
between –5.4 and +1.3 per mil at temperatures of 100° to
180°C. The relatively low oxygen isotope ratios of a fluid in
equilibrium with the late calcite at Santos and Socavón
Rampa suggest that mixing between a magmatic fluid (or
equilibrated with magmatic rocks) with a nonmagmatic fluid
(e.g., basinal brine or meteoric waters) took place during the
late stages of hydrothermal activity.
Sulfur isotope ratios of sulfides from several mines of the
Punta del Cobre belt determined for this study are fairly uni-
form. The narrow range of δ34SCDT (–0.7 and +3.1‰) near 0
per mil is consistent with a magmatic sulfur source and in-
compatible with significant input of sulfur derived from evap-
orites. The latter would imply more oxidized conditions than
indicated by the paragenetic study and a larger spread in the
1820 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ
δ34SCDT values. The δ34SCDT values of anhydrite from Cande-
laria between 14.5 and 17.5 per mil overlap with those sug-
gested for Cretaceous seawater (Claypool et al., 1980). How-
ever, similar δ34S values for sulfates are reported also from
porphyry copper and high-sulfidation gold deposits (e.g.,
Ohmoto and Rye, 1979; Arribas, 1995). The ∆ sulfate-sulfide for a
sample with coexisting anhydrite and chalcopyrite is 13.4 per
mil, which is consistent sulfide-sulfate fractionation at tem-
peratures on the order of 400ºC (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979;
Ohmoto and Lasaga, 1982). Taking the paragenetic position
of anhydrite within the main sulfide stage and the homoge-
nization temperatures of fluid inclusions in anhydrite
(340°–470°C) into account (Fig. 9), the data are consistent
with a predominantly cooling magmatic sulfur-bearing fluid.
As discussed above, mineralization occurred under fairly
oxidized conditions manifested in the formation of early spec-
ular hematite (hm I; Figs. 5n and 9). Pseudomorphic replace-
ment of this early specular hematite by magnetite (mushke-
tovite; Fig. 5o) and deposition of magnetite (mt I; Fig. 5p)
could be explained by an increase in temperature as the hy-
drothermal system reached its climax at the site of ore forma-
tion (waxing stage) and/or by interaction of the oxidized fluid
with Fe2+ abundantly contained in the andesitic host rock. Al-
teration mineral associations indicate that the deposits
formed by near-pH neutral solutions. The oxidizing character
of the fluid explains its metal transport capacity.
The bulk of the iron oxide mineralization probably oc-
curred at temperatures of about 500° to 600°C. These
temperature estimates are based on biotite-garnet Fe-Mg
exchange geothermometry on early (pre-chalcopyrite) alter-
ation in the tuffaceous rocks of the Algarrobos Member at
Candelaria, determined by Ullrich and Clark (1997). The
main sulfide stage follows with the formation of pyrite and
chalcopyrite. Ore formation temperatures of about 400° to
500°C at the Carola mine were estimated based on miner-
alogic evidence (Hopf, 1990). Homogenization temperatures
of fluid inclusions in quartz and anhydrite from the Cande-
laria deposit suggest temperatures in the range of 328° to
>470°C for the main copper mineralization at Candelaria
(Ullrich and Clark, 1999; Marschik et al., 2000; see above).
Further cooling of the hydrothermal system is indicated by
the homogenization temperatures of ≤236°C of fluid inclu-
sions in late-stage calcite (Rabbia et al., 1996; Marschik et al.,
1997b, 2000). Martitization of magnetite and new formation
of hematite (hm II) during the latest stage of mineralization
are consistent with progressive cooling of the system. An in-
crease in oxygen fugacity may also contribute to cause this
mineralogical change. That the ore fluid had higher oxygen fu-
gacities at the upper limit and distal portions of the ore system
is also suggested by the above-mentioned variations toward
lighter sulfur isotope composition of chalcopyrite and pyrite.
Preliminary Pb isotope studies (Marschik et al., 1997a;
Marschik and Chiaradia, 2000) show that the sulfide minerals
and the least altered volcanic and intrusive rocks in the Can-
