JOURNAL OF

COMPOSITE
Article M AT E R I A L S
Journal of Composite Materials
0(0) 1–19
! The Author(s) 2019
Short-beam shear of nanoprepreg/ Article reuse guidelines:
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nanostitched three-dimensional DOI: 10.1177/0021998319863472
journals.sagepub.com/home/jcm
carbon/epoxy multiwall carbon
nanotube composites

Kadir Bilisik1 , Nesrin Karaduman2 and Erdal Sapanci3

Abstract
The effect of out-of-plane stitching and the addition of multiwalled carbon nanotubes on the short-beam shear proper-
ties of carbon/epoxy composites were investigated. Stitching influenced the short-beam strength of carbon satin and twill
fabric composites, where the stitched satin carbon/epoxy composites showed improved short-beam properties com-
pared with the unstitched satin carbon/epoxy composites. In general, stitching and MWCNTs addition enhanced the
short-beam strength of the composite. The fracture of the composites generally exhibited as a combination of lateral
total matrix cracking, warp fiber breakage and interlayer opening. In addition, all the structures experienced angularly
sheared catastrophic through-the-thickness layer breakage. It was also shown that delamination was largely restricted in
stitched and nano-added composites when compared to the unstitched samples. It can be concluded that nanostitching
could be considered for improving short-beam strength properties of the composite.

Keywords
Carbon nanotubes, nanoprepreg, nanostitching, short-beam test, interlaminar shear strength

