Oil Tanker

OOWCARGOWORK:CARRIAGEOF LIQUIDCARGOES
PRESSURE/VACUUM
IG COMPOSMON. 63
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES 64
GASDETECTTON ANDEQU1PMENT......................... ... ..68
The ExDlosimeter 68
TANKCLEANING ..72
REASONS FORTANKCLEANING. 77
METHODS OFTANKCLEANING 73
CRUDE OILWASHING. 73
COWOPERATION 75
LOADING PROCEDURES. 79
DISCHARGING PROCEDURE 80
PROCEDURE FORAVOIDING CARGO CONTAMINANON 81
BALLASTING PROCEDURES 82
ENTRY INTOENCLOSED SPACES 82
C H E M | C ATLA N K E R. S
................... ................88
GENEML 88
SHIPTYPES 88
tMosHtPTYPE-t........,,,,. ........89
IMOSHIPTYPE_ N 90
tMosHlPTYPE-ilr....... ......90
C E R T | F | C AOTFEF | T N E S S . . . . ...........91
THEHAZARDS OFCHEMICALS. 91
PUMPS ANDPIPELINES. 92
T A N KC O A T | N G S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........92
CARGO OPEMTIONS 93
CARGO MEASUREMENT ANDSAMPUNG. 93
INERTING ANDPURGING 94
PADD|NG......... ..........94
T A N KC 1 E A N t N G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9. 4
.........
CARGO HEATING 95
HEALTH ANDSAFETY
THE SAFETYBARRIER.
CARGO TANKVEIJTING. 97
GLOSSARY OFTERMS. 98
CargoInformationRequiredBeforeLoading 101
Personnelprotection lo2
GAS-CARRIERS .... ..103
GENERAL 103
TYPES OFGASCARRIER, 104
Shipswithfullypressurised
tanks:............... '104
.................
Shipswithsemi-refrigerated
tanks:............. ..................
104
Shipswithfullyrefrigerated
tanks:............... .................
104
TankerSafetyGuide(LiquefiedGas) to7
Someoperatonalprocedures 110
CARGO CONDMONING 114
APPENDIX 117
Definitions tt7
Ship/ShoreSafetyCheckList, 724
ANSWERS TO SELFASSESSMENT TESTS:............ ........131
SelfAssessmentTestCw 2/1 131
I
OOWCARGOWORK:CARRIAGEOF LIQUIDCARGOES
NationalVocationalQualifications
FORMVO
KNOWLEDGE
UNDERPINNING
OUTCOMES
LEARNING
WC Cargo handling and stowage at the Operational Level
WC 1 Monitorthe loading,stowage,securingand unloadingof cargoesand their care

duringthe voyage
WC1.'l Gargo Handling, Stowage and Securing
WC 1.1.2 Know and apply the principles and safe methods of arranging for the proper loading,
stowage and carriage of Oil Gas and Chemical Cargoes and related ballasting
operations
(a) Commonpipeline systems, cargoventingsystemsandpressure/vacuum valves,

heatingandcoolingsystems
(b) Tankersafetyand the dangersassociatedwith liquidand gas cargoes
(i) theflammable diagram
(ii) ignition
sources
(iii) causesanddangersof, andprocedures to preventstaticelectricity
(iv) thetoxiceffectof oil,gasandchemical cargoes
(c) Useandlimitationsof instruments usedfor testingtankatmospheres
(d) The purposeof, and the procedures for usingInertGas systems
(e) Methods,proceduresand importanceof tankand linecleaning
(f) Methodsof ballastmanagement
(S) Precautionsandprocedures for cargohandling multigrades
including
(h) Methodsof cargo measurement includingullages,soundings,densityand
temoerature
FOROOWs- VOLUME2 - LIOUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
LIQUIDCARGOES
PETROLEUM
AND HAZARDSOF PETROLEUM

THE CHARACTERISTICS
coverscrudeoil andall of its products.

Thewordpetroleum
viscosity,and contentof the crude

Thereare manydifferenttypesof crudeoil. The volatility,
willdependuponthe locationof theoil well.
Some crudes are very good for extractingproductsrelatingto the paraftinchain of

hydrocarbons. Othertypesof crudeare onlyfit for makingheavyproduclsliketar,bitumen,and
heavyfueloil,as thereare no 'finer'endsin thecrude.
To obtainthe valuableby-products fromcrude,il hasto be'cracked'usinga suitablecatalystto

splitthe crudeoil into products
differing rangingfrom gasolineof highoctane,to thick black
heavyfueloil.
All petroleumis volatile,somemorevolatilethan others,thereforeall productsfrom petroleum

I
value.
havea volatility
by heating/cooling
can be measuredin a laboratory
Thisvolatility the productthrougha rangeof
temperatures,and noting the temperatureat which the product will give off sufficient
hydrocarbon gasthat,whenthisgas is mixedwithair,it is flammable.
This gives rise to understanding flashpoint. The flashpointof a productis the LOWEST
temperature thatthe productwillgiveoff gasthat,whenmixedwithair,willbecomeflammable.
Handlingand shippingpetroleum is extremelyhazardousbecauseof thisvolatility.Thereforea

limitingfactor is put on the word volatilewhen handlingand transportingpetroleum.This
limitingfactoris a temperature
of 60 degreescelsius.
In the industry.all petroleumproductswith a flashpointBELOW60 degreescelsiusare

considered highlyvolatile,and extremelydangerousto handleand transport.An exampleof
whitespirit,and most
highlyvolatileproductsare benzine,motorspirit,aviationspirit,kerosene,
crudeoils.
O Blackpooland The Fylde College

FleetwoodNauticalCamDus
FOROOWS- VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
OF PETROLEUM
CHARACTERISTICS
DANGEROUS
withthe
Owingto the specialnatureof oil cargoeswe haveto considerthe hazardsassociated
loading,carriageanddischarge of oil cargoes.Theseare broadlyas follows:
FIRE,HEALTH,POLLUTION, REACTIVITY
TOXICITY,
FIRE/EXPLOSION
Petroleumliquidand its productsdo not igniteBUT the VAPOURgivenoff from themdoes.

of the liquidis the abilityto burn if the conditions
The flammability are favourable.For most
inflammablevapoursthereis a highlimitabove which the mixture
of air andhydrocarbonsis too
richanda lowlimitbelowwhichthe mixlureis tooweakandit willnot burn.
are usually: UFL

Limitsof flammability 10%GASto 90%AIR
LFL 1% GASTO 99%AIR
willnotgivereadings
NOTEAn explosimeter outsidetheselimits.
TOXtCtTY
The toxiceffectsof petroleum vapourswill preventthe supplyof air to a personbreathing

in a
confinedspace,BUT in addition,some petroleum vapoursare TOXIC or poisonous,
and may
havebotha chronicand acuteeffect. Someheavierhydrocarbon vapoursare toxicwell below
the LFL of 1o/oand so necessitates showingthe TLV (thresholdlimitvalue)or toxicityof an
inhaledgas in "partspermillion".Shortperiodsof exposure are usuallysafebut0.1%gas in air
(1000ppm) can cause irritation
of the eyeswithinone hour.
"drunkenness"
within15 minutes.
0.7%gas in air(7000ppm)
cancausesymptoms
of
gasin air(20,000ppm)
2.Oo/o paralysis
cancauseunconsciousness, andevendeath-
oils from the MiddleEasl are usuallymorepoisonousthan sulpherleanoils

The sulphur-rich
fromthe NorthSea.
SKINCONTACT:
Personnelcominginto contactwith oil cargoesthroughspillage,leakageor any otherreason

elementsof the cargoon the skindirectand by skinabsorption
are in dangerfromcorrosive of
poisons.ihe mostvulnerable blindness
organis of coursethe eyesand as a result may follow
eye contact.
Someof the skin ailmentsthat may be as a resultof contactwith oil cargoesare dermatitis,
burntskintissue,dry skintissue,acneand,in the longterm,skincancer.
O Blackpooland The FyldeCollege

FleetwoodNauticalCampus
FOROOWs- VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
The productscarried can of course lead to direct health hazards and we can look at two of
these to give us an idea of the type of hazardinvolved.
CONTAINING
CARGOES HYDROGEN
SULPHIDE
AND BENZENE
Manycrudeoils containtracequantitiesof hydrogensulphidebut some,calledsour crudes,

containhydrogensulphidein sufficientquantitiesto create an additionalhazard to their
handling.
Hydrogensulphideis highlyvolatileand as a resultwill be presentin largequantitiesin the

vapourfromthe oil,whichmeansthatgasesventedduringloadingcan be extremely hazardous
if inhaled.
as a vapourcan be veryquicklyidentified
Its presence by its mostoffensiveand pungentodour,
somewhatsimilarto rotteneggs. lts toxiceffect,howeveris one of paralysisof the nervous
systemandone of thefirstsensesto be renderedineffectiveis thatof smell.
Concentrations of 200-300ppmvapourin airwill producesuchmarkedeyeandrespiratory tract

irritationthat longer exposurethan a few minutescannot be willinglytolerated. Higher
concentrations than these can be toleratedfor a sharply decreasingtime until, at a
concentrationof only 1,000 ppm a few seconds' exposurecan result in immediate
unconsciousness failurewhichunlessquicklyrestoredwill be rapidlyfata..
and respiratory
Hydrogensulphideabsorbedis not accumulated by the bodybut is excretedwithina few days.

Recoveryfrom both minorand seriouseffectsis thereforecomplete.
BENZENEis of the aromaticfamilyof hydrocarbons whichhavea greatertoxicpropertythan

conventional toxiceffect,is uniquein
oils. Benzene,in additionto this higherlevelof immediate
overlongexposureand are irreparable.
thatits effectsare cu'nulative
Effectof liquidcontacton the eyes causesgreat irritation,on the skin a slightirritationbut

continuouscontactwill lead to defattingand possiblysecondaryinfection. lf the liquid is
absorbedby the skin then only smallamounlsare absorbedbut it is unlikelythat systemic
poisoning canarisefromimmersing the handsin benzene(butnotto be recommended).
HEALTHHAZARDS
(a) lnhalation
of toxic,narcoticor oxygendeficientatmospheres.
(i) Effects- giddiness,

unconcsciousness,
organicdisorders,
braindamage,death.
(ii) Prevention- closingmeansof entryto tanksand accommodation, recirculating

air in accommodation, ventinggases well clear of vessel. Stringentsafety
precautionspriorto tankenlry.
(b) Contactwithskin
(i) Effects- skindamagesuchas acne,crackingandinfection,

skincancer.
(ii) - avoidcontactwith petroleum,

Prevention wearglovesor use barriercreamsif
soaoand water.
contactunavoidable.Cleanskinwithefficienthandcleansers.
Dressand Drotect
wounds.

FOROOWs- VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGoES
CARGOWORK
HAZARDS
FIRE/EXPLOSION
productssupplythe 'Fuel'in thetriangle.
lf you referto thefiretrianglebelow,petroleum
OXYGEN
FUEL
Whilsthandlingand carryingpetroleum we haveto carefullyconsiderwhatwe can do to ensure

the FireTriangleis alwayscollapsed.
We can restrictthefuelsideof the triangle.
We can removethe oxygensideof the triangle.
We can removethe heatsideof thetriangle.
OUTSIDETHETANKS- We cancontrolthe escapeof gasfromthe tanks

We can recirculate
accommodation airto excludegas.
gas
We canventexcess througha high vent.
-
Removeignitionsources no smoking.
INSIDETHE TANKS - We cancoverthe productwitha volumeof inertgas.

We canfit flamearresterson anyopenlngs.
We canfit oxygencontentalarms.
We can avoidstaticelectricitvbuildup
We canearthall sampling/measuring instruments.
A wellknowncauseof fireand explosion whilsthandling/storing is ignitionfromstatic

petroleum
chargesthataregenerated
electrical in tanksand pipelines.
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FleetwoodNauticalCamPUs
CARGOWORK
CAUSESANDDANGERS
STATICELECTRICITY.
can causesparksthat can igniteflammablegas,althoughnot all sparkshave

Staticelectricity
energyto do this. The reasonsfor precautions
sufficient necessary to minimisethe hazardcan
be understood onlyfromknowledge of the basicprinciples
of staticelectricity.
ALL materialsnormallycontainequal numbersof positiveand negativecharges. Normally

theseare evenlydistributed throughoutthe material, chargingoccurswhenever
butelectrostatic
thisequalityof distribution and chargesfromone signare separated
is disturbed, fromthoseof
the oppositesign causing a voltagebuildup between them. Where the voltagebetweenthe
separatedchargesis substantialit may be sufficientto breakdown the atmospherein the
vicinityand so causea rapiddischarge in theformof a spark.
OIL FLOW
Forpracticalpurposes all flowin petroleum pipelinesis turbulent.Thisturbulence scoopsup an

innerlayerof chargedmolecules and distributes
it throughout the bulkof the petroleumin the
pipe,whilstleavingthe outerlayerat the interface withthe pipewall. Thusthe chargedlayers
are separatedand the petroleumin and emergingfrom the pipelinebecomecharged. The
fastertheflowin the pipethe greatertheturbulence andgenerally the greaterthe charging.
This meansthat wheneverturbulence is presentthereis the possibility

of a build-upin static
thena sparkmaybe produced.
and if the voltagebuild-upis substantial
electricity
WATERFLOW
Whenwaterdropletssettlethrougha depthof petroleumin a tank it causesseparationof the

two chargedlayers.Suchchargingwillcontinuethroughoutthe period and
of watersettlement
maypersistlongafterpumpingintothetankhasstopped.
therefore
AIR FLOW
The passageof airthroughpetroleum willnotin itselfgeneratestatic,butif air is passedintothe

bottomof a tank and then releaseswaterto the surfacewith it the subsequentsettlingof water
backthrougha low conductivity distillatecan resultin powerfulelectrostaticchargingwhichwill
L-
persistuntilthe disturbed
waterhasresettled.
STEAM
Waterdropletsissuingat high velocitywith a jet of wet steamcan becomechargedby contact

withthe nozzlethroughwhichthejet is issuing,thisgivesriseto a chargedmistin the tankand
any unbondedconductorin the tank may accumulateelectrostaticchargeby settlementof the
mistuoonit.
PIPELINES
Whenchargedpetroleum flowsthrougha rubberflexiblepipelinethenpartof the chargemaybe

pickedup by the hosesmetalflangeswhichare normallyin contactwiththe liquidin the hose
and hencea dangerous voltagemayaccumulate on the exteriorof theflange.

FOROOWS- VOLUME2 - LIOUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
PREVENTIONOF STAT]C ELECTRICITYTO AVOID IGNITION
CARGOHOSES:
earthingof all
Theseshouldbe thoroughlybondedso that thereis adequateand continuous
parts
metal throughthetanker'smanifoldandthetankerto sea.
LOADINGRATE:
In the initialstagesof loadingthe rateshouldbe low in orderto reducethe generation of static

electricitywith admixtures of waterand oil in the pipeline. lt will also reducethe amount of
turbulence causedin the tankand so allowthe waterin the cargoto settlemore quickly.This
willallowit to lay relatively whenthe loadingrateis increased.
undisturbed
LOADINGOVERALL:
Volatilepetroleum petroleum
or non-volatile aboveitsflashpointshouldnot be
at a temperature
loadedor transferredoverall.
petroleummay be loadedoverallonly if the tanksare gas-freeand providedno

Non-volatile
contaminationwithvolatilepetroleum
canoccur.
WATER:
volalilepetroleum
Watershouldnot be loadedoverallintoa tankwhichhascontained distillates
untilthe tankhas beenstripped.
INTRODUCED:
CONDUCTORS
Duringthe loadingof any cargo which may give rise to flammablevapoursno earthed
conductingprobeand no unearthedconductorcapableof gatheringchargefrom the liquid
shouldbe allowedinsidethe tankduringloading.
An exampleof this wouldbe a metalweighton the end of a metaltape or a tin can or metal
samplingcansuspended froman insulatedropeandfloatingon the surfaceof incomingcargo.
By the abovetwo exampleswe are of coursetalkingaboutUllagingand Sampling'hence

greatcarehas to be takenthat no sparkis allowedto occureitherat the ullageportor at the
surfaceof the liquid.
The possibilityof ignitionby staticinsidetanksand compartments whichhavebeendischarged,

butare notgas-freeariseswhena conductoris suspended in a tankand steamis alsopresent.
Henceno tankwashingmachineor otherconductor, whetherearthedor unearthed, shouldbe
permittedin a tankwhichhas steaminjectedunlessof the directfixed type.
WITHAIR:
LINECLEARANCE
Compressed air or inertgas shouldnol be usedto clearpipelinesbackto the tankafterloading

oilwhichmayproducea flammable
of a distillate vapourunlessadequateprecautions aretaken
to stop the air or inertgas enteringthe tank and causingthe water in the bottomto become
turbulent.