delaria-Punta del Cobre area have similar isotopic composi-
tions. The relatively narrow isotopic compositional range of
the ore minerals, with 208Pb/204Pb values between 38.2 and
38.4, 207Pb/204Pb values between 15.57 and 15.59, and 206Pb/
204Pb values between 18.45 and 18.62, indicates that the hy-
drothermal fluid had a homogeneous Pb isotope composition.
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Initial 187Os/188Os values of 0.36 ± 0.1 for an isochron calcu-
lated from data of hydrothermal magnetite and sulfide from
Candelaria (Mathur, 2000; Mathur et al. (2002), and an initial
187
Os/188Os value of 0.33 for sulfide from the Bronce mine are
similar to calculated initial 187Os/188Os values that range from
0.20 that 0.41 for magmatic magnetite in nearby batholithic
rocks. The similarities in initial 187Os/188Os values of the ore
and magmatic oxides and in the Pb isotope compositions of
sulfides and granitoid plutons is consistent with the hypothe-
sis that the batholithic magmas could be the metal source for
the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre iron oxide Cu-Au deposits.
The hydrothermally altered dacite porphyry dikes, although
barren or only weakly mineralized, could represent an ex-
pression of an underlying igneous body that was responsible
for mineralization.
We underline the significance of the presence of specular
hematite (later pseudomorphously replaced by magnetite,
mushketovite) as an indicator for the oxidized character of the
first mineralization stage. The presence of early hematite or
of mushketovite is a typical feature of the deposits of the Can-
delaria-Punta del Cobre Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) system and is proba-
bly a widespread phenomenon in iron oxide Cu-Au systems
(e.g., Sossego, Brazil; (e.g., Sossego, Brazil, R. Marschik,
unpub. data; Salobo, Brazil, Requia, 2002; Starra, Cloncurry
district, Australia; Rotherham, 1997; and Raúl-Condestable,
Perú, Haller, 2000). In other deposits it may have been over-
looked. For instance, bladed magnetite from the Emmie
Bluff deposit, Stuart Shelf, Australia (photo plate of fig. 2b,
Gow et al., 1994), is likely to represent mushketovite.
A variety of data are consistent with, but not unequivocally
indicative of, magmatic fluid contribution to this hydrother-
mal system. This evidence includes: (1) oxygen isotope com-
position of quartz associated with chalcopyrite representing
the main mineralization at Candelaria; (2) presence of hyper-
saline CO2-rich fluid inclusions (Ullrich and Clark, 1999) in
the main ore stage, as well as of saline fluid inclusions in late-
stage calcite (Marschik et al., 1997b); (3) the δ18OSMOW com-
position of 4.4 to 7.7 per mil of a fluid in equilibrium with
calcite from the Carola mine (Rabbia et al., 1996); (4) the ox-
idized character of the ore fluid; (5) the narrow range of
δ34SCDT values of sulfides near 0 per mil; and (6) the age of
the mineralization coeval with nearby intrusive activity. The
similarities and transitions in terms of fluid composition and
host-rock alteration of the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre de-
posits with porphyry skarn systems (e.g., Einaudi et al., 1981,
Einaudi, 1982; Lang et al., 1995) provide additional empirical
arguments that magmatic-sourced fluid is an essential part of
the ore system.
Cooling and fluid mixing are probably the main precipita-
tion mechanisms at Candelaria-Punta del Cobre. Mineraliza-
tion typically, but not exclusively, occurred near the contact of
massive, relatively impermeable volcanic rocks and overlying
porous and permeable volcaniclastic sediments. These sedi-
ments and the upper part of the faulted volcanic rocks were
most likely saturated with either basinal brines, formation, or
meteoric waters, which could contribute to the light oxygen
isotope signatures mentioned above. An ascending saline
magmatic(?) metal and sulfur-bearing fluid would have been
diluted and cooled, causing saturation with respect to sulfides
as it interacted with this external fluid, thereby precipitating
 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE 1821