Introduction compressive shear. The interlaminar shear strength of

Textile-reinforced composites are used in a wide range of
applications due to their high specific strength and stiff-
ness as well as superior damage tolerance properties.1–6
One of the most critical issues faced for two-dimensional
(2D) textile fabric composite laminates is low delamin-
ation resistance due to lack of through-the-thickness
fibers (z-fibers). Several solutions have been put forward
to address the delamination problem including three-
dimensional (3D) textile preforms and stitching2,3 as
well as z-pin anchoring techniques.7 Recently, nanotubes
were utilized in composites by dispersing in the resin or
attaching to the filaments and uniaxial or biaxial fab-
rics.8,9 Nanotubes in fiber networks can act based
on the discrete principle. Nonetheless, the fibers in the
preform architecture can act based on the continuity
principle. In addition, the techniques for preform archi-
tecture and nanotubes dispersion in the resin involved
quite complex and several processing steps.
Different testing methods for interlaminar shear
strength were employed. Some of them were double-
notch shear, Iosipescu shear, short-beam shear and
preform composites was generally determined by the
short-beam testing method due to ease of use. In gen-
eral, fiber types, resin properties, the structure geometry
and preform architecture effected the stress distribution
along the composite width.10 It was demonstrated that
the interlaminar shear strength was identified by three-
point flexural testing corresponding to minimum
values, which is particularly convenient for material
screening purposes.11,12 It was pointed out that a
three-point flexure loading-based short-beam test was
1
Nano/Micro Fiber Preform Design and Composite Laboratory,
Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes
University, Turkey
2
Akdagmadeni Vocational High School, Bozok University, Turkey
3
Advanced Ballistic Material Development Unit, ROKETSAN Industries,
Turkey
Corresponding author:
Kadir Bilisik, Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Erciyes University, 38039 Talas-Kayseri, Turkey.
Email: kadirbilisik@gmail.com
2 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)
applicable to obtain the interlayer shear strength of the
composite, in which the support span to thickness ratio
was a critical parameter for shear stress and interlayer
matrix fracture was the main failure mode.13 Although
comparatively uniform load distribution was achieved
in a four-point short-beam test, the pure interlaminar
shear fracture was not obtained in the maximum
shear stress region because of low crack propagation
energy.14,15
z-Pin-added advanced structural composite parts
demonstrated better fracture toughness due to bridging
effect, pull-out and friction. The critical parameters
were identified as z-pin density and length.16 Another
study showed that the carbon fiber-coated z-pin com-
posite enhanced mode-I failure due to bonding between
the z-pin and composite.17
The short-beam shear fracture properties of 2D non-
woven composite were studied via converted v-notched
rail shear test. It was concluded that micro-crack,
coupling crack and macro-crack were identified. The
micro-crack started during fiber micro-slippage in the
resin at the interlayer region of the composite and led to
the macro-cracks.18 It was identified that the interlayer
shear fracture of the E-glass/epoxy structure was fiber
and matrix failures, interlaminar debonding and mul-
tiple macro-craking.19
The effect of stitching on the composite was investi-
gated. Stitching improved the tensile and flexural
strength of 2D composites because of a more efficient
distribution of load in the out-of-plane direction due to
the presence of z-fibers.20 The impact and short-beam
strength of fabric composites were improved by stitch-
ing.21 On the contrary, it was claimed that stitching
reduced the interlaminar shear and flexural strength
of E-glass/vinyl ester composites after repeated
impact. This was attributed to stitching-induced irregu-
larities and stitch holes, which acted as stress concen-
tration sites in the structure.22,23 z-Stitching was shown
to improve fracture toughness (mode-I) behavior of
biaxial fabric composites while degrading the in-plane
properties.24 The number of fabric layers and yarn
orientation strongly influenced the flexural behavior
of E-glass/polyester composites where the composites
showed delamination under flexural load.25 Another
study showed that cryogenic temperatures generally
decreased the interlaminar strength of carbon/epoxy
composites.26 Wei and Zhang characterized the stitch-
induced irregularities in fabric and composite structure
using a fiber distortion model.27 Zhao et al. showed
that z-stitching noticeably increases the impact
damage tolerance of glass/polypropylene (PP) compos-
ites without an adverse effect on tensile properties.
There was a correlation between the fracture work of
the stitch yarns and the energy absorption capability.28
Kang and Lee reported that z-stitching improved the
mechanical and energy absorption characteristic of
composites at the optimum stitch density. The damaged
areas after the impact tests were considerably smaller in
the stitched composite than in the unstitched sample.29
Mouritz exhibited that the KevlarÕ -49 stitching
increased the damage tolerance of glass/vinyl ester com-
posites against impact loading.30 Bilisik reported that
the interlaminar shear strength of the 3D orthogonal
woven composite was slightly higher (10%) compared
to the multiaxis 3D woven composites. The addition
of bias yarns on both surfaces of the 3D orthogonal
preform had no significant effect on interlaminar
shear strength by performing the short-beam shear
test.31 Another study showed that the short-beam
shear strength of the 3D layer-to-layer and through-
the-thickness preforms was improved by directional
fiber hybridizations via various interlocking patterns.32
Failure mechanics of 2D and 3D woven composites
were also studied using the short-beam shear and
impact fatigue tests. The fracture in 2D woven compos-
ite was both shear and tensile mode, whereas it was
only tensile mode in 3D composite.33
Nanomaterials emerged as promising reinforcement
agents for composite applications.34–38 The epoxy
sizing on the carbon fiber surface in carbon/epoxy com-
posite improved the short-beam strength and toughness
due to fiber and resin interfacial bonding strength.39–41
Hosur et al. explained that the addition of different
nanoparticles in epoxy led to noticeable enhancements
in the viscoelastic and mechanical properties over the
pristine samples.42 It was realized that matrix modifica-
tion via multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)
and n-butyl glycidyl ether improved the interlayer
strength of glass/epoxy composite.43 However,
MWCNTs (0.5%)-added glass/epoxy composite
showed no significant improvement for interlaminar
shear strength.44 Nonetheless, it was demonstrated
that shear strength of the composite was enhanced
due to the even MWCNTs dispersion in the matrix
and the MWCNTs bridging in the composite layers.45
It was reported that the incorporation of nanosilica
increased the short-beam strength of E-glass/polyester
composites. Stitch density, stitch yarn type and stitch
pattern as well as the amount of nanomaterial influ-
enced the interlaminar strength of the composite.46
Yong and Hahn investigated the feasibility of using
silicon carbide (SiC) nanoparticles to produce SiC/
vinyl ester nanocomposites. Improper dispersion of
nanoparticles in the resin led to lower composite
strength, whereas the composite strength and modulus
increased with the use of a dispersant.47 Patnaik et al.
demonstrated that the tensile strength of glass fiber/
polyester composites were significantly reduced when
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and SiC particles were used
as filler material.48 Wichmann et al. noted that nano-
Bilisik et al.
silica addition noticeably improved the interlayer
strength of E-glass/epoxy composites.49 It was realized
that oxidation on the carbon (C)/SiC composite
degraded its shear strength50 and further degradation
on the interlayer strength of the C/SiC was obtained
due to porosity.51
It was reported that the MWCNTs addition signifi-
cantly improved the bending and short-beam strength of
E-glass/epoxy composites.52 Tensile strength and fatigue
of carbon fabric/epoxy composites were enhanced by the
addition of amine-coated single wall carbon nanotubes
(SWCNTs).53 Zhu et al. reported that up to 45%
improvements were received in the shear resistance of
glass/vinyl ester composites by coating the mid-plane
ply with carbon nanotubes (0.015 wt%).54 Fan and
Advani studied the orientation characteristics of sur-
face-treated MWCNTs in vinyl ester resin.55 Fan et al.
expressed that the interlaminar resistance of glass fiber/
epoxy composites was increased by up to 33% due to
addition of the MWCNTs in the composite. The orien-
tation of the MWCNTs in the z-direction contributed to
the improvement in the interlaminar shear properties.56
Kim et al. showed that the flexural and toughness of
silane-coated MWCNT-added basalt/epoxy composite
were greater than those of the acid-coated MWCNT
composite because of the homogeneous dispersion and
bonding interaction between the nanotubes and the
epoxy.57 Some other studies reported similar results
whereby the silane treatment of MWCNTs improved
the composite properties due to better interfacial bond-
ing.58,59 Flexural properties of the carboxyl-functiona-
lized MWCNTs/epoxy composites were enhanced
compared with the base epoxy.60 MWCNTs were
welded on the carbon fiber surface by employing the
polyacrylonitrile coating, nanotube absorption and
heat treatments. Thus, it was claimed that the control
composite interlayer shear strength was enhanced by
around one-third.61 The interlaminar strength of
carbon/epoxy composites increased up to 103% with
the addition of MWCNTs onto the carbon fiber surface
as well as SWCNTs into the epoxy.62 It was also found
that the addition of the electrospun polyamide-6,6 nano-
fiber in the neat composite improved its toughness and
interlayer strength at the expense of tensile strength.63
We outlined that there were several studies about the
effect of stitching on mechanical properties of compos-
ites. Additionally, there were studies about the effect of
nanomaterials on the mechanical properties of compos-
ites. However, few researches that investigated both the
effects of stitching and nanomaterials on mechanical
properties of composites were found. Thus, the aim
of this work was to define the effect of stitching and
addition of the MWCNTs (nanostitching) on the short-
beam shear properties of nanoprepreg carbon/epoxy
composites.
3
Materials and methods
Materials used
Two types of carbon fiber fabrics such as twill (2/2 Z)
and satin (1/4) styles were used as reinforced substrates.
Epoxy resin with hardener and accelerator was used
as matrix material. The suppliers and specifications
of the carbon fibers, carbon fabrics, epoxy resin and
MWCNTs as well as polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based
carbon and Twaron CT para-aramid untwisted stitch
yarns used in this study are presented in Table 1. The
fabric unit areal weights were 590 g/m2 for twill (2/2 Z)
and 585 g/m2 for satin (1/4), and their thicknesses were
0.81 mm for twill and 0.98 mm for satin patterns.
The interlacement frequency for both substrates was
almost equal but their distributions in the substrates
were heterogeneous. The MWCNTs(Nanothinx, GR)
were designated due to compatibility with the carbon
fabric, better thermal–mechanical properties and ready
availability. The average sizes of the MWCNTs varied
from 15 to 35 nm for diameter, 10 mm for length and 1
to 2 nm for wall thickness.64 The tensile strength and
modulus of the MWCNTs were 200 GPa and 1 TPa,
respectively. Its purity,64 surface area and density65
were 97%, >100 m2/g and 1.74 g/cm3, respectively.
Stitched fiber in all preform structures were placed on
their through-the-thickness axis (Figure 1). The fiber
density and yarn linear density of PAN carbon
(AKSACA, TR) and Twaron CT (TEIJIN, JP) were
1.78 g/cm3, 1.45 g/cm3 and 6 K and 3360 dtex, respect-
ively. The tensile strength and modulus of carbon and
para-aramid stitched fiber were 4200 MPa, 3200 MPa,
240 GPa and 115 GPa, respectively. The elongation at
break was 1.8% for carbon and 2.9% for Twaron CT,
respectively.
Composite fabrication
Four types of preforms, namely unstitched base,
stitched base, unstitched nano and stitched nano were
manufactured. Unstitched base preform and compos-
ites were coded as CSU and CTU, in which CSU was a
four-layer carbon satin fabric [(0 /90 )]4 and CTU was
a four-layer carbon twill fabric structure. Stitched base
preform and composites were coded as CS-CS, CS-TS,
CT-CS and CT-TS, in which CS-CS and CT-CS were
four-layer satin and twill fabrics, stitched with carbon
fiber, respectively. However, CS-TS and CT-TS were
stitched with Twaron CT and were four-layer satin
and twill fabrics, respectively. Unstitched nano-
preform and composites were coded as CSU-N and
CTU-N, in which CSU-N and CTU-N were four-
layer satin and twill fabric structures with added
MWCNTs, respectively. Stitched nano-preform and
composites was coded as CS-CS-N, CT-CS-N,
4 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