FOROOWs- VOLUME
CARGOWORK 2 - LIQUID
CARGOES
DISCHARGINGGARGO:
To minimisethe accumulatronof staticelectricityin shore tanks at the beginningof discharging

of distillateoils, which may producea flammablevapour, pumpingspeeds should be kept low
until shore personneladvisethat pumpingratescan be increased.
Anotherdanger of handlingpetroleumproducts,is a heat sourcegeneratedin the tanks due to

pyrophoricoxidation.
PYROPHORICOX!DATION
In an oxygen-free atmosphere wherehydrogensulphidegas is present(or specifically where

the concentrationof hydrogensulphideexceedsthat of the oxygen), ironoxide is converted to
ironsulphide.Whenthe ironsulphideis subsequently exposedto air, it is oxidisedbackto iron
oxide and either free sulphuror sulphurdioxidegas is formed. This oxidationcan be
accompanied by the generation of considerable heat so that individualparticlesmay become
incandescent.Rapidexothermic oxidationwith incandescence is termedpyrophoric oxidation.
Pyrophoriciron sulphide, ie iron sulphidecapable of pyrophoric oxidation in air, can ignite
flammablehydrocarbon gas/airmixtures.
FORMATION
OF PYROPHORS
General
of pyrophors
It canbe seenfromthe abovethattheformation is dependent
on threefactors:
. Presence of ironoxide(rust);
. Presence of hydrogen sulphidegas;
. Lackof oxygen.
However,it also dependson the comparative influenceof thesefactors. The presenceof

oxygenwill inhibitthe conversion of iron oxide to ironsulphide.Also,whilethe concentration of
hydrogensulphidegas has a directinfluenceon the formationof pyrophors, the degreeof
porosityof the iron oxideand the rate of flow of the gas over its surfacewill influencethe rateof
sulphidation.Experiments have supportedthe view that there is no safe levelof hydrogen
sulphidebelowwhicha pyrophorcannotbe generated.
In TerminalOperations
In terminaloperations,pyrophoriciron sulphideis well recognisedas a potentialsourceof

ignition.Pyrophoric depositsare apt to accumulate in storagetanksin sourcrudeserviceand
in processequipmenthandlingsourstreams.Whensuchtanksor equipment are takenout of
seNice, it is practice
normal to keep all internal
surfacesthoroughlywet duringventilation
so
that there can be no pyrophoric gas
reactionbeforethe equipmentis made hydrocarbon free.
Depositsand sludgemustbe keptwet untilremovedto a safeareawheresubsequent ignition
will cause no damage. Numerousfires have occurredwhen depositshave dried out
prematurely.
@ Blackpooland The Fylde College

FleetwoodNauticalCamous
CARGOWoRK
TANKERryPES ANDCONSTRUCTION
Thereare manydifferenttypesof Tankers,and we shallbe lookingal threedifferenttypes-

crudecarriers,productcarriersandcombination
carriers.
GrudeCarriers
to handleandcarrycrudeoil only.
The namegivento tankerswhichare constructed
Theyrangein sizefrom60,000tonnesDWTup to 600,000tonnesDWT.
Theyare capableof carryingmorethanonegradeof crudewithadequatesegregation,

andare
usuallyequippedwithhighspeed,highcapacitypumpsfor a quickturnround.
All arefittedwithInertGassystems,andcrudeoilwashingfacilities.
ballastsystems,avoiding
All moderncrudecarriersare doubleskinnedand havesegregated
the needto cleancargotanksto loadcleanballast.
ProductCarriers
designedto handleand transport

The namegivento tankersof any size,that are specifically
anytypeof products.
petroleum
Thesetankershaveto be designedwithcomplexpumpingand pipelinearrangements,

to avoid
betweenproductscarried,as theyare designedto handlemanygradesat any
contamination
onetime.
Some of the modernproductcarriersare very sophisticated,with each tank havingits own

pipelinesand pumps.The tanksare constructedof stainlesssteelalloys,with plasticcoatings
and reactiveproducts.
for carryingcorrosive
All modernproductcarriershave to be constructedwith a doubleskin for environmental

protection
if theyground.
CombinationCarriers
designedlo carrybulksolidcargoes,and liquidcargoes,

The namegivento shipsspecifically
or
eithersimultaneously,alternately.
with largeoil/gastightholdsfor the cargo,withextralargedouble-bottom

Theyare constructed
tanksandwing/saddleballasttanks.
Theyrangein sizefrom70,000tonnesDWTup to 200,000tonnesDWT.
Some combination carriersare designedto carryhigh densitycargoes,and oil cargoes,in

alternateholds,on alternatevoyages.eg No's1, 3, 6, 7 and t holdswill be usedfor crudeoil,
and No's2, 4, 6 and8 holdsusedfor heavyore cargoes.
typesmentioned.
Thefollowingpagescontainsometankerdrawingsof thethreedifferent

CARGOWORK
Fig. 1 The relative size of tankers

The first figure represents a T2 Exxon Corporation.
The size of tankershas increaseddramaticallvsinceWorldWar ll.
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FOROOWS- VOLUME
CARGOWORK 2 - LIQUID
CARGOES
Fig. 2 General arrangement of tanker Globtik Tokyo
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l ; l
-{--h-
--t ? L-.
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l,,i
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r i
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@ Blackpooland The FyldeCollege

CARGOWORK
Fig. 3 Generalarrangementof tanker Bulford (now Casterbridgel
,y
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@
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FleetwoodNaulical CamDUS
CARGOWORK
Fig. 4 Generafarrangementof Post Challenger
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CARGOWORKFOR OOWS- VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
Fig. 5 Profife of OBO carrier Furness Bridge
Fig. 6 Midship section of Furness Bridge
t 9 c
I t

CARGOWORK
PIPELINESYSTEMS,PUMPSAND VALVES
GENERAL
Mosttankershavea pipelinesystemconnected to a Setof pumpssituatedin a pumproomat

the aft endof the tankrange. Fromherethe oil is pumpedup to decklevelthenalongthe deck
to athwartship deckpipe-linesknownas manifolds.Manifoldvalvesare fittedat the end of the
withthe shorehose/loading
pipelineon eithersidewhereit connects arm.
When loading,the oil usuallyby-passesthe pumproom. Insteadit is routedfrom the deck

pipelinesto tie bottompipelinesystemvia drop lines,eachof whichis fittedwitha controlling
valveknownas a droPvalve.
Oil flow in the bottompipelinesis controlled by a seriesof valves.Valvesin a foreand aft line
are knownas MasterValves,whilstvalvesin athwartship linesare knownas Crossover Valves.
Valvescontrolling tankare knownas TankSuction
the flowof oilfrom/toan individual Valves'
some tankersnowadays,notablythosecarryingproducts,may havea submergeddeepwell

pump fitted at every tank thus removingthe nbed for a bottom pipelinesystem and a
pumproom.
RINGMAINSYSTEM
this is a ringfromthe pumproom

Basically linesat eachset of tanks. Thereare
withcross-over
variousdesigns,usuallyinvolvingmorethan one ring. Used on producttankers,the system
allowsmanygradesof cargoto be carriedwithoutcontamination usingtwo valveseparation.
(Some tanlieis now have specialvalveswhich are reliableenoughto permitsinglevalve
separation.)This is a highlyversatilesystemwhichallowsseveraldifferentcombinations of
pumpandlinefor any particular
tank.
The maindisadvantage and maintenance

is the cost of installation sincemore pipelinesand
valvesare involvedthan in any othersystem. Also if oil is takenon an indirectrouteto lhe
pumptherewillbe an increasein linefriction.
DIRECTLINESYSTEM
This is a simplersystemthat takesthe oil directlyfromthe tankto the pumptherebyreducing

the dischargerate and improvingtank suction. lt is
friction;this has the effectof increasing
cheaperto installand maintainthanthe ringmainsystemsincelesspipelineand fewervalves
are used. On the other handthe layoutis not as versatileand problemsinvolvingfaultyvalves
or leakingpipelinesmaybe moredifficultto circumvent; alsolinewashingis moredifficultsince
thereis n-ocircularsystemwithresultthatonesimplyhasto flushthe seawaterintothetanKs.
of gradesis notso
Thissystemis usedmainlyon crudeand blackoil tankerswhereseparation
imoortant.
14
FoR OOWS- VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
FREEFLOWSYSTEM
Thisis a verysimplesystemthatusessluicevalvesin the tankbulkheads ratherthanpipelines.

Witha sterntrim it is possible tankvia directlines
to dischargeall the cargofromthe aftermost
to the pumproom.The resultis that a very high speedof dischargecan be obtained.Tank
drainageis alsoveryefficientsincethe bulkheadsluicevalvespermitthe oil to flowaft readily.
A simplepipelinesystemis also requiredto adjustthe trim. This systemis usedon VLCCs
wherethereis onlyonegrade.
LINES
STRIPPING
Most pipelinesystemshave separatestrippinglineswhichare of smallerdiameterthan the

maincargoline,and havesuctionsclosesto the tank bottom. Theselinesare connected to
smallercapacitypumps(or eductors)enablingstrippingto be carriedout at the sametime as
the maindischarge.The oil strippedout is pumpedto an aft cargotank,knownas a sloptank,
whichcan be pumpedashorewith a maincargopumpwhenall othercargotankshavebeen
drained.
L '15
L-
Fig. 7 Pipelinesystem24,000DWTClass

CARGOWORK
Fig. 8 Pumproom arrangements
F
4
J :
. J
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17
CARGOWORK
Fig.9 ss BritishExplorerpipelinediagram

CARGOWORK
Fig. 10 Direct Line P/L System
X Mastervalve I cro""ou"r u"lve V TankValve
19
FleetwoodNauticalCamDUs
CARGOWORK
Fig. 'll Double Ring Main P/L System
Symbols X Mastervalve E cro""ouer ualve V TankValve

CARGOWORK
Fig. 12 Free-flow System with Ring Stripping System
Symbols V Tankvalve A Directsuctionto maincargopumps

X Pipelinevalve D Bulkheadsluicevalves(gate
Vpe)
21
i FleetwoodNauticalCamous
l-
CARGOWORK
CARGOPUMPS
Centrifugal A high speed pump used as the main cargo pump (MCP) on most tankers,
particularlyVLCCS,where a large volume is requiredto be movedquickly. lt is
^^^) ^' ^^^^t^ratingu r E flow
g r r \ J u d r a u \ , E r E r d u r r v the l | ( J w of | | rrather
oil
ur u c r u r v r than
uro suckingit from the tank.
A positivedisplacement
Reciprocating pumpwhichutilisesa pistontypeaction. Muchslower
than the centrifugalpump,but like all positivedisplacementpumpsit has the
advantage thai it can createa goodsuctiontherebymakingit suitablefor useas
pump.
a stripping
Rotary/GearAlso a positivedisplacement
pumpwhichutilisesthe actionof two gearwheels
pump,it is good for
meshedtogether. Fairlyslow, but like the reciprocating
drainingtanks. Mayalsobe usedas maincargopumpon smallcoastaltankers.
Eductor Strictlyspeaking,not a pumpat all, but it performsthe samefunction.Utilises

the Venturiprinciplewherebya suctionis createdwherethereis an increasein
flow speeddue to a constriction.Usedfor strippingin conjunctionwith a main
cargopumpwhichprovidesthe mainoil flow. Hasthe advantage that it has no
movingpartsand is unlikelyto losesuctiondueto gassingup.
Deepwell A type of submersiblepump. Differsfromthe abovepumpsin that it is fittedin

eachcargotank. Particularly suitablefor tankerscarryingproductsor chemicals
as thereis no chanceof inter-caroo
contamination.
I
23
L
CARGOWORK
GASSINGUP
'head'asthe tankis
A processwherethe pressurewithinthe pumpcasingfallsdue to a lackof
andthe casingfillswithgas.
discharged.Theoil vaporises
Dangers
the pumpwill speedup. This may causesufficientheatto ignitethe oil

lf allowedto continue,
and cause an explosion;alternatively,the pump may be seriouslydamagedby the heat
generated.
Corrective Measures
of a self primingmechanism
The incorporation suchas the'Vac Strip'systemwhichensures
thatgassingup doesnotoccur.
a goodsterntrimso as to obtaina good'head'tothe pump.

Maintaining
opening(bleeding)
Partially a fulltankin additionto the tankbeingdrained.
Slowingdownthe pump;this reducesthe heatgeneratedand so reducesthe likelihood

of the
pumpgassingup-
UsinglG pressureto increase

the'head'andso aid thedischarge.
valveabovethe pump.
closingthedischarge
Partially
Primingthe pumpon a fulltankin orderto removegas andto coolthe pump.
24
Fig. 14 Commontypes of pumps
ReciprocatingPump Eductor
GearPump Centrifugal
Pump
ScrewPpump
25
CARGOWORK
Fig. 15 Gate valve
YOl(€SLETVE
NUI
YOKTSLTEVT

FleetwoodNaulical camPUS
CARGOWORK
Fig. 16 Angle valve
Flangesare 125lbsANSIdimensions
R E F . NO. PART
NO, PCS.
I
BOOY
2 1 AONNEfi
I
3 I ST€M
4 1 EONlrlET BUSHING
5 1 LOCKNUT
6 LOC* WASHER
7 Drsc
8 GLAND
9 I GASKET
10 I LOCKPIN
ll 1 SEATRING
t2 I GUIDEgUSHING
r3 I HAI{OI{H€ELnsra'ornr
27
CARGOWORK
Fig. 17. Bufterfly valve

L FOROOWs- VOLUME2 - LIOUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
i
L_ TANKVENTSYSTEMS
A ventingsystemon a lankeris designedto allowgasesfrom the cargotanksto escapeto

atmosphere of gasaroundthevessel.
in sucha waythatthereis no accumulation
LOADING
When loadinglhere is a greatquantityof gas to vent off and for this reasonopen venting
shouldbe employed,ie thereshouldbe no obstruction betweenthe tank almosphere and the
environment. Therefore the pressure/vacuumvalve should be by-passed or lockedopen.
gauze
Therewill,of course,be a flameproof at the point
of exitfromthe pipe.
. ON PASSAGE
Only small quantitiesof gas are involvedduringthe voyageand for this reasoncontrolled
- ventingmaybe employed, ie usinga pressure/vacuum
valve.
lf the cargoexpandsdue to a risein temperature,the gas pressurewill increaseand openthe

P/Vvalve,so releasing the gasto atmosphere.On the otherhandif the cargotemperature falls
the cargowillconlractand a partialvacuumwillbe createdwhichwillopenthe PA/valveagain,
thusallowingairfromoutsideto enterthetanktherebyreducing the vacuum
The PA/ valve is set to open at a particularpressure(eg 2 psi) and a particularvacuum

(eg 0.5 psi)so protecting
the tankstructure
fromunduestress.
.
In the absenceof an inertgas systemthe ventsystemis swilchedbackto openventingduring
discharge.As withloading,the pointof entryshouldbe protected gauze.
by a flameproof
CLOSEDLOADING/DISCHARGE
Oneis the usualliquidline,the otheris

Heretwo linesashoreare usedfor loading/discharging.
is fully closedso that no cargo
a vapour return line whichensuresthat the load/discharge
vapouris releasedto the atmosphere.Particularly relevantfor toxic or highlyflammable
cargoessuchas thosecarriedan chemicaltankers.
VENTEXIT
The usualventingsystemcomprisesof a verticalpipe with an open end at least 10 metres

.- abovethe deck. Pipesfrom individualtanksare connected to this commonpipethusensuring
thatthe gas is released
wellabovethe deck. Thisis knownas a commonheadersystem.
systeminvolvesthe useof individual

An alternative standpipesabout3 metreshighfittedwitha
highvelocityventvalvelo ensurethatthe gas is blownwellclearof the deck. Thisis knownas
the individual
ventingsystem.
i
29
I
CARGOWORK
F i g .1 8
i'tr
ii
r.
:{{'t
11r'l
il li
illi
tJ l!
t it
ill
tit
llt
?iJ
30
CARGOWORK
LIQUID CARGO MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLING
U llaging
There are various methodsof measuringthe ullage in tanks, and we will look at a few ways of
measuringthe ullagewith differentsystems.
1. UllageTape and Float.
This is a very simple device, made up of a plasticor steel tape in a winding containerwith a
float fastenedto the end, capableof reachingthe bottomof the largesltank, and being retracted
quickly. The tape is accuratelymarkedin metres,centimetresand millimetres.
When the float reachesthe surfaceof the liquid,the ullage is read directlyfrom the tape at the
ullagepipe.
i
L
Ullage
'""*'f
The Tank will be calibratedto includethe heightof the ullagepipe
31
CARGOWORK
'Whessoe' type ullage measuring system
This systemis totallyenclosedand continuouslymeasuresthe ullagein the tank.
Althoughexpensiveto install,the systemis safe and reliable,and saves manpowerto go round

eachtank manuallytakingullages.
The unit also can be fittedwith a slave read-outsystemin the cargocontrolroom.
Ullagewindow
Tapetensioning
spools
Guidewiretensionsprings
Readoutcablesto slavestation
Steelgraduatedtape
Floaton guidewires
32
CARGOWORK
TankRadarSystem.
Thisalsois a totallyenclosedmeasuring system,but canonlybe usedif the tankis fullyinerted,

and mostare fittedwith oxygensensorswitches,and temperature sensorswitches,so if the
atmosphere in the tankis hot or flammable,
the radarwill nol operate.
The mainunitis fittedon deckwitha simplecabletube insidethe tank holdinglhe transducer.