the ore minerals. During the early stages of mineralization,
reduction of the oxidized fluid through interaction with the
volcanic host rocks could have been an additional precipita-
tion mechanism. On the basis of the present data, however, it
is not possible to dismiss a participation of evaporite-sourced
brines as proposed by Barton and Johnson (2000) and Ullrich
and Clark (1999).
Alteration and mineralization ages
Determination of alteration and mineralization ages at
Candelaria-Punta del Cobre has been the objective of several
contributions. Figure 13 is a compilation of the relevant age
data, relating the absolute ages to the stratigraphic record.
The mineralization age at Candelaria is best represented by
two Re-Os molybdenite ages of 114.2 ± 0.6 and 115.2 ± 0.6
Ma (Mathur, 2000; Mathur et al., 2002). Previously published
alteration ages cluster around 116 to 114 and 112 to 110 Ma
(e.g., Marschik et al., 1997b; Arévalo, 1999; Ullrich and Clark,
1999). The new alteration ages presented in Table 5 and Fig-
ure 12 fall into the 116 to 114 Ma age range. The 40Ar/39Ar
weighted mean plateau age of 115.14 ± 0.18 Ma for green hy-
drothermal biotite associated with chalcopyrite-pyrite from

Age (Ma) Stratigraphy Stage

80
Campanian
Regional cooling to 200°-150°C Santonian
(closure temperature of K-feldspar)
Coniacian
90 Cerrillos Turonian

Cenomanian

100

Batholith emplacement
Minimum age of mineralization
(post-ore thermal events?)
Hiatus Albian
(basin inversion,
110 transpression)

Unconformity

Aptian
Mineralization age is 114.7 Ma Pabellón
120 (main mineralization)
1700-2000 m

Overburden at the time of

Barremian
mineralization is less than 3 km Totoralillo

130 Nantoco- Hauterivian

Abundancia
Stratigraphic position of the main orebodies Valanginian
P. del Cobre
Berriasian
140
40Ar/39Ar biotite plateau age (sample PC 99131, this study)
40Ar/39Ar biotite plateau age (sample PC 99139, this study)
40Ar/39Ar amphibole pseudo plateau age (sample PC 98137, this study)
Re-Os molybdenite ages (Mathur, 2000)
Rb-Sr isochron (Marschik et al., 1997)
40Ar/39Ar biotite inverse isochron age (Marschik et al., 1997)
40Ar/39Ar biotite plateau age (Ullrich and Clark, 1999)
40Ar/39Ar biotite total fusion age (Marschik et al., 1997)
40Ar/39Ar biotite isochron age (Arévalo, 1999)
40Ar/39Ar amphibole plateau age (Ullrich and Clark, 1999)
40Ar/39Ar whole rock plateau age (Marschik et al., 1997)
40Ar/39Ar whole rock inverse isochron age (Marschik et al., 1997)
40Ar/39Ar whole rock isochron age (Arévalo, 1999)
K-Ar whole rock age (Marschik et al., 1997)

FIG. 13. Summary of isotopic ages of rocks and minerals of the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre iron oxide Cu-Au deposits.
Correlation of absolute and relative stratigraphic ages, according to Gradstein et al. (1995). Metallic mineralization at Can-
delaria-Punta del Cobre commenced as marine conditions ceased in the Atacama back-arc basin.