Table 1. The suppliers and specifications of the carbon fibers, fabrics, epoxy resin and nanotubes.66

PAN-based carbon fibers

Fiber Tensile Tensile Melting

diameter Density strength modulus Elongation temperature
Type and supplier (mm) (g/cm3) (GPa) (GPa) at break (%) ( C)

12K, A-42, no twist, (AKSACA, TR) 6.0 1.78 4.20 240 1.8 >1200
Epoxy resin
Araldite LZ 5021-resin – 1.0–1.2 0.78–0.82 3.3–3.4 5.0–8.5 110–119
Aradur 1571-hardener
Accelerator 1573-accelar
(Biesterfeld Spezialchemie GmbH, DE)

Carbon fabrics

Yarn linear Fabric density Yarn

density (tex) (per 10 cm) crimp (%)

Fabric
Fabric areal thickness
Supplier Weave Coating Warp Weft Warp Weft weight (g/m2) Warp Weft (mm)

(Spinteks Twill (2/2 Z) DO12, standard 800 800 38 38 590 0.30 0.22 0.81
A.S., TR) Satin (1/4) epoxy coating, 800 800 38 38 585 0.36 0.20 0.98
1.0–1.5%

Multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)

Molecular Surface Tensile Tensile Melting

Particle weight area Density strength modulus temperature
Supplier dimensiona (g/mol) (m2/g) Purity (%) (g/cm3) (GPa) (TPa) ( C)

Nanothinx, GR 15–35  10  1–2 12.01 >100 97 1.74 200 1.0 3550
(Nanothinx64) (Nanothinx64) (Lehman et al.65)

Stitched fibers

Fiber Fiber Tensile Tensile

density diameter Yarn linear strength modulus Elongation
Fiber type and supplier (g/cm3) (mm) density (dtex) (GPa) (GPa) at break (%)

Twaron CT para-aramid 1.45 12 3360 3.2 115 2.9

(Teijin, JP)
PAN carbon (Aksaca, TR) 1.78 6 6K 4.2 240 1.8
a
Particle dimensions (diameter  length  wall thickness) (nm  mm  nm).