Cablesthen carrythe signalto a controlunit in the cargocontrolroom wherethe signalis
convertedto givea digitalread-outfor eachtank.
Cablesto / from controlbox
i--
The transduceris fittedas closeto the centroidof the tankareaas possible,to eliminateerror
dueto trimandlist.
t-
i
33
CARGOWORK
Multi-functional gauging equipment.
There are in use in the oil industry today, some excellentpieces of equipmenl for ullaging,
sampling,and sensing,which considerablyspeed up the measurementoperalions.
'MMC', named after the company that first
One of these kits is commonly known as an
producedit.
An'MMC'will accuratelymeasure ullage,sounding,temperatureand interface,and with extra

fitmentstake a rangeof productsamples.
Carryinghandle
Digitalread-outwindow
Spoolcasing
Gas- tightsecuringnutandtube
Steelflexiblewire
probe
Electronic
The'MMC' is connectedto an ullagetube on deck above the tank, which has a gas tight valve
half wav down the tube, to enablethe deviceto be connectedsafely.

CARGOWORK
MeasuringSlop tanks.
:_
to knowthe volumeof oil / waterin any'sloptanks'onboarda tanker,to be able
It is important
. to adjustour Deadweightfiguresfor cargorequired.
Thereis a simplepieceof equipment

designed for thismeasurement.
specifically
This equipmentis knownas an oily waterinterfacedetector,a diagramof one is on the next

page.
Withreference to the diagram,considera sloptankwitha layerof waterandabovethe watera

layerof oil containingwaterdroplets( ftentermed'wet'oil).
Somerefineries figurefor theslopson boardpriorto discharge

needto knowan accurate / load.
.
The earthclampof the detectoris securelyfastenedto the steelof the tank. The brassweight
is carefullyloweredintothe tank. As thezinctip of theweightentersthe oilyslopmixture,static
from the chargedwaterdropletsin the slopstriesto flow throughthe steeltape to
electricity
earth,whichregisterswith a little'kick'on the ammeter,thus indicatingthat the end of the
weighthastouchedthe surfaceof theoilysloplayer.Thetapeis thenread.
' Theweightis loweredslowlyfurtherintothe slops.Whenthe zinctip touchesthe surfaceof the

waterlayer,full staticelectricity as wateris a
flowis nowapparentby a readingon the ammeter,
I Thetapeis readagain,thusindicating
thedepthor sounding
of thewater.
Thefirstreading- the secondreading= depthof oilyslops.
35
FOROOWs- VoLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
OIL / WATERINTERFACE
DETECTOR
.SLOP TANK'
Detector
milliammeter
EarthClamp
Steel ullage
rape
Oily slopslayer
Calibrated
brassweight
Zinctip
Waterlayer

CARGOWORK
Sampling.
Samplesof the productloadedhave to be taken for all sortsof reasons,namely:

- To check the densityof the product.
To check the temDeratureof the product.
To send to a laboratoryfor full analysis.
The followingpages give examplesof samplingapparatusused on boardtankers,for checking

temperature,density,and for bottlingfor analysis.
' lf we know the volume of oil in the tank, and can check the temperature,we can adjust the
volume for accurateweight measurement,by correctingthe densityat StandardTemperature,
for changesin temperatureof the oil in the tank.
Mass=VolumexDensity
Examole:
L With referenceto the calibrationtable on the next page, the final ullageof No 3 centretank is
0.6 metres.
I
of theoilat'Standard
Thedensity (15'celsius)
Temperature' is 0.88665.
, The densityconectionfactorfor the oil is 0.00066.

.-
The loadedoil lemDeratureis 36' celsius.
How many tonnesof oil are loadedin the tank?
From tableat 0.6m ullage Volumeof oil = 14330M3

'-
DifferencebetweenStandardTemoeratureand 36o= 21o
Correctionto density@ StandardTemperature = 21 x 0.00066 = 0-01386

i
Densityof oil in tank = 0.88665 - 0.01386= O.87279
Weightof oil in tank = 14330x0.87279 = 12507tonnes.

CARGOWORK
Table1
Simulated CALIBRATIONtable selection from a 131.000Dwt tanker. No. 3 Centre tank
ULLAGE(m) cAPAcITY (m3) SaltWaterTonnes(Approx)

0.5 14,450 14,810
u.o 14,330 14,710
0.7 14,050 14,420
0.8 13,852 14,190
0.9 13,671 14,008
1.0 13,500 13,820
1.1 13,295 13,620
1.2 13,120 13,470
1.3 12,940 13,280
12.760 13,092
1.5 12.595 12,900
t.o 12,440 12,780
1.7 12.301 't2,610
1.8 12,150 12,470
1.9 12,008 12,310
2.0 11,900 12,220
2.1 11,695 11,995
2.2 11,562 11.860
z-J 1 1, 4 0 7 11,690
1 1. 2 7 3 11,540
11. 1 3 0 11,420
z-o 11,002 11,295
2.7 10,890 11.170
Usually it is necessary to calculate the weighvmass of liquid representedby the volume

determinedfrom the ullageor sounding.
Mass/weight = Volume x (Relative)density
When a conlractfor carriageof oil (or similarproduct)is made, and eventuallya Bill of Lading
(BL) is drawn up, the tonnageof oil involvedwill be specifiedtogetherwith its relativedensityat
a standardtemperature,15oC.
lf at any time, and this is usuallythe case, the temperatureof the oil in the tank differsfrom the
arbitraryBL value, the relativedensitywill be different;more if the temperatureis lower, less if
the temperatureis higher.
When loading,or at any time when calculatingthe weight of oil in a tank, it is essentialto
ascertainthe temperature.This is found by carefulsamplingat differentlevels in the tank and
using an averageof lhe readingstaken.
The relativedensitymust be correctedfrom the BL value to gain the relativedensityprevailing

in the tank. (This is usuallycheckedfrom the sampleswhich also confirmsthe correctproduct
is being loaded- quite importantwhen severalsimilarproductsare being taken simultaneously
from a large refinery.)
An alternativeapproachis to modifythe volumeobtainedfrom the ullage/sounding throughthe

calibrationtableto determinewhat would be the volumeat the BL relativedensitytemperature.
o Blackpooland The Fyldecollege

CARGOWORK
Fig. 19 Weighted sampling can
Copper or preferably
brasswire handle
Lugsf,' diameter
copperor
brasswire
Body 18 oz
copper
Sheet lead
39
CARGOWORK
Fig. 20 Sampling Cage
Swivel
collar

CARGOWORK
Fig. 21 Deep-cupcasethermometerassembly
i/etal Clamp
i9-*
Non-Sparking
L MetalCup
Capacity 100
(approx)
1
;
MetalClamp
i
IrT
.1i1i
U;
I
-.\
l
4'l
FleetwoodNaulical Camous
FOROOWS- VOLUME2 * LIQUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
There are two standardforms of entry to a calibrationtables,(1) a sounding and (2) an ullage.
A soundingis the measurementof the depth of liquid in the tank, the distanceverticallydown
from the liouidsurfaceto the bottomof the tank.
An ullage is the vertical measurementfrom the liquid surface to the tank deckhead or more
usuallyto a pointwhere the ullagecan be readilymeasuredsuch as the lip of a sightingport or
standpipe. (SeeFigure22.)
Fig 22 Soundingsand Ullages

Ullage/SoundingTape
UllageStandPipe
UllageStick
Wessoe Guage
Sounding

CARGOWORK
To understandhow to producecargo figures accurately,officerswho serve on tankershave to

have a good workingknowledgeof volumecalculationand correction.
To help you masteryour assessment,you shouldthoroughlyunderstandthe following:
Full tank volume: The maximum volume of any tank as calibratedfor zero ullage, where the
sounding of the tank is equal to the full tank depth.
Oil volume: The total volume of oil in a tank as calibrated for a given ullage or
sounding.
Ullaqevolume: The volume of the space between the surface of the oil and the top of the
tank.
ie Full tank volume - Oil volume = Ullage volume.
Pipelinevolume: The volume of liquid a given length of pipeline will contain, calculated
from:
lD tD 22
zxzxTxL
where D = lnternal diameter of pipe in metres,
and L = length of pipeline in metres
L
Ullagevolume
43
L-
CARGOWORK
TankerCalculations
Classwork
Question1: A tanker is loadingcrude orl in the last tank to be loaded,which has the following
dimensions:L=25m,B=15m. The shore pipelineis 500m long with a diameterof 0.5m. The
proposedfinishingullage is 0.2m from the crown of the tank. At what ullage must the shore
valve be shut so that the oil on board will reach the required ullage when the pipeline is
completelydrainedinto the tank?
-------->
Diameter of pipe= 0.5m,so radiusof pipe= 0.25m
Lengthof pipe= 500m
V of oil in pipeline nr'l
3.1416x (0.25x 0.25)x 500
98.2m3
Finalullage=
0.2m
V of oil in PiPe=
Changein ullage
Currentullage
Breadthof tank=15
Lengthof tank= 25m
Change in ullage Volume

atea
98.2m.+(25x15)m,
0.262m
FinishingUllage FinalUlfage+ O.262m

0.462m
Question2: A vesselof 2,5001deadweight has 2401stores,fuel and wateron board. she has
fivetanks,all 16mx 6m x 6m in size. Tanksnumber2, 3, and 4 are loadedto 0.3mullagefrom
the crownof the tank,the remainder of the oil beingloadedin tanksnumber1 and 5. lf the RD
of the oil is 0.93,calculatethe finalullagesif thereis to be 1001morein tanknumber5 thanin
tanknumber1.
TotalV Of EachTank LXBXD

1 6x 6 x 6
576.0m3
Ullagevolume lxbxd
16x6x0.3
28.8 m3
V of oil in each tank TotalV- UllageV

576.0m3- 28.8m'

CARGOWORK
547.2 m3
TotalV of oil in Tanks2,3, 4 = 547.2m3x3

1, 6 4 1 . 6m 3
in Tanks2, 3, 4
Tonnage VxRD
1,641.6 m' x 0.93
1,526.68t
Deadweight tonnage 2,500.00r

-Stores,fuel,watertonnage 240.Oot
CargoCapacity 2,260.00r
-Tonnagein Tanks2, 3, 4 1,526.68t
TonnageIn Tanks1 & 5 733.32t
-1001allowance for No 5 100.001
Remainder 633.321
TonnageForTanks1 & 5 633.32t+2

316.661
Volumein No 1 Tonnagefor tank+ RD

+ 0.93
316.661
I
340.50m3
L-
Depthof oil in No 1 V + Area
I 340.50m. + (16mx 6m)
340.50m3+ 96m'
3.55m
Finalullagefor No 1 6.0m- 3.545m

2.455m
Volumein No 5 (Tonnagefor tank + 100t)+ RO

( 3 1 6 . 6 6+1 1 0 0 1=) 0 . 9 3
416.66+ 0.93
448.02m3
Depthof oil in No 5 V + Area

448.02m3+ (16m x 6m)
448.02m3+ 96m2
4.667m
Finalullagefor No 5 6.0m4.667m
1.333m
Question3: A deep tank has a capacityof 1,0001of salt water inclusiveof a coamingmeasuring
4m x 3m x 0.3m. lf the minimumpermissibleullage is 0.1m, calculatethe maximumweight of
oif (RD 0.90)that can be loadedallowing2o/oof lhe volumeof the oil for expansion.
r- 45
CARGOWORK
V of tank W*d
+ 1.025
1,0001
975.61m3
V of emptyspace lxbxd
4mx3mx0.1m
1.20m3
So GrossV of oil V of tank - V of empty space

975.61m3- 1.20m3
974.41m3
HenceNettV of oil x 0.98

974.41m3
954.92m3
W of oil VxRD
954.92m3x 0.90
859.771

CARGOWORK
CARGO PLANS
For each and every voyage,the Cargo Officerof a tanker will have to plan carefullywhere the
-
cargo rs to be loadedin the ship, bearingin mind the volumerequiredfor each grade,pump and
pipelinecapability,segregationand heating requirements,and the discharge/ loading Port
sequence.
-
To keep lrack on these requirements,
a detailedCargo Plan is a MUST.
Varioustankeroperatorshave differingformatsfor cargo plans,but they all basicallycontainthe

same information
. The format is usuallydrawn up on a 'plan' view of the tank system of the ship, with a table
showing(usuallycolour coded)the differentgrades being carried,the reducedvolume of each
parcel,and port of loading/ discharge.
-
Also shown on the tank plan are the final ullagesdepartureI arrival,tank temperatures,name of
productand SG of product.
With modern 'double skinned'tankers, any ballast / deballastrequirementsduring loading /

dischargingwill have to be shown to avoid over stressingthe ship during operations,and to
ensureadeguatestabilityis maintainedat all times.
lf the tanker is carryinggrades that are to be heatedon voyage,then instructionsto this effect
Self Assessment Test CW 211
Usingthe planof MT Fleetwood enclosed,drawup a cargoplanfor the shiphavingloadeda

parcelof Kerosenein #1 acrossand #3 across. A parcelof Feedstock in #2 acrossand #6
across.a parcelof Gasoilin #4 acrossand#5 across.
L The Kerosene
and Feedstock
areto be discharged
in Rotterdam,
the Gasoilis for Gothenburg.
Use colouredpensto identifyeachparcel;all tankswill be g8% full witha finalullageof 0.44

metres,except#5 centretankwhichwillbe partially
fullwithan ullageof 2.22metres.
L
Checkyourplanwiththe answersheetat the backofthe book.
i_
47
I FleetwoodNaulical Campus
CARGOWORK
MT FLEETWOOD CARGOPLAN
No. GRADE 5.b- TEMP. QUANTITY PORT

1
2.
6.
Tot

FleetwoodNaulical Campus
CARGOWORK
MT FLEETWOOD
4S
CARGOWORK
MT HARDSHIP CARGO PLAN
NAME:...
CAPTAIN'S . . . . . . V O Y A G EN o 27L

FleetwoodNauticalCamPus
CARGOWORK
INERTGASSYSTEMSANDOPERATIONS
TANKATMOSPHERES.
howinertgas worksfor us, we mustfirstlyunderstand