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1822 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ
Candelaria (sample PC 99131, Fig. 12, Table 5) is identical
within errors with a 40Ar/39Ar inverse isochron age of 114.9
± 1.0 Ma for ore-related green hydrothermal biotite at the
Santos mine and a less precise total fusion age of 114.6 ± 1.4
Ma, similar to biotite from the Resguardo mine in the Punta
del Cobre district (Marschik et al., 1997b). These biotite ages
are similar to the Re-Os molybdenite ages and are interpreted
to have recorded the same alteration event that predated and
accompanied parts of the Cu-Au mineralization. The pseudo-
plateau age of 116.6 ± 1.2 Ma of amphibole intergrown with
chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite (sample PC 98137; Fig. 12, Table
5), although imprecise and only taken as an approximation, is
compatible with the Re-Os molybdenite and the 40Ar/39Ar bi-
otite ages mentioned above. Brown biotite from the barren
biotite-almandine ± cordierite alteration in the Tuff unit
(Trinidad Siltstone) at Candelaria with a weighted mean
plateau age of 116.51 ± 0.26 Ma (sample PC 99139, Fig. 12,
Table 5) is somewhat older than the green biotite. Ullrich and
Clark (1998, 1999) report 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages averaging
114.2 ± 0.8 Ma for similar biotite from the barren biotite-
quartz-magnetite alteration and a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of
111.7 ± 0.8 Ma for amphibole associated with chalcopyrite
from Candelaria. According to these authors, this later am-
phibole age represents the age of copper mineralization. The
40Ar/39Ar isochron ages of 110.7 ± 1.6 Ma for biotite from
deformed mineralized biotite-rich rocks and 111.0 ± 1.4 Ma
for a whole-rock chip of the same sample from Candelaria
(Arévalo, 1999), and a 40Ar/39Ar total fusion weighted mean
age (2 analyses) of green hydrothermal biotite from the Res-
guardo mine (Punta del Cobre district) yielding 111.6 ± 1.4
Ma (Marschik et al., 1997b) are identical within errors with
the amphibole plateau age of Ullrich and Clark (1998, 1999).
These younger alteration ages of 110 to 112 Ma could indi-
cate that there is another, possibly paragenetically similar
alteration and mineralization event. This event could be re-
lated to nearby 110 to 112 Ma batholithic intrusions (Fig. 2).
Implications for tectonic setting and depth of mineralization
There is evidence for episodes of Middle to Late Creta-
ceous transpression (e.g., Sylvester and Palacios, 1992; Lara
et al., 1996; Arévalo and Grocott, 1997; Taylor et al., 1998) as
well as extension (Mpodozis and Allmendinger, 1993) at a re-
gional scale. However, their exact timing is only poorly con-
strained. The age data summarized here have implications for
the structural evolution of the area. Parts of the iron oxide
and the bulk of the Cu ore at Punta del Cobre are hosted by
north-northwest– to northwest-trending high-angle sinistral
transcurrent brittle faults, which were active by Aptian times
(˜115 Ma). At Candelaria, mineralization occurred in these
same north-northwest to northwest faults and in the north-
northeast–trending Candelaria shear zone. The latter shows
indication of minor movements during the early iron metaso-
matism but was essentially inactive as a ductile shear zone at
the time of main Cu mineralization during which brittle con-
ditions prevailed.
The northwest-trending high-angle faults play an important
role in structural models for Middle-Late Cretaceous trans-
pressional conditions for the Atacama region. Age and field
data presented here are compatible with the onset of gener-
alized transpressional conditions in the region already at the
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time of mineralization. This is consistent with the geologic
record indicating cessation of marine sedimentation in the
back-arc and regional uplift in the late Aptian (e.g., Segerstrom
and Parker, 1959; Zentilli, 1974; Jurgan, 1977, Pérez et al.,
1990).
Taking into account that by around 115 Ma (Aptian) the
Chañarcillo Group (late Valanginian to Aptian) should have
reached its maximum thickness of 1,700 to 2,000 m, and that
the ore deposits essentially occur in the upper part of the
Punta del Cobre Formation, it is possible to estimate that
mineralization took place at about a 2- to 3-km depth (Fig.
13). The change from ductile-brittle conditions during min-
eralization could be explained by a temperature decrease that
went along with the regional uplift in the late Aptian.
Related iron oxide-rich deposits
Other Cretaceous ore deposits in the Andean Cordillera
present similarities to the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre iron
oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) system, although some have been inter-
preted using other genetic models. These deposits include
the Manto Verde (K-Ar sericite ages are 117 ± 3 and 121 ± 3
Ma; Vila et al., 1996), Manto Ruso (Orrego and Zamora,
1991), and Teresa de Colmo iron oxide Cu-Au deposits (Hop-
per and Correa, 2000) in Chile, and the Raúl-Condestable
and Eliana iron oxide Cu-Au deposits in Perú (K-Ar amphi-
bole ages are 127 ± 3.1 or 113 ± 3.0 Ma, respectively; Vidal et
al., 1990; see also Ripley and Ohmoto, 1977; Cardozo and
Wauschkuhn, 1984; Cardozo, 1990; Haller, 2000). There are
also similarities with the Early Cretaceous magnetite(-ap-
atite) deposits of the Chilean iron belt (e.g., El Romeral,
Bookstrom, 1977; Los Algarrobos, Ménard, 1995; Cerro Negro
Norte, Vivallo et al., 1995) regarding setting, age, alteration,