CS-TS-N and CT-TS-N, respectively. The CS-CS-N
and CT-CS-N were four-layer satin and twill fabrics,
respectively. They were stitched with carbon nanos-
titching fiber. The CS-TS and CT-TS were four-layer
satin and twill fabrics, respectively. They were stitched
with p-aramid nanostitching fiber. Some of the com-
posites are exhibited in Figure 1.
For manufacturing the composite samples, first, an
epoxy and MWCNTs mixture was prepared. More
information on the composite fabrication was pre-
sented by Bilisik et al.66 In this paper, there is a short
explanation to avoid repetition for readers. It was note-
worthy that the MWCNTs ratio (0.03125%) and stir-
ring time (120 min) used in this study was chosen after
rigorous attempts to minimize the agglomeration of the
MWCNTs. Stitching of the fabric layers was performed
in the prepreg state. For this purpose, firstly the carbon
fabric prepreg and prepreg stitch yarns (nanostitching)
were produced.67 Stitching was conducted manually on
the prepregs layered with a [0 /90 ]4 sequence using
PAN carbon and Twaron-nanostitched yarn. The dens-
ity of stitching and the spacing of the stitch rows were
Bilisik et al. 5

Figure 1. (a) Twaron-stitched twill carbon fabric preform (left) and composite (CT-TS) (right); (b) carbon-stitched twill carbon fabric
preform (left) and composite (CT-CS) (right); (c) Twaron-stitched twill carbon fabric nano-preform (left) and composite (CT-TS-N)
(right); (d) schematic top view of the Twaron-stitched structure (CT-TS/CT-TS-N); (e) schematic sectional view of the Twaron-stitched
structure (CT-TS/CT-TS-N); (f) schematic top view of carbon-stitched structure (CT-CS/CT-CS-N).

1 step/cm and 1 cm, respectively. A mold which was
covered with Teflon film was employed for the curing
of the nanostitch prepreg material. A hot press was
utilized to consolidate the prepreg material under
0.6 MPa pressure at 150 C for 15 min. After curing
the 3D nanostitched prepreg preform, the mold was
kept under pressure until the temperature decreased
to 40 C. Then, the sample composites were removed
from the mold.
Fabric and composite testing
The ISO 7211-3 standard was followed to determine the
directional crimp (%) by utilizing a Tautex digital
instrument (James H. Heal Co., UK). The areal density
of the fabric (g/m2) was identified based on the ISO
6348 standard using an Ohaus AdventurerTM Pro
AV812 (Ohaus Corp., USA). The weight measurement
of the MWCNTs (g) was obtained using a Shimadzu
AUX320 (Shimadzu Corp., JP) digital balance. The
PAN-based carbon fabric thickness (mm) was measured
by employing an EV07 digital measurement device
(Elastocon, SE). The ASTM D792-9168 standard was
followed to find the composite sample densities
(g/cm3). The ASTM D3171-9969 and ASTM D2734-
9170 standards were followed to find the composite
volume fraction (%) and void content (%), respectively.
The ASTM D2344-1371 standard was followed to
conduct the short-beam shear test using a Shimadzu
AG-XD 50 (Shimadzu, JP) tester with a 5 kN
loading cell equipped with TrapeziumÕ software
(Figure 2(a) and (b)). The testing speed was
1.0 mm/min. The measured average actual sample
dimensions were 11.80 (width)  36.46 (length)  3.01
(thickness) mm. The support span length to sample
thickness was 4.984/1. The short-beam test method
was near to have pure shear.71,72 The short-beam load
was conducted in the warp (0 , lengthwise) direction.
The tests were executed at standard laboratory atmos-
phere (temperature: 23 C  2 C, relative humidity:
50%  10%). The generated stresses during the flexure
load were compressive on the top surface of the sample
and tensile on the bottom surface of the sample during
short-beam shear loading. It was assumed that the max-
imum interlaminar shear stress occurred on the neutral
plane of the sample.72 Thus, the stress state should be
pure shear on the neutral plane. The stresses during
flexure load were kept low (due to low span length/
sample thickness ratio), promoting shear failures on
the neutral plane. On the contrary, the stress concen-
tration occurred around the applied load and support
points.72 Therefore, the assumption of the maximum
stress distribution at the neutral plane was an approxi-
mation.72 The short-beam strength was calculated
according to equation (1)
Pm
Fsbs ¼ 0:75  ð1Þ
bh
where Fsbs is the short-beam strength (MPa), Pm is the
maximum load (N), b is the specimen width (mm) and h
is the specimen thickness (mm).
6 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

Figure 2. (a) Short-beam fixture with sample; (b) failed sample under short-beam load; (c) damaged area measurements on
unstitched base composite (CSU); (d) unstitched nano (CSU-N); (e) stitched base (CS-CS); (f) stitched nanocomposite (CS-CS-N,
digital image).

Table 2. Physical characteristics of the composite samples for the short-beam test.

Measured Fiber weight Stitch yarn Total fiber Void

density fraction, weight fraction, fraction, content,
Label Structure (g/cm3) Vfw (%) Vsfw (%) Vtfw (%) Vc (%)

CTU Twill/unstitched base 1.51 65.56 – 65.56 1.27

CSU Satin/unstitched base 1.53 69.45 – 69.45 1.15
CT-CS Twill/carbon-stitched base 1.48 59.05 1.47 60.52 0.95
CS-CS Satin/carbon-stitched base 1.52 65.93 1.57 67.50 1.02
CT-TS Twill/Twaron-stitched base 1.49 60.47 1.21 61.68 0.75
CS-TS Satin/Twaron-stitched base 1.55 69.46 1.30 70.76 0.87
CTU-N Twill/unstitched nano 1.52 67.67 – 67.70 1.30
CSU-N Satin/unstitched nano 1.48 60.06 – 60.09 1.13
CT-CS-N Twill/carbon-stitched nano 1.50 61.78 1.70 63.51 1.10
CT-TS-N Twill/Twaron-stitched nano 1.49 61.16 1.23 62.42 0.87
CS-CS-N Satin/carbon-stitched nano 1.48 58.86 1.48 60.37 1.01
CS-TS-N Satin/Twaron-stitched nano 1.49 59.58 1.17 60.78 0.42