Beforewe can beginto understand fully
what a 'flammable'
atmosphere by goodtanker
is, and how it can be avoidedor controlled,
practise.
of petroleum.The liquidpetroleum
Firstly,let us lookat the flammability givesoff hydrocarbon
gas in evaporation. Thisgas,whenmixedwiththe correctvolumeof air,willform a flammable
mixture,whichwillburneasilyif subjected to an ignitionsource,this mixtureon top of the liquid
petroleum is saidto be burning.
gases
Secondly,let us look at the processof burning. Duringthis processthe hydrocarbon
given off by the burningof petroleumreact with the oxygenthat is in the air above the
petroleum. This reactionor changeof state of certainelementsin the burningprocess
produces, amongstolherthings,carbondioxideandwater.
Thisreactionitselfgeneratesa lot of heat,enoughin factfor a hot flamelo be producedwhich

is keptalivethroughthe reactionwithinthe mixtureof hydrocarbongas andair.
L This sustained'flame'ofheatthen heatsup the surfaceof the petroleum,thus causingmore
and morehydrocarbon gas to be evaporated
out of the liquidpetroleum,
thereforemaintaining
1 the processof burning.
Fromthe abovestatement, it is fairlyobviousthat if we do not allowthis reactionto takeplace,

l thenburningwillnottakeplace either.
Whatcan we do to preventthis processof burning?
We cannotget rid of the hydrocarbongas - we are carryingpetroleum! But! We can do

abouttheotherreactant
something - 'OXYGEN'
We can replacesomeof the volumeof air ihat is in the tank on top of the petroleum,
with a
volumeof INERTGAS,thus reducingthe amountof OXYGENin the tank,thus reducingthe
reactionin the processof burning.
LIMITSOF FLAMMABILIW
The mixturein the tank aboveliquidpetroleumcannotigniteor sustainthe burningprocess,

unlessthe mixturecontainsthe correctproportionsof hydrocarbon
gas and air.
of this mixturehasto lie withina rangeof proportions,

The composition andthis rangeis called
the FLAMMABLE MNGE.
gas.
Forexample,Propaneis a wellknownhydrocarbon
The LowerFlammable
Limitof a mixtureof Prooaneandair is:
2.2o/o
Prooanewith 97.8%air.
51
CARGOWORK
Limitof a mixtureof Propaneand air is:

The UpperFlammable
9.5%Propanewith90.5%air
RANGEof Propaneis 7.3%

the FLAMMABLE
Therefore
/ petroleumproductswe can safelysay that the LFL will not be

For the majorilyof petroleum
lowerthan1%andtheUFLwillnotbe higherthan10%
gas, then the
Therefore,in a tank atmospherewhere 11o/oof its volumeis hydrocarbon
atmosphere will be TOO RICHto combustion.
support
gas is saidto be TOO

with0.9%of its volumebeinghydrocarbon
The sametank atmosphere
LEANto supportcombustion.
Nowletslookat air itself.The reasonfor the reactionin the burningprocess,is that21%of air
is pure oxygen,and it is this oxygenreactingwith the gas that is supportingthe burning
orocess.
if we candisplacehalfthe volumeof air in the tankwitha gas thatdoesnot reactto

Therefore,
burning,
support we will obviouslyreducelhe oxygencontentof the tank by half, ie 10.5%
oxygen.
is 10%or lessby volume'

We can safelysay that if the oxygencontentof the tankatmosphere
thenthe mixturein thetankcannotbe burnt.
willthereforebe safe,ie non- flammable.

Thetankatmosphere

FleetwoodNaulical camous
CARGOWORK
The Flammability Composition Graph
o 15
E %
6
o
g)
fo
< 1 0
z ' "
o
lD
o
o
v.
o
isu
5% 10% 15o/o 20% x

OXYGEN- %age Volume
Let us considerthe tank atmosphereat point'A' on the graph.
The atmospherewill contain '13%oxygen and 11.5o/o

hydrocarbongas by volume, where the
atmospherewill be just too rich in hydrocarbongas, and too lean in oxygen, to support
combustion.
We will now displace50% of the tank atmospherewith an 'lnert Gas'.
We will then have a tank atmospherecontainingapproximately6.50looxtgen, and 5.75o/o

hydrocarbongas, representedon the graph by point'B', where the tank atmospherewill have
enough hydrocarbongas to supportcombustion,BUT will be far too lean in orygen. Therefore
if we maintainthis atmospherelean in oxygen, combustioncannot take place even with an
ignitionsource.
Now considerallowingfresh air to displacesome of the tank atmosphere.
The dottedline 'BX' will be representative

of what is happeningby volumeinsidethe tank.
As some of the atmosphereis displacedwith fresh air, then the oxygen contentcould rise to
21o/o,BUT some of the volume of hydrocarbongas will also be displaced,therefore,even if
fresh air is allowedto displacesome of the tank atmosphereat'B', the tank atmospherewill
neverbecomecombustible.
53
CARGOWORK
15%
qt
5
o
E
o 10%
s
U'
o
z
o
dl
t
(J
o
d
o
I X -
10Yo
OXYGEN- ToageVolume
at point'A' above.
Nowlet us considerthe stateof thetankatmosphere
gas, and 17o/o
fn the volumeof the tankwe have7.5% hydrocarbon a FLAMMABLE
oKfQen,
mixture.
The remainderof the tankvolumeis nitrogen(an InertGas)whichwill amountto 75.5%of the

totaltankvolume.
to displacethe oxygenand-hydrocarbon
To get the tanktotallyinerted,we wouldhave'AY' gas with
anoTher 24.5o/onitrogen,whichthe dottedline of that displacement.
will be representative
and expensive
But,nitrogenis impractical to generate.lt is easierand cheaperfor the shipto
generateher own 'lnertGas'fromeitherthe boilerfluegases,or by a oilfiredgenerator.
thesegasesproducedare hot and dirty,and containa percentageof oxygenand

Unfortunately,
sulphur.

I
15%
o
tr
5
o
10%
s
o
o
z
o
dl
E,
o
o
d
o
,
L 10% 15o/o
OXYGEN - %age Volume
I
Now let us considerthe tank atmosphere at 'A'. By volumethe atmosphere
contains2.5%
I
hydrocarbon gas, and 20% oxygen. Thereforthe remainingvolumemust be air and other
gasesamounting of tankvolume.
lo 77.5o/o
lf we nowdisplacethe wholetankatmosphere with shipsowninertgas,whichmaycontain5%

oxygen,the tankatmosphere will be 95% volumeinertgas. This displacement
is represented
by the dottedlineabove.
by volume95% inertgas and 5%

containing
We can nowsay thatwe havea tankatmosphere
cannot
oxygen;combustion takeplace.
freshair intothetank,it can neverbe dangerous.

Nowif we introduce
Eg Let us displace50%of the tankatmosphere withfreshair,thenthetankwillcontain50o/o

air
and50o/o lG so the oxygen of
content the tankvolumewillbe 10.5% + =
2.5o/o 13% oxygen.
Oncetheseparameters we can then understand

are understood, the criticallimitson the graph
for both hydrocarboncontentand oxygencontentto avoid havinga FLAMMABLEatmosphere
in the tankat anytime.
55
As an exercise,usingthe graph below,work out the limitsfor oxygencontent 7oage volumein

the tank when the tank contains
a) 2% hydrocarbongas, and
b) 10% hydrocarbongas, to maintaina safe tank atmosphere.
5r" i,r" tLv. zlv.

OXYGEN- %ageVolume.
whenthe tankatmosphere
using the graphabovecalculate, is at UFL,whatpercentage
of the
tankatmosphere mustbe displacedwith inertgas to maintain
a tank which
atmosphere has no
morethan5% oxygen, (assume gas
inert contains3% oxygen).
Plota pointon the abovegraphwherethe atmosphere of thetankwillalwaysbe safeif freshair

gas % age is 5% of thetankvolume.
is allowedto enterthe tank,whenthe hydrocarbon
Everytankerover 20,000tonnesDWT must be fittedwith an InertGas system,capableof

witha maximumoxygencontentof 5%
deliveringlG to the cargotanksunderpositivepressure,
by volume.
56
CARGOWORK
INERTGAS SYSTEMS
A typicalinertgas systemis shownon the diagramin this section,and we mustfirst look at

eachindividualcomponent to fullyunderstand
the system.
BOILERUPTAKEVALVE
The sourceof our inertgas is the boiler,and the hot exhaustgas hasto be divertedfromgoing
up the flue,to an inletline to the scrubbingtower. To controlthe pathwayof the gas to the
scrubber, the boilerflueis fittedwitha valve.
TOWER
SCRUBBING
The exhaustgas from the boilerentersthe scrubbingtowerat the bottom. As the gas rises
throughthe tower,it is sprayedwith cleansea-water fed by a highpressurepump,whichalso
feedsthecoolingbaffles.Aftercooling,thegas is fed throughsilicadryingbaffles.
Whenthegas reachesthe outlet,it is clean,cool,anddry.
BLOWERS
Whenthe gas exitsthe scrubberit is pipeddirectlyto the blowerinlets. The blowersfeed the
L gasto thedeckmaindistribution
line.
VALVE
DECKISOLATING
i
of the deckmainpipeline,
A valvesituatedat the beginning so the lG systemcan be completely
isolatedfrom the cargosystemwhennot in use.
NON.RETURN
CONTROLLABLE VALVE
Fittedimmediately forwardof the Deckisolating valvewhichis controllable

valveis a non-return
from the CargoConlrolroom,to preventthe passageof hydrocarbongas from the tanksfrom
enteringthe lG plantin an emergency.
DECKWATERSEAL
As an added precaution,this deviceis fitted to the deck main immediatelyforwardof the non-
retumvalve,to copewith any pressurefluctuationswhen the systemis in operation,to prevent
a back-flowof gas from the cargotanksenteringthe lG system. A detaileddrawingis on the
nextpage.
VACUUMBREAKER
PRESSURE
This is a device fitted in the deck main line, forwardof the Deck Water Seal, to cope with
extremesof pressure/ vacuum,whenthe systemis in operation.The deviceis usuallyoil filled,
and will preventexcessive pressureor vacuumdamaginglinesor tanks. A detaileddrawingis
on the nextpage.
57
FleetwoodNaulical CamDus
INERTGASSYSTEM
TANK ISOLATIONVALVES
/ VACUUMBREAKER
PRESSURE
DECKWATERSEAL
VALVE
NON-RETURN
CONTROLLABLE
DECKISOLATION
VALVE
VALVE
RCULATION
FRESHAIRINLET
VALVE& BLANK
SCRUBBER
AKE VALVE
SEA WATER PUMPS

FleetvvoodNauticalCamDUs
CARGOWORKFOR OOWs- VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
, As the cargo tanks have to have a positivepressurefrom the lG systemat all times,to avoid air
*
being forcedinlo the cargo spaces,then ullagingsyslemshave to be closed
The lG systemalso has to be equippedwith some instrumentation

and alarmsnamely:
lG temoeratureread out and recorder-

I lG pressureread out.
02 highalarm(usuallyset at 5%)
High gas pressurealarm.
.* Low gas pressurealarm
High gas temperaturealarm
, Low sea water Dressurealarm- scrubber.
Low sea water levelalarm- deck seal.
Blowerfailurealarm.
The fittingof an lG systemhas certainadvantages/ disadvantagesto the shipowner,namely:
ADVANTAGES:
,
Safe tank atmosphere- non-explosive.
Allows high pressuretank washing- reducestank cleaningtime.
' Allowscrudeoil washing.
Reducescorrosionin tanks- with efficientscrubber.
, lmprovesstrippingefficiency- saves dischargetime.
i Aids gas freeingof tanks safely
Cheao to run
A built in extinguishingagentfor other spaces.
Reducesloss of cargodue to evaporation.
Lowerinsurancerates-
DISADVANTAGES:
Extracapitalcosts.
Maintenancecosts.
Crew trainingcosts.
Low visibilityin tanks
Low oxygen content - no tank entry.
Contaminateshigh grade products.
r- Moistureand sulphurcontentcorrodesequipment.
A built in routefor cargoto enter engineroom.
i Oxygencontentmust be monitoredat all times.
L 59
O BlackpoolandThe FyldeCollege
i
L
FOROoWs- VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
DECK WATER SEAL:
The Deck Water Seal is a liquidcontrollednon-returnvalve,and is fairly maintenancefree and

troublefree, as long as the levelof water in the deviceis maintained.
lG Inlet
Waterlnlet
WaterOutlet
DeckWaterSeal- normaloperating
pressure
Waterlevelis maintainedby 'gooseneck'drainsystem,andconstantrunningof seawaterpump.

Undernormaloperating pressureof lG the lG will bubblethroughthe liquidfromthe bottomof
the inletpipe,andexitundernormaloperating pressure.
lG Inlet rry;T-ir*>
WaterInlet
Deck Water Seal - High Back Pressurefrom CargoTanks
Water surfacehas increasedpressure,and forceswater upwardsinto inlet pipe,thus sealingoff

the lG inlet pipe,thus preventinghydrocarbongasesfrom enteringscrubber.

CARGOWORK
PRESSURE/VACUUM BREAKER(OILSEAL)
of pressure
Thisis a liquidfilledsafetyvalve,to copewithextremes or vacuumin thesystem,
duringnormaloperations.
The liquidis usuallyrefinedvegetableoil with additivessuch as glycolto preventit freezing,and

some form of rust inhibitor.
Containment
Vessel
Opento
Atmosphere
VALVE OPERATINGUNDER NORMAL PRESSURE
Under normal lG pressure (eg 1.5 bar) the liquid level is stable and line is closed
atmosDhere.
Containment
Vessel
Opento
lG HighPressure Atmosphere
UNDERHIGHPRESSURE
VALVEOPERATING
UnderexcessivelG pressure the liquidis forcedup the outletpipe,allowinglG to vent to

atmosphere, thusrelievingthe gas pressure.As pressuredropsto normaloperatingpressure,
liouidlevel
stabilises.
61
CARGOWORK
Containment
Vessel
Opento
lG HighVacuum Atmosphere
VALVE OPERATINGUNDERVACUUM
lf cargo dischargerate from any tank is too fast for the systemto cope with, then the lG line will
be subjectedto a vacuum. The vacuum will draw the liquid up the body of the valve and the
level in the pipe will fall, exposingthe pipe to atmosphere,thus relievingthe vacuum. As the
vacuumdisappears,the liquidlevelwill stabilise.

CARGOWORK
rGcoMPoslTloN.
* As the lG is principally
usedto controlthe atmosphere in the tanks,it is usefulto knowexactly
what gasesare in the tanks,not onlyfrom a safetypointof view,but to analysewhat effect
thesegasesare havingon the actualconstruction of thetanks.
of what is enteringthe tanksfrom lG producedfrom

The followingtableshowsa breakdown
boilerfluegas.
COMPONENT %AGEOF IG
NITROGEN 83%
CARBONDIOXIDE 13%
CARBONMONOXIDE 0.3%
OXYGEN 3.5%
DIOXIDE
SULPHUR 0.005%
NITROGEN
OXIDES TRACES
WATERVAPOUR TRACES
L ASH TRACES
SOOT TRACES
I
L
63
FOROOWS- VoLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
CARGOWORK
It is worthyof note that not only will the tank atmospherebe lackingin oxygen,lhereforea
serioushazardto personnel, butwillalso contain toxins.
dangerous
and theyreactin the tankwith

Nitrogenoxidescannotbe removedfromthe lG by the scrubber,
oxygento formnitrogendioxideswhichareextremelypoisonousin minuteproportions.
Fueloils are high in sulphurcontent,and when the fuel is burnt,producea largequantityof

sulphurdioxide. The scrubbercan effectivelyremovemostof this gas, but even very small
areharmfulto health.
ouantities
NB lt shouldbe bornein mindthatwhengas-freeing to

for tankentry,it maynotbe sufficient
merelyraisethe oxygen contentof the tank to 21Yo by volume, for personnel
to safely
enter,as toxic hazardsmay still be presentin small quantities.Thereforethe best
changethe tankatmosphere
practiceis to completely by volumeseveraltimesto ensure
a safeatmosphere.
OPERATIONALPROCEDURES
for usingthe lG systemfor the

In the followingpageswe will deal with the actualprocedures
followingoperationson boarda tanker:
1. Primaryinerting(newship,afterdrydock,andtankrepairs)
2. Loadingor ballastingcargotanks.
3. Duringloadedpassage.
4. Discharging.
5. Tankcleaning.
6. Gas-freeingfor entryor repairs.
1. PrimaryInerting.
PurgePipeOpen
-}
lG Tank Line Open
Main CargoTank
Valve Open
Each set of tanks in turn will have to be purgedwith lG to displacethe air with lG.
Everyloadingand vent line will also have to be purged,until the whole cargo systemis full of lG
to preventany oxygenfrom enteringthe tanks.