and host rocks. These iron deposits commonly contain minor
amounts of sulfides, including chalcopyrite. Mineralization
follows a similar paragenetic pattern with early magnetite and
superposed sulfide formation. The Cerro Negro Norte de-
posit is a particularly good example. In the Cerro Negro
Norte orebody, magnetite is cut by calcic amphibole veinlets
that in turn are cut and used by later veinlets that contain
pyrite ± chalcopyrite similar to those at Candelaria-Punta del
Cobre (Fig. 9). The deposits of the iron belt occur in rocks
that are affected by sodic(-calcic) alteration. However, a sig-
nificant potassic component to alteration as in most iron oxide
Cu-Au systems is absent. The common spatial and temporal
association of iron and iron oxide Cu-Au deposits in Chile,
Perú, and elsewhere (e.g., Norbotten region, Sweden; Car-
lon, 2000) indicates that these deposits might also be geneti-
cally related.
Conclusions
The Candelaria-Punta del Cobre Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) deposits
have features that are characteristic of iron oxide (Cu-U-Au-
REE) deposits (Hitzman et al., 1992; Hitzman, 2000). These
characteristics include abundant iron oxide as magnetite in
the more internal and hematite in the more external portions
of the system, and local enrichments in light rare earth ele-
ments. The deposits occur near a lithostratigraphic boundary
that is intersected by a major structural zone. Brittle and
ductile structures created localized dilatations that channeled
the ore-forming fluids. Ore is associated with calcic-potassic
 CANDELARIA-PUNTA DEL COBRE IRON OXIDE Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) DEPOSITS, CHILE
alteration in the internal, potassic in the intermediate, and
sodic alteration ± carbonatization in the marginal portions of
the system.
The radiometric ages point to a main Cu-Au mineralization
event at Candelaria-Punta del Cobre at around 115 Ma. Ore
formation was spatially and temporally associated with Early
Cretaceous batholithic granitoid intrusions. The Candelaria-
Punta del Cobre Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) deposits formed at a rela-
tively shallow crustal level (<3 km) in rocks of an arc and/or
back-arc environment. Although the host rocks are consistent
with an extensional setting, as proposed for this deposit class,
the available age data suggest that mineralization occurred
during the onset of basin inversion, probably under trans-
pressional conditions at a regional scale.
The metal-bearing fluid was oxidized, saline, near-pH neu-
tral, with oxygen and sulfur isotope compositions in equilib-
rium with magmatic rocks. This fluid had a homogeneous
lead isotope signature similar to that of least altered volcanic
host rocks and nearby intrusive rocks. The bulk of the mag-
netite probably formed at temperatures of about 500° to
600°C. The main sulfide stage followed with formation of
pyrite and chalcopyrite at temperatures of >470° to 328°C.
Cooling and mixing of the metal- and sulfur-bearing fluid
with a fluid that has a light oxygen isotope signature (e.g.,
basinal brine or meteoric waters) are probably the main pre-
cipitation mechanisms at Candelaria-Punta del Cobre. Dur-
ing the early stages of mineralization, reduction of the oxi-
dized fluid through interaction with the volcanic host rocks
could have additionally caused ore mineral precipitation. The
stable isotope data, the presence of previously reported
hypersaline CO2-rich fluid inclusions in the main Cu-ore
stage and saline fluid inclusions in late-stage calcite, the oxi-
dized character of the ore fluid, and the fact that mineraliza-
tion occurred coeval with nearby intrusive activity are consis-
tent with, but not unequivocally evidence for, magmatic fluid
contribution into the hydrothermal system. Finally, we would
like to emphasize the preliminary nature of the conclusions
drawn. In particular, the role of magmatic and the nature of
nonmagmatic fluids in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre iron
oxide Cu-Au(-Zn-Ag) system is focus of the current research.
Acknowledgments
We thank Cominor, Compañía Contractual Minera Cande-
laria, Compañía Contractual Minera Carola, Compañía Min-
era Ojos del Salado, Empresa Minera Mantos Blancos,
Phelps Dodge Exploration Corporation, Sali-Hochschild
S.A., and Sociedad Punta del Cobre S.A. for access to their
mines and properties. We are particularly grateful to L. Al-
varez, P. Anguita, G. Arce, T. Balcu, C. Calderón, P. Calderón,
B. Castillo, O. Edelstein, P. Flores, A. Gordillo, R. Leveille,
W. Martin, E. Nuñez, R. Nuñez, R. Olivares, G. Oyarzún, J.
Ponce, N. Pop, W. Robles, and R. Zamora for discussions and
constructive comments. We thank M. Chiaradia (Univ. of
Geneva) for assisting in the interpretation of the lead isotope
data and Y. Haeberlin and L. Linares (Univ. of Geneva) for
sulfur isotope analyses, some of which were carried out in the
stable isotope laboratory of J. Hunzicker and J. Spangenberg,
Section des Sciences de la Terre, University of Lausanne. We
are grateful to J. Chesley (Univ. of Arizona) and L. Peters
(NMGRL) for their help in interpreting the age data. This
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1823
1823
paper has greatly benefited from critical reviews and sug-
gestions by M.D. Barton, J.W. Hedenquist, and P. Williams.
This investigation was supported by the Deutsche For-
schungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and the Swiss National Sci-
ence Foundation.
May 23, 2000; July 30, 2001
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1826 MARSCHIK AND FONTBOTÉ