An optical microscope (Olympus SZ61, JP equipped Results and discussion

with Bs200DOC digital image analysis software-
Bs200DOC, TR) and field emission scanning electron
microscope (FESEM, ZEISS GeminiSEM500, DE)
were used to examine the fractured samples. An
image analyzing software (Image Pro-Plus, Media
Cybernetics, USA) was employed to determine the
fractured areas of each sample as illustrated in
Figure 2(c) to (f).
Fiber fraction and density
Table 2 presents the results of the fiber fraction and
density tests of the composite samples. The measured
density values ranged between 1.48 and 1.55 g/cm3 with
a mean value of 1.50 g/cm3. This minor fluctuation in
the density values can be attributed to various factors,
such as the slightly different areal weight values of the
Bilisik et al. 7

Table 3. Short-beam test results of the composite samples.

Short-beam Short-beam
Short-beam load displacement at strength Damaged
Label (maximum) (N) maximum load (mm) (MPa) area (mm2)

CTU 1929.86 0.49 49.42  3.65 18.48

CSU 1573.41 0.46 48.66  2.31 11.74
CT-CS 1808.55 0.43 43.10  1.78 19.05
CS-CS 3068.77 0.60 56.71  4.68 26.94
CT-TS 2926.50 0.51 43.95  1.07 47.58
CS-TS 1480.06 0.43 39.29  2.26 13.52
CTU-N 2525.60 0.58 46.71  1.06 47.77
CSU-N 3035.56 0.59 57.39  2.12 29.12
CT-CS-N 2162.14 0.48 43.01  3.69 43.40
CS-CS-N 3606.28 0.66 57.53  0.58 46.80
CT-TS-N 2503.59 0.46 44.15  4.03 51.38
CS-TS-N 2947.30 0.55 52.59  3.32 33.60

twill and satin fabrics, different stitch yarn densities and
the MWCNTs incorporation. The total fiber fractions,
ranged between 60.09 and 70.76% with a mean value of
64.20%. The variation in fiber fraction results can also
be attributed to the aforementioned effects. The effect
of the stitch yarns on the total fiber weight fraction was
considerably small with a value range of 1.17–1.70%.
The void content values were acceptable (0.42–1.30%)
for this kind of processing.
Short-beam strength
Table 3 demonstrates the short-beam test results of the
composite samples. Load–displacement graphs of some
representative samples are illustrated in Figure 3(a)
and (b). As exhibited in Figure 3, after the proportional
limit was passed, the load attained its maximum value
and it abruptly fell due to major carbon warp/weft
breakage. Then, a small increase was recorded in the
load value possibly due to crack arrest in the failed
region. Eventually, the load was decreased sharply
because of the complete fracture of the structure. As
shown in Figure 3(a), the highest load was obtained in
the CS-CS-N sample followed by the CS-CS, CSU-N
and CSU. In Figure 3(b), the highest load was from the
CTU-N sample followed by the CT-CS-N, CTU and
CT-CS. Figure 4(a) and (b) shows some of the individ-
ual short-beam load–displacement curves. As seen in
8 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

Figure 4. Some of the individual load–displacement graphs of satin (1/4) and twill (2/2) carbon fabric composite samples: (a) load–
displacement curves of the CS-CS-N and CSU composite samples and (b) load–displacement curves of the CT-CS-N and CTU
composite samples.

Figure 5. Short-beam load of various developed carbon/epoxy MWCNT composites.