FleetvvoodNauticalCampus
F O R O O W s- V O L U M E2 - L I Q U I DC A R G O E S
CARGOWORK
2. Loading or ballasting cargo tanks.
Pfu ValveOpen
Purge Pipe Shut

lG Tank LineShut
--->
Main CargoTank
Valve
Open for Loading
Beforecommencing to load,all tanksand lineswill be toppedup with lG and the systemshut

down. Ventingfromthe tanksbeingloadedwill be controlled.As the volumeof cargo/ ballast
L. entersthe tank, the tank atmospherewill becomepressurised.Variousmethodsmay be
deployed,the gas may be venteddirectlyto atmosphereby individualtank PA/ valves(as
I shownabove),or the gas may be ventedup a singledeck riser to atmosphere, or may be
L. ventedto one of lhe manifoldsvia a hoseconnection lo the shorewhereit is mixedwithother
gasesand burntin a controlledmannerthrougha flarestack.
3. Duringloadedpassage.
Ptu ValveOpen
-} PurgePipe
Shut
lG Tank Line Open
Main CargoTank Valve

Shut
When loadingis completed,all tanks and lineswill have a blanketof lG at positivepressure,to

preventany air from enteringthe cargo system.
65
CARGOWORK
lf during the passagethe cargo is to be heated,the volume of oil will expand,thus increasing
the lG pressurein the ullagespace. Any excesspressurewill be ventedto atmospherevia the
P/V valves.
lf duringthe passagethe cargo cools down, the reversewill happen,thereforethe lG pressure
in the ullage space must be carefullymonitored,and kept at positivepressureby topping up
with the lG system,to preventair from beingsuckedinto the tank from the PA/ valve.
4. Discharging.
PA/ Valve Open
{-
Main CargoTank Valve
Open for Loading
as, depending
The lG plantwill be workingits hardestduringdischarge, on the numberof tanks
beingdischarged together,a positivepressuremust be maintainedin the ullagespaceat all
times,to preventair beingsuckedintothetankas theoil leveldecreases.
Monitoring of the tankpressureandoxygencontentis vitalduringdischarge, as if the discharge

rateis too fast,the lG plant
willnot be ableto supplyenoughgas, and if a vacuum is produced
in the tank,air mayenlervia the PA/valve.
The objectof the exerciseis to end up with a fully inertedset of tanks on completionof
discharge.

CARGOWORK
5. Tank cleaning.
----------------
lG Tank LineOpen
<--
MainCargoTankValve
to
Openfor Stripping
SlopTank
Duringtankcleaningeitherwithwateror crude,it is vitalthatthe tanksbeingwashedare fully

inerted.Tankcleaningmachinescreatea lot of static,thereforewe havea sourceof ignitionin
the tanks. We mustensuretherewill neverbe enoughoxygento supportcombustion during
L_ washing.
to keepa constantsupplyof lG at positivepressure,

The lG plantwill be workingcontinuously
I
t-
pumps
as the stripping willbe reducing
the tankpressure
continuously.
6. Gas-freeingfor entry / repairs
-----.-..-------
PurgePipe
lG Tank Line Open
-------------'>
MainCargoTankValve
Openfor Purging
After thoroughlycleaning,the tank has to be purgedto removeall tracesof hydrocarbongases

from the tank atmosDhere.
Once the purginghas been successfullycompleted,the lG fans can purge the tank of lG using
the fresh air inletsin the system.

for 21o/o
By carefulmonitoring andzerotoxins,the atmosphere
oxygen,andzerohydrocarbons,
can be passedsafefor entryby a responsible
officer.
to purgethe tankwithfreshair severaltimesbeforethis is achieved.

It may be necessary
GAS DETECTIONAND EQUIPMENT
to monitorcertainspacesfor gas,oxygenandtoxic
it willbe necessary
Duringtankeroperations
substances.
Manypeoplein the historyof tankerpractisehavelosttheirlivesdue to unsafepractises,

and
gas
concerning delection.
lackof knowledge
officerson tankersto have a thorough

It is thereforevitallyimportantfor all watchkeeping
understanding of gas detection.
whichin theirturngiveindication
We willbe lookingat threedifferentkindsof detectors, of three
differenttypesof gases,namely:
- for detecting
The Exolosimeter the presence gas/ air mixture.
of flammable
Theoxvqenanalyser- for detecting

the presenceof oxygen
The chemicalreactiveqasdetector- for detecting

anyspecifictypeof gas
The Explosimeter
An instrumentspecifically designedfor measuringLFL. The explosimeter will only function

properlyif the filamenthasan explosivemixturein contactwithit. lt is a verysimple devicebut
doeshavesomedrawbacks.
The instrumentitselfconsistsof a handheldboxwhichcontainsthe powersupply,the resistors

and filament,an ohmmeter, a rubberbulband tubefor drawingthe mixtureintothe instrument,
anda testkit.
by
In use,a sampletube is loweredintothe tank and a sampledrawnup into the instrument
continual of
depressions the bulb.
rubber
lf an explosivemixtureis present,the resistanceof the filamentitselfwill changedue to heat.

An imbalanceof the wheatstone bridgeis detectedby the ohmmeterwhichtellsthe operator
thathydrocarbon quantityto supportcombustion.
gas is presentin thetankin sufficient
It must be fully understoodthat a zero readingdoes not indicatethat there is no hydrocarbon

gas present,nor does it indicatethat there is no orygen present;it only indicatesthat the
sampleis eithertoo rich,or too leanto supportcombustion.
One of the main drawbacksof the instrumentis that it can initiallygive a readingand then
registerzeroon the meter,whichremainsat zero. The reasonfor this is that if a samplewere
driwn froma tankwitha veryoverrichatmosphere, theninitiallythe air in the tubeandthe first
sampleof gas wouldforma combustible mixture at the filament,thusshowinga readingon the
meter. Bui as moreand moregas wasdrawn past the filamentit wouldbe too richto burn,the
resistancein thefilamentwouldthencool,andlie meterrea@
CARGOWORK
of its
and an explanation
The followingpageshowsa schematicdiagramof the explosimeter
workings.
The Explosimeter(CombustibleGas Indicator)
CatalvticResistor
L
I
read
when all four resistorsare equallysharingthe currentflow from the battery,the meterwill
R1, R2, R3, and R4 are assembled in the formof a wheatstone bridge lf any
zero. Resistors
route whichhas the
one of the resistorschangesits value,then the currentwill flow by the
lowestresistance.
R1 is a catalyticresistor. As flammablegas passesthis filament,the gas burns,the filament

heatsup and its resistancelowersin value. Now the cunentwill take the easiestroute,through
its
Rl, and thencesharedbetweenthe route throughthe meterand R4 and R2 to complete
journ"V. The meteris calibratedto read% age LFL in otherwords,100%reading on the meter
willindicatethe LFLof the mixturesampled'

FleetwoodNauticalCamPus
CARGOWORK
The OxygenAnalyser
to monitorspacesto be enteredfor an oxygencontent. The atmosphere

It will be necessary
musthave21ohoxygenby volumeto supporthumanlife,alsothis instrument will be neededfor
monitoring oxygencontentof tankatmospheres that are inerted,whichmustbe keptat 5% or
lowerto maintaina safetankatmosphere.
Mostinstrumentson the markettodayfor measuringoxygencontentstillusethe circuitrysimilar

are different.
butthe sensingresistors,
to an explosimeter,
heatedfilament,or an electrochemical
The oxygensensorwill be eitheran electromagnetic
resistorcell.
of oxygenonly, and will not registerthe

The instrumentis designedfor the measurement
presenceof anyothergases.
withexplanation.
Belowis a simplediagramof an oxygenanalyser,
R2
ResistorfilamentsR3 and R4 are of equal rating when heated. The resistorfilamentR3 is

surroundedby a magneticfield. The gas to be sampledis drawn past the filament,and
depending uponthe amountof oxygenin the sample,willdependuponthe currentflowthrough
the coiland meter.
3. GhemicalReactiveMeasuringDevices.
This methodof gas detectionrelies on the fact that certainchemicallyimpregnatedpaper or

crystalswill only reactin contactwith specifictypesof gases.
'grab'samplingthe atmosphere to be testedusinga bellowsor syringe
The methodrelieson
typepump,to the endof whichis attachedthe tubeof chemicalreactants.
'Draeger'tubesystem.
A popularmakeof thistypeof testeris the

CARGOWORK
This kit consistsof a bellowstypeof pump,whichat one singleaspiration

willdrawthroughthe
tubeexactly100cm'of gas.
Intothe end of the bellowsthe testerinsertsthe glasstubecontaining

the impregnated
crystals,
afterfirstbreakingoffeachendof the glasstube.
the sampleof gas throughthe tube,the lengthof discoloured

Afteraspirating crystalsis read
fromthetubescalegraduations,whichwillindicatethe amountof specificgasin the sample.
rangingfrom0 - 10
Thetubescan be obtainedto sampleanytypeof gas,andwithgraduations
o/o
ppm,up to a rangeof fromzero - IOOV,
The systemis fairlyfoolproofand for examplemay be usedfor measuringcarbonmonoxide,

hydrogensulphide, hydrocarbon, typesof gases.
radon,nitrousoxideand manymoredifferent
to thissystemare:
The maindrawbacks
. typesof gas
Specifictubesare requiredfor different
. Thetubemustbe insertedthe rightway round
. The bellowscandevelopleaks
. Limitedshelflifeof tubes
. Affectedby temperatureextremes
L Bellowspump
71
CARGOWORK
TANKCLEANING
The practiseof tank cleaningoperationson board tankers has, in the past, caused no end of
problems,accidents,fatalities,and pollution.
At long last, lMO, in their wisdom, have laid down some proceduresand rules for tanker
practice,which have greatlyreducedaccidents,and pollutionincidents.
In this sectionwe shall be lookingat the reasonsfor tank cleaning,and the differentmethods
used in moderntanker oractise.
REASONSFOR TANK CLEANING.
1. To removewaxyresiduesandsediments thatsettleout of petroleum.

2. To permitgas-freeingfor entry.
3. To allowthe carriageof cleanballastin cargotanks
4. To oreventcontamination betweenoradescarried.
1. Basesedimentand waxwilltendto settleto the bottomof the tankfrommostcrudeoils

whencarriedon shipfor a few days. Somecrudesare gas-injected out of the well at
quitehighpressures, at the baseof the well,which
whichtendsto stir up the sediments
in turnsettlesout intothe cargotanks.
Some crudeshave a higherwax contentthan others,and consequentlyhave to be

heatedon voyage,whichtendsto separatesomeof the wax whichsettlesto the tank
bottom.
Theseresidueswill soon buildup into 'peaks'and 'valleys'in the tank bottomwhich

'deadfreight'.
interfereswith the naturaldrainageto the suctionpipe,and also incurs
'slops'around
willnotget paidfor carrying theworld.
Theshipowner
2. lt wouldbe futileto try and gas-freea tankthat is coveredin sedimentandwax. These

depositswillhavelo be removedbeforepurgingandgas-freeing canbe successful.
3. Duringheavyweather,a tankerwill haveto utilisesomeof her cargotanksfor carrying

extraballast. lf the ballastis to be discharged
overboardat the nextloadingport,then
thatballastwillhaveto be cleanenoughto complywithMARPOL.Thetankschosenfor
the extraballastwillneedto be thoroughly cleanedwithhotwater.
4. Manypetroleumproductswill get contaminated cominginto contactwith the residues

beforeloadingnon
and gases of other products,thereforeto avoid contamination,
grades,tankswillhaveto be cleaned.
compalible
72
o Blackpooland The Fylde college
CARGOWORK
OF TANKCLEANING
METHODS
1. Bottomflushingwith waler, petroleumproduct,or chemicalsolvents-

2. Water washing(hot or cold)usingtank cleaningmachines.
Crudeoil washing(CO )
1. Bottom flushing will not remove heavy waxy sediment from the tank bottom, and ts
usuallyonly carried out to rid the tank bottom of traces of the previouscargo prior to
loading a different,but compatiblegrade, effectivewhen carrying refined products t n
smallquantities.
Bottomflushingwith a refinedproductsuch as gas-oilis particularly usefulwhen a

tankeris changingover from carryingblack oils to refinedoils. The first cargowill
probablybe down gradeduntilall tracesof the blackoils havedisappeared from the
tanks.
Bottomflushingwithcertainsolventsis sometimes whena tankeris to carry

acceptable
paraffinchainproducts,
aflercarryingleadedgasolines
z. Eitherportableor fixedtankcleaningmachinesare usedto cleana tankthoroughly, the

seawaterbeingprovidedby a specialhighpressurepumpand heatervia a tankcleaning
deckline. The dirtyslopwateris thenstrippedbackcontinuously to the sloptank,where
the slopsare heatedto separatethe oil fromthe water. The waterwill lie at the bottom
measured
of the sloptank,carefully anddroppedoutto the sea if clean.
I
Thismethodis essentialwhenchangingfromcarryingcrudeto whiteoil trades,or when
the tankis requiredfor cleanballast,or if it is to be gas-freed.
Crudeoil washingoperationsare carriedout duringthe discharge,and has positive

advantagesover waterwashingmethods. COWingensuresthat there are no slops
remaining on boardafierdischarge,everylastdropof cargogoesashore,tankcleaning
at sea is avoided,less dangerof accidentalpollution,less tank corrosionfrom watel
washing,increasedcarryingcapacityat nextloading,tank drainagefullyeffective, time
savedgas-freeingfor drydock
the dischargetime is increased,crew workloadin

There are a few disadvantages:
dischargeportincreased,
highinstallation
costs,maintenancecosts,crewneedspecial
training.
CRUDEOIL WASHING.
IMOhaveinsistedthroughresolution, thatall crudecarriersover40,000tonnesdwt,haveto be

fitted,and use,crudeoil washingfacilities.
The mainprincipleis to use'dry'crudefrom a full tank to washthe tank(s)beingdischarged.

Crudecontaining waterdroplets(concentratedat the bottomof the tank)mustnot be usedfor
washingwith, as the water dropletsbecomeelectrostatically chargedand will introducean
intothetankatmosphere.
ignilionsourceunnecessarily
intothe sloptank,or bled

Thereforeany tankto be usedfor COWingis to be firstde-bottomed
ashorewiththe dischargepump.
73
FleetwoodNauticalCamDUs
CARGOWORK
The system has a fixed tank cleaning line along the deck with branch lines to all the fixed
machines. Some tanks on VLCCs may have up to 6 machinesper tank.
One of the main cargo pumps is utilisedto supplythe COW line with pressurisedcrude for the
washing operation. Some tankers may have a specialdesignatedCOW pump which is used
only for washing.
As the tank is beingdischarged,once a sensibledepth of ullageallows,washingof the exposed

top part of the tank may begin. The high pressurejets of crude acts like a solventas it hits the
exposedsurfacesof the tanks steelwork,and all depositsare pumpedashorewith the cargo.
The machines rotate in the horizontalplane and have a controllablearc of operationin the
verticalplane. The verticalarc of wash may be set for any parameters.
On the followingpages, a sequencefor COWing a tanker during dischargeis given, together

with some sketchesto show how the whole tank surfacegets washed. There is also a sketchof
a 'gunclean'machine.
The Terminalmust be given at least 24 hours notice of the ships intentionto COW, and there
are certaincircumstanceswhen COW operationshave to be suspended,namely:
. Whenthe Terminalor PortAuthoritysayso.