APPENDIX
The 40Ar/39Ar analysis was carried out by the Geochrono-
logical Research Laboratory of the New Mexico Bureau of
Mines and Mineral Resources, Socorro, New Mexico, using
the furnace incremental-heating technique.
Sample preparation and irradiation:
The biotite and amphibole concentrates were prepared
using standard handpicking techniques. The samples were
loaded into a machined Al disk and irradiated for 24 h in L-
67 position in the Ford Memorial Reactor, University of
Michigan. Neutron flux monitor was Fish Canyon Tuff sani-
dine (FC-1) with an assigned age of 27.84 Ma (Deino and
Potts, 1990) relative to Mmhb-1 at 520.4 Ma (Samson and
Alexander, 1987).
Instrumentation:
A Mass Analyzer Products 215-50 mass spectrometer on-
line with automated all-metal extraction system was used.
Mineral separates were step-heated in an Mo double-vacuum
resistance furnace. Heating duration was 8 min. Reactive
gases were removed by reaction with three SAES GP-50 get-
ters, two operated at ~450°C and one at 20°C. Gas was also
exposed to a tungsten filament operated at ~2,000°C.
Analytical parameters:
Electron multiplier sensitivity averaged 2.81 × 10–16
moles/pA. Total system blank and background for the furnace
averaged 324, 1.2, 0.4, 1.1, 1.4 × 10–18 moles at masses 40, 39,
38, 37, and 36, respectively. J factors were determined to a
precision of ±0.1 percent by CO2 laser fusion of four single
crystals from each of four radial positions around the irradia-
tion tray or each monitor packet in quartz tube. Correction
factors for interfering nuclear reactions were determined
using K glass and CaF2 and are as follows: (40Ar/39Ar)K =
0.0237 ± 0.00096; (36Ar/37Ar)Ca = 0.000289 ± 0.000008; and
(39Ar/37Ar)Ca = 0.000747 ± 0.0003.

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