Figure 4, each short-beam load–displacement curve for
the CS-CS-N and CSU as well as the CT-CS-N and
CTU samples exhibited small standard deviation in
both the proportional limits and around the maximum
load regions.
Figure 5 exhibits the short-beam load of all carbon/
epoxy MWCNT composites. It was understood that the
stitching and MWCNTs increased the short-beam load
of all the stitched base and stitched nanocomposites.
The stitching yarn type also slightly effected the
short-beam load of the stitched base and stitched nano-
composites where the PAN carbon-stitched composite
showed better performance compared to the para-
aramid stitched composites.
Figure 6 illustrates the short-beam strength values of
all composite samples. As depicted in Figure 6, the
interlaminar shear strength of unstitched base (CTU)
was insignificantly (1.54%) higher than that of the
unstitched base (CSU). Therefore, the short-beam
strength values of the CTU and the CSU structures
were almost the same. The interlaminar shear strength
of the CTU was approximately 11.93% higher than
those of the stitched base (CT-CS and CT-TS) compos-
ites. Thus, stitching negatively influenced the short-
beam strength of twill fabric composites for both the
carbon (CT-CS) and Twaron-stitched (CT-TS) yarns.
This result can be ascribed to the stitch-induced
unevenness in the structure as well as the minor fila-
ment breakage and stitch holes which may act as stress
concentration points. The effect of the stitch yarn type
on these samples, i.e. carbon and Twaron stitching was
negligible. The interlaminar shear strength of the CSU
was approximately 14.20% lower than that of the
carbon-stitched base (CS-CS) and was 19.26% higher
than that of the Twaron-stitched (CS-TS) composites.
Therefore, the effect of stitching was different in the
case of satin fabric composites. Stitching with carbon
yarns noticeably increased the short-beam strength of
Bilisik et al.
Figure 6. Short-beam strength values of the composite samples.
Figure 7. Short-beam displacement at maximum load values of the composite samples.
the satin fabric base composites (CS-CS) compared
with the unstitched base samples (CSU). This can be
attributed to the delamination suppression effect of
stitching which generally increased the interlaminar
shear strength. The Twaron-stitched samples (CS-TS)
showed smaller strength values compared with the
unstitched base samples (CSU), probably due to both
the toughness characteristic of the para-aramid fiber
and bonding between the p-aramid fiber and epoxy.
The interlaminar shear strength of the CTU was
5.48% higher than that of the unstitched nano
(CTU-N) composites and was approximately 11.81%
higher than those of the stitched nano (CT-CS-N and
CT-TS-N) composites, probably partly due to agglom-
eration and the uneven dispersion of the MWCNTs in
the resin and TOW fiber (filament bundles) surfaces.
On the contrary, the interlaminar shear strength of
the CSU-N was 15.21% higher than that of the
unstitched base (CSU) composite. The stitched nano
(CS-CS-N and CS-TS-N) composites were approxi-
mately 15.42% and 7.47% higher than that of the
9
unstitched base (CSU) composite. Therefore, the
MWCNTs addition on the unstitched CSU, carbon
and Twaron-stitched (CS-CS and CS-TS) satin fabric
composite samples considerably increased their short-
beam strength.
Figure 7 illustrates the displacement values of the
samples at maximum load. In Figure 7, carbon-
stitched twill carbon fabric composites (CT-CS) dis-
played a smaller displacement value compared with the
unstitched base sample (CTU), whereas the Twaron-
stitched samples (CT-TS) showed similar displacement
values with the CTU sample. The carbon-stitched
satin fabric composites (CS-CS) displayed greater dis-
placement when compared to the unstitched base satin
composites (CSU). Nano-addition increased the dis-
placement values in most of the cases probably due to
the micro-level resin nanotube pull-out and friction.
Figure 8 exhibits the relative sizes of the damaged areas
of the samples after the short-beam tests. The damaged
area of the unstitched base (CSU) composite was 36.47%
lower than that of the unstitched base (CTU) composite,
10 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

Figure 8. Relative sizes of the damaged areas after the short-beam tests.

Figure 9. Warp directional short-beam failures in the composite samples. (a) Satin fabric unstitched base (CSU) top face; (b)
unstitched base (CSU) cross-section; (c) unstitched base (CSU) bottom face; (d) unstitched base nano (CSU-N) top face; (e)
unstitched base (CSU-N) cross-section and (f) unstitched base nano (CSU-N) bottom face (optical microscope, magnification  6.7).

probably due to the interlacement pattern. The damage
size of the unstitched twill fabric composite (CTU) was
similar to that of the carbon-stitched sample (CT-CS),
whereas the Twaron-stitched sample (CT-TS) displayed
greater damage size compared with the unstitched base
(CTU) sample. With regard to the satin fabric composites,
the damaged area of the carbon-stitched nano (CS-CS-N)
composite was 37.78% higher for the unstitched nano
(CSU-N) and was 74.92% higher for base (CSU) as
well as it was 42.44% higher for stitched base (CS-CS)
composite. Additionally, the damaged area of the
carbon-stitched nano (CS-CS-N) was 28.21% higher for
p-aramid stitched nano (CS-TS-N) and was 71.11%
higher for the para-aramid stitched (CS-TS) samples. In
addition, the unstitched nano (CSU-N) was 59.68%
higher for the base (CSU) composite. Thus, the carbon-
stitched sample (CS-CS) exhibited greater damage size
compared with the unstitched (CSU) and Twaron-stitched
Bilisik et al. 11

Figure 10. Warp directional short-beam failures in the composite samples. (a) Carbon-stitched satin composite (CS-CS) top face;
(b) carbon-stitched satin composite (CS-CS) cross-section; (c) carbon-stitched satin composite (CS-CS) bottom face; (d) carbon-
stitched satin nanocomposite (CS-CS-N) top face; (e) carbon-stitched satin nanocomposite (CS-CS-N) cross-section and (f) carbon-
stitched satin nanocomposite (CS-CS-N) bottom face (optical microscope, magnification  6.7).

Figure 11. Warp directional short-beam failures in the cross-section of the composite samples. (a) Twill fabric unstitched base
(CTU); (b) twill fabric unstitched nano (CTU-N); (c) carbon-stitched twill base (CT-CS) and (d) carbon-stitched twill nanocomposite
(CT-CS-N) (optical microscope, magnification  6.7).
12 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

(CS-TS) sample. The twill fabric composites showed some especially the PAN carbon-stitched yarn on the base struc-
larger damage areas when compared to the satin fabric tures made the material slightly brittle.
composites. The MWCNTs addition increased the
damage size in short-beam tests for all the sample types.
This probably indicated that MWCNTs addition and

Figure 12. Warp directional short-beam failures in the composite samples. (a) Twaron-stitched satin base composite (CS-TS) cross-
section; (b) Twaron-stitching path in fractured satin base composite (CS-TS) cross-section and (c) Twaron-stitched satin nanocom-
posite (CS-TS-N) bottom face (optical microscope, magnification  6.7).