. Whena faultappearsin the lG system
. Whenthe oxygencontentof the tanksor linesexceeds8%
. Whena leakappearsin the COWsystem
. stormactivitvin the atmosphere.
Whenthereis electrical
74
CARGOWORK
COW OPERATION
Havinglookedat the maincomponenls for crudeoil washing,we can now run througha full
sequence of cargoandcleaning.
of washingfromarrivalto completion
Priorto dischargecommencing, the portabletop controlboxesare fittedto the deck flange

bracketsof the fixeddrivehousing.The inletpipeconnection for the crudeoil is checkedfor
leaksandthe controlssetfor the firstwashcycle.
The slop tank is now pumpedout to shoreside.Cargodischargecommencesand once a

reasonable amountof cargohas beendischarged,to ensureno waterconlentin oil,thencargo
is pumpedintothe sloptankso thatwe havea sloptankfullof crudeoil whichwill be utilisedto
completecleaning.
As cargois beingdischarged throughthe mainpumps,a checkis kepton the ullageof the tank
and once sufficientullageis reached,then the valve from the main line to the machineis
opened. The crudeoil now passesthroughthe machineand out throughthe nozzleat high
carriesout the spiralwashing
pressure,cleaningthe top sectionof the tank as it continually
Daltern.
Whenthe correctullageis reachedfor the secondwashingcycle,the nozzledrive leveris

operatedto disconnectthe pressureon the nozzle. This facilitateseasy re-settingof the nozzle
L-
to the secondwashpattern.Oncethe nozzleis reset,the driveleveris againoperatedto re-
engagethe nozzlepressureandthe secondwashingcycleis carriedout.
L Whenthe correctullageis reachedfor the thirdand lastwashcycle,the aboveis repeatedand

thewashingnowcontinues so thatthefinalwashis acrossan emptytankbottom.
and the cargo

In orderto maintainpressurefor washing,a secondtank is openedto discharge
fromthattankactually givesthefinalcleanof thefirsttank.
Thissystemwillcontinueuntilthe lasttankis nearingcompletion of discharge.lt is at thistime

thatthecargooriginally
transferred to the sloptankis utilised.
As soonas suctionfor dischargefromthe lasttankstartsto be lost,the maindischarge valveto

shoreis closedand the sloptankvalveopenedso thatthe cargofromthe sloptank is pumped
throughthe machineand out of the nozzlestillunderhighpressure to givethefinalcleanto the
last tank. As this cargocomesinto the tank it is returnedvia the tanks strippingsystemto the
sloptank.
After sufficienttime has been allowedfor the machineto completecleaningthe main line
dischargevalve is again openedand the valveto the machineis closed. The cargofrom the
sloptankis nowpumpedashoreat lhe samelimeas stripping the lasttank. Oncethe sloptank
is empty,linesare clearedand the onlycargoleftonboardwill be that in the strippinglineback
to the sloptank.
- IT MUSTBE CLEARLYUNDERSTOODTHATANY VESSELCARRYINGOUT COW
MUSTHAVEAN INERTGASSYSTEMIN OPERATION.
75
CARGOWORK
8 Crude Oil Washing Sequence
A full sequenceof washing with crude oil is shown in the followingdiagrams. The angles
indicatedmay not actuallybe those used in practice.
(1)
FULLWASHthe nozzleis set to

oDeratebetween0oand 140o.
ONE-THIRD the nozzle is set to

oDerate between 60o and 140o
once the tank has been discharqed
of one{hird of its cargo.
TWO-THIRDS the nozzleis set to

operatebetween25oand T5oonce
the tank has been dischargedof
two{hirdsof its carqo.
BOTTOMWASHINGthe nozzleis set

to operatebetween0o and 25oonce
the tank is emptyof cargo.
76
CARGOWORK
Fixed Tank Washing Machine
t- t
I Lower elevationlimit
, t
I coIar
I
Control sequence --'*.---{._- ,
settins Upper elevationlimit
collar
I I
De-clutchlever for Hand settingfor nozzle
nozzle angle
ControlBox
PIPE
INTAKE
FixedDriveHousing
\ SightingPort(Oil)
SightingPort(ControlRod)
L
VibrationFin
DropPipe
140'Angle
Vertical Movement Head

(0. - 140.)
Counter
Balance
0oAngle
77
CARGOWORK
TFRMINALOPERATIONS
Safety during loading,disharging,ballastingoperationsdependslargelyupon the'ship / shore

interface'.
There should be good liaisonand communicationsbetweenthe ship's staff, and the terminal
staff at all times.
At most tanker terminals,there are a lot of proceduresto comply with prior to and during all
cargo/ ballasting/ washingoperations.
'do's' and 'don'ts' is by no means exhaustive,and if in doubt the IMO
The following list of
publicationsconcerningtankersand terminalsshouldbe consulted.
Thorough inspectionsby both parties should be carried out prior to any cargo / ballast
operationsin port,and the relevantcheck lists used.
The ship's tanks, lines, and related equipment should be checked by the shore, and any
overboardvalvesand lines not in use sealedand lashedshut.
Ship's staff should make a thoroughinspectionof the loadingarms / hosesto be used, and any
deficienciesloggedand protestsissuedpriorto operationscommencing.
Safe manninglevelsshouldbe maintainedat all times, and most terminalsinsiston safe access
to / from vesselon both sides.
Engines,SOPEP,and Fire Fightingequipmentmust be in a stateof instantreadiness.
The following pages give some procedures for loading, discharging,ballasting,avoiding

contamination,ballasting,and entry into enclosedspaces.
Also includedare some sketchesof deep water tankerterminals.
7a
CARGOWORK
. LOADINGPROCEDURES.
. Ship / shore check list completedand signed

. Communicationsnetworkestablished
Loadingplan agreedby both parties
. Loading,toppingoff ratesagreed
. Emergencystop proceduresand signalsagreed
. Tanks/ lines/ hosesinspected
. Overboardvalves sealed
. All tanks and linesfully inerted
. lG systemshut down
. Pumproomisolatedand shut down
o Ship'slines set up to load
-
. Off-sidemanifoldsshut and blanked
i . Fire Fightingand SoPEP equipmentin place
L
. Noticeof readinessaccepted
I o Firstset of tanks and manifoldvalvesopen
. Commenceloadingat slow rate
. Checkfirsttanks to ensurecargo is being received,and line sample.
: . Checkall roundvesseland oversidefor leaks
. Increaseto full agreedloadingrate if all is well
. Checkall ullageshalf-hourlyand monitorflow rate confirmwith shore figure
. Checkvalvesoperateinto next set of tanks priorto changingover
- . Reduceloadingrate when toppingoff final tank
. Orderstop in plentyof time to achieveplannedullage/ line draining
. When cargocompletelystoppedclose all valves
. After settlingtime, take ullages,temperaturesand samples
79
FleeMood Nauticalcamous
DISCHARGlNGPROCEDURE
Ship/ shorechecklistcompleted
andsigned
networkestablished
Communications
planagreedby bothparties
Discharge
ratesandmaxbackpressures
Discharge agreedupon
sop procedures
Emergency andsignalsagreed
COWplanagreed,Portauthorityinformed
Tanks.Lines.hosesinsDected
Ullages,samplestaken
valvesshutandsealed
Overboard
lG planttestedandfullyoperational
pressure
COWlineand equipment tested
of firstgrade/ tanks
Lineup for discharge
slowrate
discharge
Whenshoreis readycommence
Checkall roundship,overside, manifold
for leaks
lf all is well,and shoreagrees,speedup pumpsto full rate
checkullages,backpressure,
Regularly oxygencontent
stripbackto sloptankas tanksempty
Internally
ballastas necessary
loadingsegregated
Commence
if shoreallows
COWoperations
Commence
Pumpfinalslopsashore
Drainlinesto sloptankand pumpashorethroughMARPOLline
NB lf extraballastis requiredto vacatethe berth,then the cargotanksfor that ballastwill

haveto be waterwashedandthe slopspumpeddirectlyto a shoresloptank.
(150 mm dia)
Stripping
Pump

CARGOWORK
. withshoreandship'spersonnel
Cargoplandiscussed
L-
. carriedout by bothparties
Tankinspection
o Pumps,lines,valvesfor eachgradeseparated
(hvovalveseparation)
- . Liningup checkedtwice
. lsolatepumproom
. for eachgrade
Eachmanifoldlabelled
. All unusedlinesandvalvesblankedandsealed
. valveslabelledand lashed
Sensitive
. ventlinespergradecompatibility
lsolate/ separate
. gradessimultaneously
Avoidloadingincompatible
. eachgrade,takelinesamplesto confirm
Whencommencing
t- . Monitorullages/ quantities
verycarefully
' . for eachgrade
Ensureseparatesamplingequipment
I
It is worth notingthat certainpetroleumproductsare extremelyhazardousto health,and
, reference shouldbe madeto the IMDGcodepriorto handlingor exposure,
andthe appropriate
TLVs (thresholdlimitvalues)shouldnot be exceeded.
L
Tanker officersshouldnote that seriouscontaminationof a productcan occur if exposedto
81
CARGOWORK
BALLASTING PROCEDURES
BALLAST
SEGREGATED
from the cargo

All largetankershave segregatedballasttanks that are totallyindependent
systemhavingseparatelinesand pump.
For examplea 250,000tonneDWTVLCCwill havethe ForePeaktankand No.2wingspurely

for ballastonly,with a separateline and pumptotallyisolatedfrom the cargosystem. In an
emergency, a pipespoolpiececan be fittedfrom the ballastpumpintothe maincargocross-
over line in the pumproom,but, exceptfor emergencies, the ballastpumpmust be separate
fromothersystems duringany cargo operations.
. Set up ballastpumpto circulate

fromseasuctionto seadischarge
. of ballasttanks( no cargocontamination
Visiblycheckcondition )
. Ensuretankairventsareopen
o WhenDeadweight
/ draft/ trimallowscommence
ballasting
. columnsin Ballastbook
Fillin appropriate
Takedockwatersamplesat appropriate
levels
Mosttankerswill be able to safelymanoeuvreand vacatethe berthwith segregatedballast

only,but, in the eventof highwinds/ heavyweather,extraballastwill haveto be shippedin
cargotanks,whichwillhaveto be thoroughlycleanedbeforehand.
NB: Ballasttanksare classedas enclosedspacesand mustnot be enteredwithoutfollowing

and rulesfor 'ENTRYINTOENCLOSED
thefull procedure SPACES'.Seriousoxidation
occurswhen these tanks are empty resultingin a deficiencyof oxygen. Alsb the
steelworkis proneto stressdamageand oil may have leakedinto the ballastspace
undetected.
ENTRYINTO ENCLOSEDSPACES
Manyliveshavebeenlostin industrydue to lackof knowledge of thistopic,

and understanding
andall personnel
shouldbe madeawareof the correct proceduresprior
to an enclosed
entering
space,andthe hazardsandconsequences of notfollowingtheseprocedures.
The mainhazardis oxygendeficiency.The atmosphere in an enclosedspacehas to contain

21o/ooKfeento supporthumanlife. Otherhazards,equallydangerous,are the presenceof
hydrocarbongas, whichin itselfis toxic,and when mixedwith the rightquantityof air becomes
extremelyflammable.The presenceof othergasesand chemicals, evenin minutequantities,
posesan immensethreatto humanlife.
R U L E- 1 .
Beforeentryinto any cargotanks,pumprooms,fuel tanks,cofferdams,duct keels,ballasttanks,

and any similarenclosedor confinedspace,a rlsk assessrnentMUST be carriedout by the
Master or responcibleofficer.

CARGOWORKFOR OOWs- VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
RULE_ 2.
Wherethe atmospherein any spaceis consideredunsafeor suspecf,it shouldonly be entered

in an emergency,or when it is absolutelyessenf/al and proper protectiveclothingand self
, containedbreathingapparatusMUSTbe worn.
RULE- 3.
No personor personsshallenterany enclosedspacewithoutobtainingwrittenpermission

from
officer,in the form of an ENTRYPERMIT.
theMasteror responsible
The entry permitreferredto abovecan only be issuedif the personissuingthe permithas

ensuredthe space has been ventilatedsufficiently,and the space has been checkedfor
sufficiencyof oxygenand the presenceof other gases / toxic substances,lifelinesand
- harnesses and that the spaceis
are at the entrancetogetherwithSCBAset and resuscitator,
ventilatedand gas monitored and
continuously, a person
responsible with communications to
andthatanyad.iacent
bridgeis at the entrance, spaceshavealsobeen checked.
whichshouldalwaysbe followedby all personsinvolvedwithany

Belowis the properprocedure
entryintoan enclosedspace,andyou shouldmakeyourselffullyfamiliarwiththisprocedure.
. Haspermission
beengivento openup theenclosedspace?
. Hasthe enclosedspacebeenventilated?
L
. beenmadeby all concerned?
Hasa full riskassessment
. Hasan entrypermitbeenappliedfor?
r_
. Hasa workpermitif appropriate
beenappliedfor?
. Hasthe spacebeencheckedfor gasesandtoxicsubstances?
. Hasthe spacebeencheckedfor oxygencontent?
. personat the entrance?
ls therea responsible
. Havenoticesbeendisplayed
at theentrance?
' . Haveall adjacentspacesthatmaycausea hazardbeenchecked?
. Are lifelinesandharnessat the entrance?
. Are SCBAsetsand resuscitatorat the entrance
. systembeenestablished?
Hasa communications
. ls the rescuepartyequippedandstandingby?
. ls the personto enterwearingfull protective
clothing?
. ls the spaceundercontinuous ventilationandgas monitoring?
. lit?
ls the spaceadequately
. to be usedintrinsically
ls all equipment safe?
. Hasthe checklistbeenfilledin by the responsible
officer?
. Hasthe checklistbeenfilledin by personentering?
83
CARGOWORK
lf the responsibleofficerand the personenteringcan answer YES! to the pointsabove,then it

shouldbe safe to enter.
Below is a copy of a check list issuedby the Chamberof Shipping.
It is fair to say that most tanker companieshave their own permitsystemsand check listsfar in
excessof the standardsreouired.
SAFETY LIST
CHECK
Belors entry inlo the snclosodspaco ths appropriatesately chocks
lisled bslow must be canied out by lhs master or lhe rssponslblo
ofiice.and by lhe poIsonwho is lo 6ntsr.
N8. For ontry lnto crrgo pump noomt only lhoto ltom3 In
rod nood to bo chcckcd.
-Iim€
sEcTtolt I
bo chcckod E by tha mattot or tho rcrpontlble otficar
1.1 Has the space been p.operlyventilaled,lesled and lound
sale?
1.2 Have aarangements besn made to coolinue ventalation
dufrngoccupancy
of the spaceandal breaks?
1.3 Have arrangemenlsbeon made lo repeatlestrngal regular
intervalsdunngoccupancyand atier breaks?
1.4 Are rescue and resuscitationeouioment available lor
rmmFdrate useal thee'llrancelo lhe space?
1.5 Have arrangementsbeen made lor a responsiblepersonto f-l
be In conslantanendanceat the entranceto the soace? LJ
1.6 Has a syslemof @mmunicalionbeiweenthe p€rson at the
enlrance and lhose enlering the space been agreed and
tested?
1.7 Are accessandrlluminalron
adequale?
1.8 Are portablelighls and olher equipmentto be used ol an
appropriatetype?
sEcTtoN 2
be cneckedfiby the p€rson who ls to ente? lhc spacc
er lhe r€levanl checks ln SECtlO l have been rnade.
2.1 Have you been given Inslruclrons or permrssron by the
masleror the responsrble
ollicerto enterthe space?
Are you satistiedall relevanlchecks;n SeCTIONt have
beencompleled,
2.3 Do you understand the a(angements made for
clmmunicationbetweenyourselland the responsiblep€rson
in atlendanceat the entranceto the spac€?
4 Are you awareyou shouldleavethe spacetmmediately in
lhe evenl ol venlilalronDroblemsor commuoication
laalure?
sEcrtox 3
br.alhing apparrtui ls to be used thls sectlon
be checked lolntly by the nsponslble olficer and
pcrronS who are to entet lhe apace.
. l Are you lamiliarwilh lhe apparatusto be used?
.2 Has the apparalusbeencheckedas follows?
n
u
(i) Adequacyol air supply
(ia) Low pressureaudiblealarm
(iia)Facemask- air supplyandtightness
.3 Have the eme.gency signals and olher emergeocy
arrangemenlsbeen agreed? tr
Inst.uctlgng have be€n glven that a Esponslblo
pe.son be at the entranc€ to lhe space, the peraong
enterlng lhe space shosld show hlm thelr complGled cerd
b€fore

CARGOWORK
SEA-ISLAND
TYPETERMINAL
MooringDolphins
MooringDolphins
i
L 85
L
(SBM)
StNGLEBUOYMOORTNG
Sub-SeaPipeline
'CALM' Monobuoy
(CatenaryAnchor Leg)
MooringLine and Chafe-Chain
Floating
Hose
String
86
CARGOWORK
BUOY MOORING(CBM)
CONVENTIONAL
87
CARGOWORK
TANKERS
CHEMICAL
GENERAL
ships,and are usuallydesignedfor a specific

Modernchemicalcarriersare very specialised
tradeor groupof products.
They rangefrom multigradeproductcarrierswith many segregatedsets of tanks, to acid

carriersdesignedto carrymanytypesof highlycorrosivesubstances, parcel
to sophisticated
chemicalcarriersthatarecapableof carryinganytypeof chemicalon anytrade.
As the products
thatchemicaltankerscarryareextremely and extremely
valuable, hazardous,
a
stages.
needto be lookedat in the shipdesignand construction
lotof considerations
SHIP TYPES
The IMOBulkChemicalHandlingcodesstatethe requirements and buildingof

for the designing
chemicaltankers,to meetstatutorycriteriawhichhas beenagreedupon,and as laid downin
the SOLASconvention.
Thereare threetypesof chemicaltanker:Type l, ll, and lll ships,and thesenumbersreferto

of the cargotanksin theship.
locationanddisposition
The buildingparameters of the shipin the eventof hull

are set to relateto the survivalcapability
damage,to avoid penetrationof the cargo tanks, which could be catastrophicto the
environment,if largequantities
of certainchemicals pollutedthe oceans.
T Y P EI S H I P :
'survivalcapability' of the
intendedfor the transportation
A chemicaltankerbuiltwith maximum
mosthazardous substances.
TYPEII AND III SHIPS:
Theseshipseachrequirea lesserdegreeof protection for'survivalcapability',and so the tanks

of less hazardous
are less well protected,thereforethey will be intendedfor the transportation
chemicals.

CARGOWORK
CHEMICALTANKERS
GENERAL
ships,and are usuallydesignedfor a specific

Modernchemicalcarriersare very specialised
tradeor groupof products.
They rangefrom multigradeproductcarrierswith many segregatedsets of tanks,to acid

carriersdesignedto carrymanytypesof highlycorrosivesubstances, parcel
to sophisticated
chemical carriers
thatare capable
of any
carrying typeof on
chemical any trade.
As the products
thatchemicaltankerscarryare extremely hazardous,
valuable,and extremely a
needto be lookedat in the shipdesignandconstruction
lotof considerations stages.
SHIPTYPES
The IMOBulkChemicalHandlingcodesstatethe requirements and buildingof

for the designing
chemicaltankers,to meetstatutorycriteriawhichhas beenagreedupon,and as laid downin
the SOLASconvention.
Thereare threetypesof chemicaltanker:Type l, ll, and lll ships,and thesenumbersreferto

of the cargotanksin the ship.
locationanddisposition
The buildingparameters of the shipin the eventof hull

are set to relateto the survivalcapability
damage,to avoid penetrationof the cargo tanks, which could be catastrophicto the
environment,if largequantities
of certainchemicals pollutedthe oceans.
T Y P EI S H I P :
'survivalcapability' of the
intendedfor the transportation
A chemicaltankerbuiltwith maximum
mosthazardous substances.
TYPEII AND III SHIPS:
Theseshipseachrequirea lesserdegreeof protection and so thetanks

for' survivalcapability',
are lesswell protected,
thereforethey will be intendedfor the of
transportation less hazardous
chemicals.
88
FleetwoodNaulical Campus
CARGOWORK
tMosHtPwPE - t.
'type
As a one' ship will be carryingthe most hazardoussubstances,it will have to be built with
'maximum protection',to be able to survive collision,slranding, and other minor damage,
anywherealong her length.
For carryingmost hazardoussubstances,cargotank locationis paramount,and the cargotanks

shouldbe locatedat leastthe followingdistancesinboardof the outer shell plating,thus:
\
Xy
D
'D'
in metres, shall be at least 1 1.5m, or moulded breadth + 5.
'x' neverlessthan2 x 760mm(1.52m)
'H' in metres.at least6m.or mouldedbreadth= 15

'D' in metres.at least11.5m.or mouldedbreadth+ 5
B9
CARGOWORK
IMOSHIPryPE - II
As a 'type ll' ship will be carryingsubstancesthat are significantlyhazardous,it will have to be

built to give adequateprotectionto the cargo spaces,to be able to survivecollision,stranding,
and any minordamage,anywherealong her length,if she is more than 150 metresin length.
lf a type ll ship is 150 metresin lengthor less, she has to be builtto be able to survivecollision,
stranding,and any minor damage,anywherealong her length,EXCEPTthe space boundedby
lhe machinerybulkheadsaft.
cargo tanks, for cargoes requiredto be carriedby a type ll ship, shall be locatedat least the
followingdistancesinboardfrom the outer shell plating:
'D' nowherelessthan760mm
'H' 6 metres,or mouldedbreadth= 15
IMO SHIPTYPE- III
substancesthat have been agreedwill have a sufficient

A type lll ship will be transporting
hazard,andwillhaveto be builtto givethe cargotanksa moderatedegreeof protection.
and
stranding,
lf a type lll shipis 125mor morein length,she mustbe ableto survivecollision,
any minordamageas for a Vpe ll shipunder150min length.
lf a typelll shipis lessthan 125min length,she mustbe ableto survivecollision, and

stranding,
any minordamageas for a typell shipunder150min length, withthe EXCEPTION of damage
to the machinery space.
for cargotanklocationof a typelll ship.

Thereareno specialrequirements
- - - - - - - 9 0
O BlackpoolandThe FyldeCollege
OF FITNESS.
CERTIFICATE
The chemicalindustryhas to cope with new productsand new procedures with

consistently
globaldemand,and thereforeregulations,codes,and guidelinesare constantlybeingwritten
and updatedto cope with this demand. The slandardslaid down in the ICS Chemicalguide are
to be followedby all involved,as standardisationof operations is essentialfor the
worldwrde
safetyof personnel,
and the protection
of the environment.
IMOis the governingbody,throughwhichresolutions are madeto ensurethatthe followingare

properlyregulated;bestoperational practise,shipconstruction, and coatings,
tank construction
equipment and materialsused. lt is the responsibility societiesto
of ownersand classification
ensurethese rulesare adheredto.
'Certificate
of Fitness',without
All chemicaltankerswill be undersurveyto be issuedwith a
whicha chemicaltankerwill not be allowedto trade.
. THEHAZARDSOF CHEMICALS.
Listedbelowaresomeof themajorhazards
associated
withthehandling Thislist
of chemicals.
is not exhaustive,and it should be borne In mind that wilh some substances,differenthazards
presentthemselveswith temperaturechange,humiditychange,and with time.
:
. Flammabilitv - some chemicals are highly volatile with very low ignition points, and are
reactive with air, water, and certain gases.
i
!- . Toxicitv - somechemicalsare extremelytoxic in very small quantities,and contactof

any kind has to be avoided.
. Corrosivitv - a lot of chemicalsare highlyconosive,and to transportthem, specialnon-

.., corrosivematerialshaveto be usedin pipe and tank construction.
. Pollution - mostchemicalsare marinepollutants,and specialcare is neededto avoid
o lncomoatibilitv - a lot of chemicalsreactstronglywhenin contactwith other chemicals,

even in minutepropottions. Gas given off in evaporationfrom somechemicalscan have a
drasticreactionto the gases from other chemicals.
. HiohCarqoDensitv - somechemicalshave a veryhigh massper unit volume,therefore

* if canied with low densityproducts can causeproblemswllh sfress on the shipshull.
o Viscositv - some products will have to be heated to very high temperaturesbefore they
*.- can be pumped,otherswillhaveto be supercooledbeforethey can be pumped.
. Hiqhmeltinqpoint - someproductssolidifyat high temperaturesand cannotbe handled

unlessthls temperatureis maintained.
. Low boilinqooint - some productsboil at very low temperatures,so w,//have to be

- pressurisedor cooledto avoidchangingintoa gas.
91
CARGOWORK
PUMPS AND PIPELINES.
Some ship types are very similarto a conventionalproducttanker,having a pumproom(which

must be situatedaway from engine room bulkhead)housingcentrifugalpumps and/or positive
displacementpumps, with a complex system of pipelinesand strippinglines to service each
tank individually.
Type lships usuallyhaveno pumproom,and eachindividual tank is servicedby its own'in tank'
submersiblecentrifugalpump driveneitherhydraulicallyor by an electricmotoron deck.
Each pump from each tank will have its own isolatedpipelinesystem for loading,discharging,
purgingand inerting,and ventinglines.
<-Discharge / loadingline
Integralpump drive shaft
Deepwellcentrifugalpump
Tankconstruction or mildsteel
may be from stainlesssteelto copewithcorrosivesubstances,
witha specialcoating.
TANKCOATINGS.
on the
Coatingsare neededfor mildsteeltanks,as therewill be a reactionfrom oxidisation
the
steel surface,which,when in contactwith certainchemicals,will seriouslycontaminate
oroduct.
Tanks that carry solventsand aromatichydrocarbonsmay be coatedwith zinc silicatetype

damage,no goodfor acidtypecargoes.
paint,a hardsurfacecoatingproneto mechanical
Tanksdesignedfor acids,alkalis,glycols,animal,vegetableand mineraloilsare usuallycoated

with epoxy type paint or similarpolymerhard coatings,such as polyurethane hard gloss
'waxy'finishthat aids surfaceshedding,prevents'clingage',
and
coatings,whichhavea slight
makestankcleaning far easier.
Phenolicepoxidecoatingsare used for tanks carryingvery expensiveproductsto avoid

areexpensive
butthesecoatingmaterials
contamination, anddifficultto apply.
92
CARGOWORK
CARGO OPERATIONS
Planningfor loading/ discharging/ ballasting if

of chemicaltankersis of the utmostimportance,
the operationsareto be carriedout safely,andwithoutexpensivecargocontamination.
Somechemicaltankersmayhavea voyagescheduleof manyports,and loadanddischarge30

to 40 differentparcelsof manydifferentproducts.
jettiesin oneport.
Someof the parcelsmayrequirethe shipto utiliseseveraldifferent
Cargoplansare drawnup in conjunction with a holisticplanfor the wholeoperation,

involving
ALL partiesconcerned.This ensuresthat everyoneon boardknowswhat is planned,and
relevanlshorepartiesareall awareof theshipsintentions.
Thisforwardplanningprocedure
nowformspartof the ship'sISMcode,and followsthe ship's
'qualityassurance'
scheme.
in portis givenbelow,to givethe studentsomeidea

A typicalchemicaltankerscargooperation
of
of the complexity the operation,
andwhat is entailed.
Example
- 48.
MA/' HARDSHIP'-38,000tonnesdwt. Totalnumberoftanks
Discharge port- Rotterdam.
I
43 parcelsto be discharged
from47 lanks.
To'backload'10parcels into12tanks.
Estimatedtimefor ops.= 4.8 daysutilising
4 berths.
2 berths- discharged
First33 parcelsutilising in 40 hrs.
Tankcleaned4 tanks. Backloaded4 parcelsinto4 tanks- 12 hrs.
Next2 berths10 parcelsdischarged from10tanks.- 6hrs.
The 10tankswerecleaned.Backloaded6 moreoarcels- 16hrs.
Cargomeasurement andsampling - 6hrs.
Tankinspections - 3.5hrs.
CARGOMEASUREMENT
AND SAMPLING.
As with petroleumproducts,careful measurementis essentialfor safe practise, and as

chemicals areexpensive, andverydangerous, we mustveryaccurately calculateour quantities
to the nearest
litre. lt is alsoimportant
to know the exact
volumeof the quantity
to be loaded,as
the vapourpressure and contentin the ullagespaceneedscarefulmonitoring.
The temperature at whichthe densityof our chemicals is givenby the refinerymay be entirely
differentto the temperatureat whichwe load the chemicals;thereforecarefulcalculationusing
volumecorrection factorsis essential if the parcelwillfit the space.
to determine
As productdensitiesare usuallygivenby measurement in vacuum(no allowance for buoyancy

fromair),it is normalpracticeon chemicaltankersto useSG whichis givenby measurement of
the productin air, comparedto the measurement of waterin air (usinga standardtemperature
of 20ocelsius).
93
CARGOWORK
For example- BENZENE- SG = 0.8790@ 2Oo| 40. This tells us that the measurement of
gravity
specific of Benzene
wastakenin air, producl
temp.= 29ogcompared to unityof water@
40c.
With the above information in mind,it will be fairlyobviousthat constantmonitoringof the

chemicalduringloadingis essenlial,as the temperature, and thus the SG, will be changing
continuously during the loadingoperation.lf the productis highlytoxic,thenthe vapoursgiven
off intothe ullagespacewill be toxic,thereforethe above monitoring will haveto be doneby a
tankcontained, closedsystem.
Modernchemicaltankershave sophisticated monitoringsystemsthat will give the operator

continuous in
readouts the room
control as to watercontent,02, vapour
ullage,temperature,
pressureelc.
Eachtank will also have someothermeansof manuallyassessingullage,temperalure, gas

'closedloading'measurement tubes with a gas tight seal, as
contentetc, similarto the
describedin the petroleumsectionof thesenotes. To do a manualcheck,and take product
the operatorwill be fullyprolectedand wearing
samples,whilstloadinghighlytoxicchemicals,
SCBA.
INERTINGAND PURG]NG
Almost50%of chemicalscarriedin bulkare highlyvolatile,thussimilarprecautions

to handling
petroleum
productshaveto be observed.
Tanksand linesneedto be inertedin the sameway,to displaceflammable and toxicmixtures.

a flue gas lG systemwill not normallysufficefor mostchemicals,
But unfortunately, due to the
presenceof sulphurs,oxides,and water;whichreactwith somechemicalscausingheat and
andin somecasescanreactwiththevapourin the ullagespace.
polymerisation,
Most tankersthat carry reactivechemicalproductsuse nitrogenas an inert gas, which is

suppliedfromthe shoreby directline,or fromtankerlorry. Duringthe voyage,the shipwilltop -
up the systemfrom a bank of pressurised nitrogenbottles,and may have a N2 generation
systemon boardto keepthe bottlebankfull.
Purgingof tanks and linesfor small parcelsof flammablechemicalsis essential,as at the

commencement a lot of staticwill be developedin pumpsand lines,
of loading/ discharging,
and in the return
vapour linesystems.
PADDING
Some chemicalsare highlyreactivewith air and othergases,thereforit will be essentialto

removeby displacement, any air, moisture,or othergasespriorto loadingthe product.Before
loadingthe productthetanksand linesconcerned are 'padded'with or productvapour'
nitrogen,
to avoidthisreactionon commencement of loading.
TANKCLEANING
Althoughchemicalcarriertanks are normallysmoothsurfacedand coated,which ensures

minimal'clingage',
it is an essentialpartof operations
to cleanbetweenincompatibleproducts,
as evena few ppm of a previous
product couldseriously a
contaminate largeparcel
of another
Droduct.
94
FleetwoodNauticalcamous
C A R G O W O R KF O R O O W S- V O L U M E2 - L I Q U I DC A R G O E S
, The cleaningmedium used on chemicalcarrierswill vary with the product previouslycarried,

'' and the productnext to be loaded.
Cleaningmay be done using hot / cold salt water, hot / cold fresh water, steam, the product
:- itself,or by cleaningagents(chemicalemulsifiers).
As mentionedin the petroleumsectionof these notes, a lot of staticwill be generatedduring

* washing,by machines,misting,steam vapour, pipelinesand pumps,lhereforeit is essentialto
fully inert. (Referto ISGOTT- for tank washingand gas-freeingprocedures.)
CARGOHEATING
.* Unlikewaxypetroleum products,mostchemicalproductsthatrequireheatingon voyagecannot

use standardsteamheatingcoilswherethe steamor heatexchanging mediumis suppliedfrom
the engineroom,as a routewillbe created,fromcargoareato safearea,via steampipes.
The mediumfor heattransference withthe productin caseof leakage.

MUSTbe compatible
The pressurein the heatingcoilsMUSTbe greaterthanthe maximumpressureinsidethetank.