Figure 13. SEM images of warp directional short-beam failures in the composite samples. (a) Satin fabric unstitched base (CSU)
bottom face; (b) unstitched base (CSU) cross-section; (c) unstitched base nano (CSU-N) bottom face and (d) unstitched base (CSU-N)
cross-section.
Bilisik et al. 13

Failure analysis by optical micrograph
Post-failure micrographs of the satin fabric unstitched
base (CSU) and satin fabric unstitched nano (CSU-N)
samples after the short-beam tests are shown in
Figure 9(a) to (f). Lateral major matrix cracking and
warp fiber failures were detected on the compression
side of both the base and nano-added structures
(Figure 9(a) and (d)). On the tension side of the struc-
tures, lateral multiple warp failures and TOW opening
between the warp and weft TOWs were observed
(Figure 9(c) and (f)). In cross-section of the CSU
sample, catastrophic through-the-thickness layer break-
age was found. Layers were angularly sheared in an
outward horizontal v-shape in the out-of-plane direc-
tion on both the compression and tension sides as
shown in Figure 9(b). In cross-section of the CSU-N
sample, total layer failures in the out-of-plane direction
were observed. The layers were sheared in a large
inward opening horizontal v-shape on both the com-
pression and tension sides where local layer delamin-
ation and crack opening was identified (Figure 9(e)).
Post-failure micrographs of the carbon-stitched base
(CS-CS) and carbon nanostitched (CS-CS-N) compos-
ites after the short-beam tests are shown in Figure 10(a)
to (f). Lateral total matrix cracking and warp yarn fail-
ures were identified on the compression side of the
CS-CS and CS-CS-N composites (Figure 10(a) and
(d)). On the tension side of the structures, lateral
matrix cracking and warp yarn failures as well as
carbon-stitched yarn breakage were obtained. A limited
intralayer opening between the warp and weft TOWs
were found (Figure 10(c) and (f)). In cross-section of
the CS-CS structure, catastrophic through-the-
thickness layer failures were observed and the layers
were angularly sheared in a large inward opening hori-
zontal v-shape in the out-of-plane direction on both
the compression and tension sides as shown in
Figure 10(b). However, sharp through-the-thickness
layer failures were identified in the CS-CS-N composite
(Figure 10(e)).
Post-failure cross-sectional micrographs of the twill
unstitched base (CTU), twill unstitched nano (CTU-N),
twill carbon-stitched base (CT-CS) and twill carbon-
stitched nano (CT-CS-N) composites after the short-
beam tests are demonstrated in Figure 11(a) to (d). In
cross-section of the failed CTU and CTU-N structures,
two-line major catastrophic multiple layer failures were
identified and the layers were slightly angularly sheared

Figure 14. SEM images of warp directional short-beam failures in the composite samples. (a) Carbon-stitched satin composite
(CS-CS) bottom face; (b) carbon-stitched satin composite (CS-CS) cross-section; (c) carbon-stitched satin nanocomposite (CS-CS-N)
bottom face and (d) carbon-stitched satin nanocomposite (CS-CS-N) cross-section.
14 Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)

(Figure 11(a)), whereas severe interlayer failure in the
form of inward horizontal v-shape cracks extending
through the structure thickness from the compression
to tension side was observed for the unstitched nanos-
tructure (Figure 11(b)). The cross-sectional views of the
twill carbon-stitched (CT-CS) and twill carbon nanos-
titched (CT-CS-N) samples showed catastrophic
through-the-thickness tensile layer failures. The crack
propagation was largely restricted around the failure
zone (Figure 11(c)), whereas severe angular interlayer
failure in the form of inward vertical v-shape (bulge
zone) cracks extending through the sample thickness
were observed for the stitched nanocomposite. In add-
ition, indentation was observed on the compression side
and slight tensile failure was detected on the tension
side of the CT-CS-N structure (Figure 11(d)).
Post-failure micrographs of the satin fabric Twaron-
stitched base (CS-TS) and satin fabric Twaron-stitched

Figure 15. SEM images of warp directional short-beam failures in the composite samples. (a) Twaron-stitched satin composite
(CS-TS) cross-section; (b) Twaron-stitched satin composite (CS-TS) cross-section; (c) Twaron-stitched satin nanocomposite
(CS-TS-N) cross-section; (d) Twaron-stitched satin nanocomposite (CS-TS-N) cross-section; (e) p-aramid stitching fiber in composite
(CS-TS) cross-section and (f) close view of through-the-thickness stitching zone in composite (CS-TS) cross-section.
Bilisik et al. 15

nano (CS-TS-N) samples after the short-beam tests are
shown in Figure 12(a) to (c). In the cross-section of the
CS-TS, an inelastic deformation failure mode was found.
Angularly oriented interlaminar shear failures on the
compression side were also observed (Figure 12(a)).
Figure 12(b) shows layer-to-layer multiple yarn breakage
as well as local delamination around the broken loop
part of the p-aramid stitching yarn. The stitched yarn
served as a delamination suppressor around the region.
On the tension side of the stitched nano (CS-TS-N)
sample, catastrophic layer-to-layer breakage and partial
p-aramid stitch yarn failure at the loop section occurred.
Thus, delamination and layer failures in the fractured
region of the CS-TS-N were outwardly arrested
(Figure 12(c)).
Failure analysis by scanning electron microscope
images
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the
satin fabric unstitched base (CSU) and satin fabric
unstitched nano (CSU-N) composites after the short-
beam tests are shown in Figure 13(a) to (d). Lateral
catastrophic tensile warp fiber failures and a weft
TOW opening were found on the tensile side of the
CSU structure (Figure 13(a)). Bended warp TOW and
warp-weft delamination near the tension side of the
CSU composite were identified. A weft TOW opening
and complete warp TOW failures in the shear band
were also observed (Figure 13(b)). On the tension side
of the CSU-N structure, matrix-filament debonding
and multiple matrix breakage as well as tensile filament
fracture were seen. Shear hackle in the matrix was also
found due to subsequent shear flow during short-beam
loading (Figure 13(c)). In the cross-section of the CSU-
N structure, a large weft TOW opening, kinked warp
TOW breakage as well as warp-weft delamination in
the shear zone were obtained (Figure 13(d)).
SEM images of the carbon-stitched base (CS-CS)
and carbon-nanostitched (CS-CS-N) composites after
the short-beam tests are shown in Figure 14(a) to (d).
Lateral matrix cracking in the shear zone and filament
pull-out marks on the matrix of the CS-CS structure
were found on the tension side of base structure