:
Cargoesin adjacenttanks needcarefulconsideration, it has beenknownfor an overflowto
I occurfromthe productin an adjacenttankto the one beingheated,by heattransference
from
i'- bulkheads.
!
L HEALTHAND SAFETY
to humanlife.
Studentsmustbe fullyawareof the dangersandeffectsof chemicals
Toxicityby inhalation,ingestion,or skin absorptionfrom certainchemicals,in very small

amounts,can causesevereillnessandevendeath.
Theseeffectscan c€luseacuteburningof bodytissue,and havea systemicnarcoticeffect,and

can causeseverebloodpoisoning,includingorganandbonecancersto namebuta few.
:
thatall chemicaltankeroperators
It is thereforeessential for attending
fulfilthe requirements the
relevantTankerSafetyCourses,and are madeawareof beingFULLYprotectedat all times
whenworkingin lhe unsafeareas.
!_
It is alsoessentialthat all Companysafetyprocedures
are followedto the letter,for the health
Protective clothingmustbe wornby any personworkingwithor neardangerous and

chemicals,
lhe term 'total protection'consistsof a one-piecesuit completewith attachedhood, bootsand
t-- gloves,whicharesuppliedfroman air cylinderto keeppositivepressure insidethesuit.
frommustbe approvedfor use handlingsolventsand

thatthe suitis constructed
The materials
otherchemicalslikelvto causedeterioration
of the suit.
95
CARGOWORK
THE SAFETYBARRIER.
to the
ln chemical carriers, the safety barrier is the whole ship's structure,from the.keel
block,
uppermostdeck. There must bL no openingsin the forward part of the accommodation
be have
controlled, an air-locksystem'
and the main means of accessto the cargoirea should
and shouldbe situatedas far aft in the accommodationblockas possible'
to be
This safety barrier cannot be kept fully closed and gas-tight; the barrier may need
penetratedfor operationalreasons'eg
Pump driveshaftsbetweenE/R and P/R.

Deck steam linesto mooringequipment.
Heatingcoil returnlinesto condenser'
Inertgas linesfromlG generator/ bottlebank.
Personsenteringaccommodation clothing'
wearingcontaminated
Storingcargogaugingandsamplingequipment'
Bunkerand FW linesto internaltanks.
zones,non-
Let us take a lookat the safetybarrieras a whole,and-decideon our hazardous
hazardous zones,and howwe can makesomeareassate'
AREA 1 sourcesof heatand ignitionand requiresairventilation, to makearea1

therefore
a safe area,we needto keepgas out. By correctlydesigningthis partof the
barrierwe canachievethis.
NB Hazardsof explosionand fire in area 1 may occurwith only 1% gas by

volume.Healthhazardsin area1 mayoccurat 2 or 3 ppm'
AREA 2 sources of fuel and air and combusliblemixtureswill always be present,

thereforeby designwe mustcompletelyrestrictsourcesof heatand ignition'
lf this is sometimesnot possible,eg tank cleaning(stati), then we must by

designcontroltheatmosphere,(lG).
AREA 3 Cargo operationsinvolvesome ventingor escapeof.vapour,thereforewe will

hav6 flammablemixtures,and sourcesof heat and ignition,so by designwe
have to look at the controlfrom humanresources,havingwheneverpossible
systems'rulesand
properlytrainedskilledoperators,closedcargooperational
safeequipment.
intrinsically
regulations,
AREA4 and normalship operations'and

This area may be usedfor cargooperations,
flammable
could containheat and ignitionsources' mixtures,and requireair
ventilation.
O BlackDooland The FyldeCollege

FleetwoodNauticalCamPUs
CARGOWORK
By design we can make area 4 a safe area, by erecting a safety barrier. Firstly by fitting a
'safe' air ventilation
singleaccessairJock. By installingintrinsicallysafe equipment. By special
systemthat will keep this area underpositivepressureat all times,thus:
Safeair inletf-l exhaust
Air lock --------------1
CARGO TANK VENTING.
as laid downin the SOLAS

The tankvent systemsfor chemicalcarriersare to be constructed
Theyareto be entirelyDISTINCT
convention. fromotherventpipesto otherpartsof the ship.
l
Theyareto be designedandoperatedto ensurethatneitherpressureor vacuumin cargotanks
shallexceedthe designparameters
for the ship.
I
The ventingarrangements for eachindividual or combinedwith lG

tank may be independent,
withthe pipingfor othertanks.
pipingsystem,and interconnected
Eachtankmustbe capableof havingitsownp/v lineandvalves.
Ventlineexitsmustbe a minimumheightabovetheweatherdeckof 6m (3mif highvelocityjets

arefitted).
Exits shall be at least 10m away from any openings,air intakes,sourcesof ignition,and
accommodation. Flamescreensmustbe fitted.
CargoP/Rventilationfansmustsupplyat least30 air changesper hour. (45 changesper hour

for toxiccargoes.)
97
CARGOWORK
GLOSSARYOF TERMS.
usedin the Chemical

of someof the termsand abbreviations
Below is a list, not exhaustive,
Industry.
oA lndicatestemperature@ absolute.
Adiabatic withoutheat transfer,adiabaticexpansionis increasein volumewith no

changein temperature.
Anaesthetics chemicalsthat affectthe nervoussystemto causeanaesthesia.
Aqueous a compoundin a water basedsolution.
Auto-ignition the chemicalreactionof a compoundcausingcombustionwithoutanother

source of ignition.
Boilingpoint the temperature at which a liquids vapour pressure is equal to

atmosphericpressure.
Catalyst a substance lhal causes a reaction with another subsfance, or

accelerates/ deceleratesa reaction.
r\r\tr certificate of flfness.
CriticalPressure the minimum pressurerequiredto liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.
CriticalTemperaturethe maximumtemperatureof a gas at which it can be turned into a liquid

by pressurisation.
Fillingratio the volumeof a tank,expressedas a percentageof the totaltank volume,

which can be safely filled, which will allow for the expansion of the
product.
Freezingpoint the temperatureat which a subsfancemust be to change from a liquid to

a solid,or vice-versa.
Hydrolysis lhe processof splittinga compoundinto two partsby the agencyof water,
one paft being combinedwith hydrogen,the other with hydroxil.
Hygroscopic the ability of a substanceto absorb water/ moisturefrom the atmosphere.
lnhibitor a subslancethat when introducedto another,will preventreaction.
Narcosis a state of profound insensibilityresemblingsleep,or unconsc,ousness,

from which a personis difficult to arouse.
agent
Oxidising an elementor compoundthatis capableof addingoxygento another.
Padding a processof displacingair or unwantedgasesfrom tanksand pipeswith

anothercompatiblesubsfanceeg lG, cargo vapour,or liquid.

CARGOWORK
Polymerisation a processthat,due to chemicalreactionwithina substance, is capableof

changinglhe stale of molecularstructure within that subsfance,eg liquid
to solid.
- Reducingagent an elementor compoundthat is capableof removingoxygen from a

subslance.
- RVP Reidvapourpressure,lhe vapourpressureof a liquidas measuredin the

Reidapparatusat a temperatureof 10tr F expressedin psi/"A.
Self-reaction the ability of a chemicalto react without other influenceresulting in

polymerisationor decomposition.
Sublimation lhe process of conversionof a solid into a gas, without melting, an

*
indicationthat the flashpoint is well below the freezingpoint.
rLV iiii,,|!,i,Li{'}
!i!f;i":tr'iz':,{i:"i#",i'#l,f,"i;,itii{;
usuallyexpressedin ppm-
Vapourdensity the weightof a specificvolumeof a gas comparedto an equalvolumeof

and pressure.
air, in standardconditionsof temperature
L Vapourpressure the pressureexertedby the vapour above the surfaceof a liquid, at a

certaintemperature,measuredin mm of mercury.
I
I
99
FleetwoodNaulical CamDus
CARGOWORK
ParcelTankerCargoTank Layout
v,
g
'6
m
6
ffi]t
tltit,l
ltilt,
-9
I
ffi
O Blackpooland The Fylde college

C A R G O W O R KF O R O O W S- V O L U M E2 - L I Q U I DC A R G O E S
Cargo Information Required Before Loading
1. The correctchemicalname of the cargo shouldbe providedso that the appropriatedata

sheet in the TankerSafetyGuide(Chemicals)can be consulted.
2. Quantityin weight.
3. Requiredquality control. Contaminationis measuredin parts per million(Ppm); thus

tanks and pipelinesmust be practicallyspotless.
4. Specificgravity. This is requiredin orderthat an estimationcan be made of the probable

volumethat the weightquantitywill occupy.
5. Thisis requiredfor two purposes:

Temperature.
(a) The loadingtemperature withthe specificgravityto obtain
is usedin conjunction
, the probablevolumeof the particular
parcel.
(b) The temperature at whichthe cargois to be carriedwill indicateif heatingwillbe
requiredon passage. Some chemicalswill solidifyor polymerizeif a certain
temperature is not maintained.Polymerization is a chemicalreactionin which
small moleculescombineinto largeror very large moleculeswhich contain
: thousandsof the originalmolecules.Thus a free-flowing liquidcan becomea
i* viscousliquidor evena solid.
, 6. Compatibility. andthusmaynotbe stowed

reactwithotherchemicals
Certainchemicals
in adjacentcompartments.
L
7. Thetankcoatingmustbe suitablefor the proposed
Tankcoatingcompatibility. cargo.
'*- 8. Corrosiveproperties.Thiswill alsoindicatethe requiredtank coatingand alsopossible
damageto shipfittings.
\- 9. generation.Somechemicalscan accumulate
Electrostatic static. The principles
which
cargoesshouldbe appliedto chemicalstaticaccumulators.
applyto hydrocarbon
10. data. lt has beenpreviously

Fireand explosion notedthat 50%of the chemicalswhich
arederivedfromhydrocarbon
aretransported oilsandthusthefire hazardsaresimilarto
thosewhichpertainto petroleumproducts.
11. Toxicity. Chemicalswhich emit highlytoxic vapoursrequireclosedvenlilationand

ullagingsystems.
' 12. The healthhazardsof the particular
parcel.
13. Reactivity.
14. Actionto be takenin the eventof particular

emergencies.
,_ Most of the above information, can be found on the

and additionalessenlialinformation,
guide.
chemicaldatasheetsin the safety
101
FleetwoodNauticalcamDus
CARGOWORKFOR OOWs - VOLUME2 - LIQUIDCARGOES
Personnel protection
A chemicalcargo may:
1. Be corrosiveand destroyany humantissuewhich comes into contactwith it.
2. Be poisonousand may enterthe body by severalmethods.
3. Be toxic and inhalationmay cause brain damage, damage to the nervoussystem and
vitalorgans.
4. Give off flammablegas-
Many chemicalscan cause death and thus personnelprotectionon chemicaltankers is of a

very high standard.
The IMO constructionand equipmentcode requiresthe personnelinvolvedin cargo operations

be providedwith suitableprotectiveclothingand equipmentwhichcovers'allskin so that no part
of the body is unprotected'.Protectiveequipmentincludes:
(a) protectivesuit (in the form of a boiler suit) made in resistantmaterialwith tight-fitting
cuffsand ankles
(b) helmet
(c) boots
(d) gloves
(e) face shieldor goggles
(f) largeapron
When handling products which present inhalation problems the above equipment is
supplementedby a suitablebreathingapparatus. The code requiresthat'ships carryingtoxic
cargoesshould have on board sufficientbut not less than 3 completesets of safetyequipment'
in additionto the reouirementsof SOLAS 74. Each set shouldconsistof.
(a) oneself-containedair-breathingapparatus
(b) protectiveclothing,boots,glovesand tightfittinggoggles
(c) steel cored rescue line with harness
(d) explosion-prooflamp
An air compressorand spare cylindersmust also be carriedand all compressedair equipment

should be inspectedat leastonce a month and testedyearlyby an expert.
When toxic chemicals are being carried respiratoryequipment should be available for all
personnelon board. The durationof such equipmentmust permitescape from the ship in the
event of a maioraccident.
102
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OOWCARGOWORK:CARRIAGEOF LIQUIDCARGOES

WC Cargo handling and stowage at the Operational Level

WC 1 Monitorthe loading,stowage,securingand unloadingof cargoesand their care

WC1.'l Gargo Handling, Stowage and Securing

(a) Commonpipeline systems, cargoventingsystemsandpressure/vacuum valves,

AND HAZARDSOF PETROLEUM

coverscrudeoil andall of its products.

viscosity,and contentof the crude

Some crudes are very good for extractingproductsrelatingto the paraftinchain of

To obtainthe valuableby-products fromcrude,il hasto be'cracked'usinga suitablecatalystto

All petroleumis volatile,somemorevolatilethan others,thereforeall productsfrom petroleum

Handlingand shippingpetroleum is extremelyhazardousbecauseof thisvolatility.Thereforea

In the industry.all petroleumproductswith a flashpointBELOW60 degreescelsiusare

O Blackpooland The Fylde College

Petroleumliquidand its productsdo not igniteBUT the VAPOURgivenoff from themdoes.

are usually: UFL

The toxiceffectsof petroleum vapourswill preventthe supplyof air to a personbreathing

oils from the MiddleEasl are usuallymorepoisonousthan sulpherleanoils

Personnelcominginto contactwith oil cargoesthroughspillage,leakageor any otherreason

O Blackpooland The FyldeCollege

Manycrudeoils containtracequantitiesof hydrogensulphidebut some,calledsour crudes,

Hydrogensulphideis highlyvolatileand as a resultwill be presentin largequantitiesin the

Concentrations of 200-300ppmvapourin airwill producesuchmarkedeyeandrespiratory tract

Hydrogensulphideabsorbedis not accumulated by the bodybut is excretedwithina few days.

BENZENEis of the aromaticfamilyof hydrocarbons whichhavea greatertoxicpropertythan

Effectof liquidcontacton the eyes causesgreat irritation,on the skin a slightirritationbut

(i) Effects- giddiness,

(ii) Prevention- closingmeansof entryto tanksand accommodation, recirculating

(i) Effects- skindamagesuchas acne,crackingandinfection,

(ii) - avoidcontactwith petroleum,

O Blackpooland The Fylde College

Whilsthandlingand carryingpetroleum we haveto carefullyconsiderwhatwe can do to ensure

We can restrictthefuelsideof the triangle.

We can removethe oxygensideof the triangle.

We can removethe heatsideof thetriangle.

OUTSIDETHETANKS- We cancontrolthe escapeof gasfromthe tanks

INSIDETHE TANKS - We cancoverthe productwitha volumeof inertgas.

A wellknowncauseof fireand explosion whilsthandling/storing is ignitionfromstatic

o Blackpooland The Fylde College

can causesparksthat can igniteflammablegas,althoughnot all sparkshave

ALL materialsnormallycontainequal numbersof positiveand negativecharges. Normally

Forpracticalpurposes all flowin petroleum pipelinesis turbulent.Thisturbulence scoopsup an

This meansthat wheneverturbulence is presentthereis the possibility

Whenwaterdropletssettlethrougha depthof petroleumin a tank it causesseparationof the

The passageof airthroughpetroleum willnotin itselfgeneratestatic,butif air is passedintothe

Waterdropletsissuingat high velocitywith a jet of wet steamcan becomechargedby contact

Whenchargedpetroleum flowsthrougha rubberflexiblepipelinethenpartof the chargemaybe

O Blackpooland The Fylde College

PREVENTIONOF STAT]C ELECTRICITYTO AVOID IGNITION

In the initialstagesof loadingthe rateshouldbe low in orderto reducethe generation of static

petroleummay be loadedoverallonly if the tanksare gas-freeand providedno

By the abovetwo exampleswe are of coursetalkingaboutUllagingand Sampling'hence

The possibilityof ignitionby staticinsidetanksand compartments whichhavebeendischarged,

Compressed air or inertgas shouldnol be usedto clearpipelinesbackto the tankafterloading

O Blackpooland The Fylde College

To minimisethe accumulatronof staticelectricityin shore tanks at the beginningof discharging

Anotherdanger of handlingpetroleumproducts,is a heat sourcegeneratedin the tanks due to

In an oxygen-free atmosphere wherehydrogensulphidegas is present(or specifically where

However,it also dependson the comparative influenceof thesefactors. The presenceof

In terminaloperations,pyrophoriciron sulphideis well recognisedas a potentialsourceof

@ Blackpooland The Fylde College

Thereare manydifferenttypesof Tankers,and we shallbe lookingal threedifferenttypes-

Theyrangein sizefrom60,000tonnesDWTup to 600,000tonnesDWT.

Theyare capableof carryingmorethanonegradeof crudewithadequatesegregation,