Figure 16. SEM images of warp directional short-beam failures in the composite samples. (a) Twaron-stitched twill composite
(CT-TS) cross-section; (b) Twaron-stitched twill composite (CT-TS) cross-section; (c) Twaron-stitched twill nanocomposite (CT-TS-N)
bottom face and (d) Twaron-stitched twill nanocomposite (CT-TS-N) cross-section.
16
(Figure 14(a)). Matrix-TOW breakage and filament-
filament delamination in the bending region were iden-
tified (Figure 14(b)).
Multiple matrix failure lines in the shear zone and
multiple filament pull-out marks of the CS-CS-N com-
posite were also identified (Figure 14(c)). Multiple ten-
sile failures in the single filament axis as well as in the
filament bundles were observed (Figure 14(d)).
SEM graphs of the satin fabric Twaron-stitched
base (CS-TS) and satin fabric Twaron-stitched nano
(CS-TS-N) structures after the short-beam tests are
shown in Figure 15(a) to (f). Kinked warp failure
(inelastic deformation failure) in the shear zone of
the CS-TS sample was seen (Figure 15(a)). Around
the shear zone, partial tensile filament failure
and total catastrophic filament failure were found.
Local layer-to-layer delamination was also identified.
Multiple tensile failures in the single filament axis
as well as in the filament bundles were observed
(Figure 15(b)). Some kinked warp failures and a large
weft TOW opening in the shear zone of the CS-TS-N
sample were found (Figure 15(c)). Multiple tensile fila-
ments in the kinked warp TOW were also identified and
are shown in Figure 15(d). p-Aramid stitched Twaron
in the CS-TS composite made a slight curve path and
some of the filaments were frayed from the stitching
bundle (Figure 15(e)). Next to the stitched fiber region,
a sharp crack tip was identified. It was considered that
the stitching fiber acted as a crack barrier (Figure 15(e)).
In a closer view of the p-aramid stitching yarn, fibrillar
splitting and some fraying filaments were observed and
are shown in Figure 15(f).
SEM graphs of the twill Twaron-stitched (CT-TS)
and twill Twaron-stitched nano (CT-CS-N) samples
after the short-beam tests are shown in Figure 16(a)
to (d). Multiple weft TOW fractures and weft TOW
crack propagation near the tension side of the CT-TS
sample was found (Figure 16(a)). Multiple tensile
filament fractures were identified and the crack path
followed directly to the out-of-plane direction of the
sample. Later, it turned to the warp-weft TOW inter-
face and this led to local TOW to TOW delamination
(Figure 16(b)). Intra filament-matrix peeling and shear-
based matrix breakage along the filament axis were
found on the tensile side of the CT-TS-N sample
(Figure 16(c)). Large and small weft TOW shear
cracks and a kinked warp TOW fracture were observed
in the shear zone of the compression side of the CT-TS-
N sample as shown in Figure 16(d).
Conclusions
In this study, the effects of stitching and carbon
nanotube addition on the short-beam shear properties
of carbon/epoxy composites were investigated.
Journal of Composite Materials 0(0)
Unstitched base (without MWCNTs) satin and twill
carbon/epoxy composites displayed similar short-beam
strength values. Stitching slightly reduced the short-
beam strength of twill fabric composites for both
carbon and Twaron-stitched yarns possibly due to stitch-
ing based unevenness in the structure. The effect of the
stitching yarn types on twill carbon/epoxy composites
was negligible. Carbon-stitched yarns noticeably
increased the short-beam strength of satin fabric stitched
base composites compared with the unstitched base
composite. However, the para-aramid stitched satin
carbon/epoxy composite showed lower short-beam
strength values compared with the unstitched base com-
posite. In general, stitching and MWCNTs addition
enhanced the short-beam strength of the base composite.
Stitched composite samples generally showed
increased damage size compared with the unstitched
composite samples. The addition of the MWCNTs
increased the damage size in short-beam tests for all
the sample types. The failure of unstitched samples
occurred as a combination of lateral major matrix
cracking, warp fiber failures and catastrophic
through-the-thickness layer breakage, whereas the
stitched samples experienced lateral total matrix crack-
ing, warp yarn failures and stitch yarn breakage. The
delamination was arrested severely in the stitched sam-
ples, as can be inferred from the local delamination
around the stitch loops. Thus, the stitch yarn served
as a delamination suppressor around the region. It
can be concluded that both stitching and nano-addition
can be used to improve the short-beam shear properties
of base composites.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr G Erdogan for helping to
make the composite samples and Dr S Gungor for some
useful discussions on carbon nanotube processing. They
also thank the Erciyes University Technology Research and
Implementation Center (TAUM) for some scanning electron
microscope images.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This research received a grant from Roketsan
Industries Incorporations, Grant No. RS/ERCIYES _ DSM-
76301-14-01N/R.
ORCID iD
Kadir Bilisik https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0592-980X
Bilisik et al.
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